EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

1. DEFINITION: Evapotranspiration represents the combined loss of soil water

from the earths surface to the atmosphere through evaporation of water from
the soil or plant surfaces and transpiration via stomates of the plant.
In following Figure the partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and
transpiration is plotted in correspondence to leaf area per unit surface of soil
below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes from evaporation, while at full
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than 90% of ET comes from transpiration.

Evaporation: Evaporation is a physical process that involves conversion of
liquid water into water vapor into the atmosphere (Fig. 1). Evaporation of water
into the atmosphere occurs on the surface of rivers, lakes, soils and vegetation.
Transpiration: Transpiration is basically a process of evaporation. The
transpiration is a physical process that involves flow of liquid water from the soil
(root zone) to the surface of leaves/ branches and trunk; and conversion of
liquid water from the plant tissue into water vapors into the atmosphere.
The water evaporates from the leaves and plant tissue, and the resultant water
vapor diffuses into atmosphere through the stomates. An energy gradient is
created during the evaporation of water, which causes the water movement into
and out of the plant stomates. In the majority of green plants, stomates remain
open during the day and stay closed during the night. If the soil is too dry, the
stomates will remain closed during the day in order to slow down the
transpiration.
Evaporation, transpiration and evapotranspiration processes are important for
estimating crop irrigation requirements and for irrigation scheduling.
2. POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (PET)
Potential evapotranspiration is a water loss from the soil surface completely
covered by vegetation. Meteorological processes determine the
evapotranspiration of a crop. Closing of stomates and reduction in transpiration
are usually important only under drought or under stress conditions of a plant.
The evapotranspiration depends on three factors: (1) Vegetation, (2) Water
availability in the soil and (3) Behavior of stomates. Vegetation affects the ET in
various forms. It affects ability of soil surface to reflect light. The vegetation
changes amount of absorbed energy by the soil surface. Soil properties,
including soil moisture, also affect the amount of energy that flows through the
soil. The height and density of vegetation influence efficiency of the turbulent
heat interchange and the water vapor of the foliage.
Changes in the soil moisture affect direct evaporation from the soil surface and
available water to the plants. As the plants are water stressed, stomates close
resulting in the reduction of a water loss and CO
2
absorption. This is a factor
that is not considered in the potential evapotranspiration equation. Under
normal conditions (with enough water), there is a variation among stomates of
different plant species. Besides, these variations are usually small and the
concept of PET results useful for the majority of crop species with complete
foliage.
3. REFERENCE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETo)
Evaporation from open water surface and evapotranspiration (ET) from wetland
surfaces where water is not a limiting factor. Evapotranspiration estimation from
crop surfaces or other vegetation where water is a limiting factor is far more
challenging. The approach adopted is the estimation of reference
evapotranspiration from a hypothetical well-watered vegetated surface of known
height (Allen et al.2005; Smith1991) and deriving crop evapotranspiration using
crop coefficients. The reference well-watered crop is usually referenced as well-
watered alfalfa of 12-cm height. At times, reference evapotranspiration is
interchangeably used as potential evapotranspiration. But they are not similar.
Reference evapotranspiration equations are parameterized to generate
reference ET estimates without regard to the maximum limits to
evapotranspiration at the location. Meaningful actual ET rates are derived by
applying one or more coefficients. Potential ET is the maximum ET that could
occur at a site under the prevailing meteorological conditions. Actual crop
evaporation estimates are derived from reference ET through application of
seasonally varying crop coefficients.
4. REAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETa) OR CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
(ETc)
Crop evapotranspiration is the amount of water used by a crop at any growth
stage, since the sowing / planting date up until the harvest, whenever there is
no water restriction in the soil. This process is also called crop maximum
evapotranspiration. ETc is a function of leaf area (transpiring surface), because
the bigger the leaf area, the higher ETc will be for the same atmospheric
demand.
To obtain the ETc (consumptive use), it is necessary to know crop and
ambient conditions. This includes climate, soil moisture, crop type, growth stage
and the amount soil coverage by the crop. ETc might be obtained from ETo by
means of the following expression:
ETc = Kc * ETo











Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and non-standard
conditions (ETc adj)
Crop Coefficients (Kc)
The are related to crop species, crop physiology, crop growth stage, days after
planting, degree of ground coverage and the PET. When using the coefficients,
it is important to know, how these were obtained. The empirical relation
between ETc and PET is given for the following equation:
Kc= [ETc/ PET]
The combined Kc includes evaporation from the soil surface and the plant
surface. The evaporation from the soil surface depends on the soil moisture and
soil characteristics. The transpiration depends on the amount and nature of leaf
area index of a plant and the available soil moisture to the root zone. The Kc
can be adjusted to the available soil moisture and evaporation on the surface.
Crop coefficient curve shows variation of Kc with days after planting.


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5. F
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S AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental
aspects are factors affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET
concepts presented in Figure 3 are discussed in the section on
evapotranspiration concepts.
Weather parameters
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air
temperature, humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been
developed to assess the evaporation rate from these parameters. The
evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the
evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface.
Crop factors
The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when
assessing the evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed
fields. Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness,
reflection, ground cover and crop rooting characteristics result in different ET
levels in different types of crops under identical environmental conditions. Crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to the evaporating
demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water,
excellent management and environmental conditions, and achieve full
production under the given climatic conditions.
Management and environmental conditions
Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of fertilizers,
the presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of
diseases and pests and poor soil management may limit the crop development
and reduce the evapotranspiration. Other factors to be considered when
assessing ET are ground cover, plant density and the soil water content. The
effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the magnitude of
the water deficit and the type of soil. On the other hand, too much water will
result in waterlogging which might damage the root and limit root water uptake
by inhibiting respiration.
6. METHODS CALCULATION FOR EVAPOTRANSPIRATION