Termotehnica Automotive Engeneering

Chapter 1.
Basic concepts
1.1.Thermodynamics as a science
Thermodynamics is a science based on phenomena which studies the matter
from the point of thermal motion; it studies the body properties and energy
transfer among bodies,which are produced by internal molecular motion.
The matter is made of microscopic particle which interacts and are in
perpetual motion, known as thermal motion.Thermodynamics studies the
phenomena produced at microscopic level to groups of particles
investigating their macroscopic, measurable effects and establishes relations
between measures which are observable and measurable, such as volume,
pressure, temperature, concentration of chemical solutions.
Thermodynamics stands on two relations from kinetic molecular theory :
Bernoulli relation determines the pressure of a as on a wall, a
macroscopic measure, as a function microscopic measures :
2
2
2
v m
V
N
p
! no. of molecules in volume "
m mass of a molecule
2
2
v m
# mean kinetic energy of molecules in translation motion,
$a%well Bolt&mann relation determines the connection between
the temperature of a gas and mean speed of molecules.
2 2
2
v m
kT
in which k is Bolt&mann constant
k J k ' () . * , (
2
+n other words pressure and temperature are measures which features the
group, the assembly of molecules, not a given molecule.
The technical thermodynamics studies the processes of producing,
transmitting and use of energy in its form as heat and work, applying its own
laws to heat engines and installations.
Thermodynamics operates with measures and concepts which define thermal
phenomenon. ,%amples of thermal phenomena are as follows:
-eat transfer between two bodies having different temperatures
.hase changes of substances
Transformation of heat in work and reverse in heat engines ;
$ain notions are thermodynamic system, state, process.
1.2 Thermodynamic systems
/enerally a physical system is an area of universe made of substance or
fields.
The thermodynamic system is made of a body or an assembly of bodies
having a finite number of particles,which is limited from surroundings
through a boundary surface and which interacts energetically. The system
changes substance 0mass1 or energy as heat or work with the surroundings.
2n insulated system is not influenced in any way by the surroundings. This
means that no heat or work or mass crosses the boundary of the system.
2n adiabatic or thermal insulated system does not change heat with the
surroundings. 2 mechanical insulated system does not change work with the
surroundings.
3ome thermodynamic analysis involves a flow of mass into or out of a
device. 3o, we can discuss about open systems. +f there is no mass flow, the
system is closed. The terms closed system and open system are used as the
e4uivalent of the terms system 0fi%ed mass1 and control volume 0involving a
flow of mass1.The surface of a control volume is referred to as a control
surface. $ass, as well as heat and work, can flow across the control surface.
Thus, a system is defined when dealing with a fi%ed 4uantity of mass and a
control volume is specified when an analysis is to be made that involves a
flow of mass.
1.3. State. State parameters
The state may be identified or described by certain observable, macroscopic
properties, like temperature, pressure, density. ,ach of the properties of a
substance in a given state has only one definite value and these properties
always have the same values for a given state, regardless of how the
substance arrived at that state.
2 state property can be defined as any 4uantity that depends on the state of
the system and is independent of the path 0prior history1 by which the
system arrived at the given state.
5onversely, the state is specified or described by its properties.
Thermodynamic properties can be divided into two general classes:
intensive and e%tensive properties. 2n intensive property is independent of
mass; the value of an e%tensive property varies directly with the mass.
.ressure, temperature and density are e%amples of intensive properties. $ass
and volume are e%amples of e%tensive properties. ,%tensive properties per
unit mass, such as specific volume, become intensive properties.
6e will refer not only to the properties of a substance, but also to the
properties of a system. Then we necessarily imply that the value of the
property has significance for the entire system and this implies what is called
e4uilibrium. 7or e%ample, if a gas is in thermal e4uilibrium, the temperature
will be the same throughout the entire system and we may speak of the
temperature as a property of the system. 6e may also consider mechanical
e4uilibrium and this is related to the pressure. 2 system is in mechanical
e4uilibrium if there is no tendency for the pressure at any point to change
with time as long as the system is isolated from the surroundings. +f the
chemical composition of a system does not change with time, that system is
in chemical e4uilibrium. +t means, no chemical reactions occur.
6hen a system is in e4uilibrium as regards all possible changes of state, we
say that the system is in thermodynamic e4uilibrium.
7or fluids there are at least three macroscopic measures which are state
parameters, usually pressure, temperature and volume, called fundamental
state parameters. The values of parameters of state do not depend on
previous history or path of the system, depend only on instantaneous
coordinates of the system. 6hen a system passes from a state of
thermodynamic e4uilibrium to another one, the variation of a parameter of
state will cause the variation of other ones, showing a dependency between
parameters of state, called state e4uation.
1.3.1. Specific volume
The specific volume of a substance is defined a s the ratio between volume
" and mass m being noted with v 0m
'kg1.
1
]
1
kg
m
m
V
v
The specific volume is inverse of density or specific mass

[ ]
' m kg
.
,
_
kg
m
v
"olume of a kilomole of substance is called molar volume "

$
,
_

kmol
m
Mv
M
m
V
n
V
V
M
The molar volume is the volume reported to number of kilomol of

substances contained 0n#number of kilomol, $#molar mass1.
The kilomol has two definitions :
# molar mass of a substance e%pressed in kilograms 0 e%. ( kmol of o%igen
8
2
9 2 kg written as $
82 9
2kg'kmol1 or
#a 4uantity of matter which contains in the same conditions a number of
molecules e4ual to 2vogadro number 0 ( kmol 9 !
2
molecule 9 :,)2.()
2:
molecule1.
1.3.2.Temperature
2lthough temperature is a property with which we are all familiar with , an
e%act definition of it is difficult.
7rom our e%perience we know that when a hot body and a cold body are
brought into contact, the hot body becomes cooler and the cold body
becomes warmer. +f these bodies remain in contact for some time, they
appear to have the same hotness or coldness.
Because of the difficulty in defining temperature, we define e4uality of
temperature.
5onsider two blocks of copper, one hot and the other cold, each one in
contact with a mercury in glass thermometer. +f these two blocks are
brought into thermal contact , the mercury column of the thermometer in the
hot block drops at first and in the cold block rises, but after a period of time
no further changes in height are observed. +t is said that both bodies have
the same temperature when they reached the thermal e4uilibrium.
The &eroth law of thermodynamics states that when two bodies have
e4uality of temperature with a third body, they in turn have e4uality of
temperature one with each other. +t is based on the transitivity of the thermal
e4uilibrium. Two systems found in thermal e4uilibrium with a third one are
in thermal e4uilibrium between them 0meaning that they have the same
temperature1.Based on this property, a thermometer 0or more general a
thermometric body 9 a body having a thermometric property1 can compare
different thermal e4uilibrium states of the bodies.
Temperature represents a parameter of state which describes the heating
state of a system, state dependable on the molecular energy of every
component.
Temperature is a physical fundamental measure and it can be determined
measuring the variation of a physical measure, generally called
thermometrical measure which sensitive, preferable as linear as possible, to
temperature variation. 7or e%ample when we measure the temperature of our
body with a mercury thermometer we measure in fact the e%pasion of the
mercury produced at the contact with the body, e%pansion 4uantified by the
variation of height of mercury column in the thermometer.8ther
thermometric measures are variation of the length of a metal rod, variation
of the electric resistance 0thermometer is called thermo#resistance1, variation
of the thermo#electromotor voltage 0thermometer is called thermocouple1,
variation of a gas in a constant volume enclosure 0 gas thermometer1,
variation of light intensity of an incandescence source 0optic pyrometers1.
7or every type of thermometer it must be set a temperature measurement
scale in such a way that temperature measurement to be done through a
simple reading. 7i%ing the temperature scale is called calibration and it can
be done bringing thermometer in thermal contact with a body in a
reproducible state 0 e%. water in thermal e4uilibrium with vapours , water in
thermal e4uilibrium with ice, melting point of some metals1 To those perfect
reproducible states are associated accurate values of temperature.
Thermometers have a macroscopic property that changes considerably with
temperature 0for e%., the pressure of a gas, the electric resistance, e%pansion
etc1.
+f a thermometer is brought in thermal contact with a hot body 0-1, at
e4uilibrium, the variable property 0for e%. the length of fluid column of a
alcohol thermometer, ;1 changes with ;
-
0segment T-1. The origin of the
diagram corresponds to the initial e4uilibrium state of the thermometer.
+f the same thermometer is brought through thermal contact at the
e4uilibrium state of a cold body 051, the same property will change with ;
5
0segment T51.
The segment -5 corresponds to the change in the property of the
thermometer brought in thermal contact with the two bodies. This change
characterises the difference between the temperatures of the hot body and
the cold body.
To estimate this difference, it is necessary to adopt a scale for temperature
measurements.
Based on the assumption that the temperature and the property of the
thermometer are related linearly, results:
dt 9 ad; sau or t 9 a;<B.
2nd t
5
9a ;
5
<B and t
-
9 a;
-
<B.
3ubstituting a and B it is obtained :
t 9 t
5
< 0 ;# ;
c
10 t
-
# t
5
1 '0 ;
-
# ;
5
1.
+t is the e4uation of the empirical temperature scale. +n order to compare the
measurements of different thermal states, these must be submitted to the
same thermal states. There were adopted two fi%ed, easily reproducible
points, the ice point and the steam point.
The temperature of the ice point is defined as the temperature of a mi%ture of
ice and water, which is in e4uilibrium with saturated air at a pressure of (
atm.
The temperature of the steam point is the temperature of water and steam,
which are in e4uilibrium at a pressure of ( atm.
2 line of e4ual ratios can be written which define different temperature
scales 5elsius, =eaumur, 7ahrenheit, >elvin, =ankine:
0 ;# ;
5
1'0 ;
-
# ;
5
1 9 0t# t
5
1'0 t
-
# t
5
1 9 t?5'()) 9 t?=e'*) 9 0t?7#21'(*) 9
0T>#2@,(A1'()) 9 0T=#BC(,:@1'(*)
or
t?5 9 At?=e'B 9 A0t?7#21'C 9 T>#2@.(A 9 A0T=#BC(,:@1'C
> 5 7
@ , ( A > ( ) ) 5 2 ( 2 7
) )
2 @ , ( A > ) 5 2 7
) )
) > # 2 @ , ( A 5 # B : ) 7
) )
8n 5elsius scale )
)
5 coresponds to a mi%ture water and ice at
e4uilibrium and ())
)
5 to boiling water. 2 5elsius grade e4uals a >elvin
grade, only origins of scales are different.
There are several temperature scales different through the origin of the scale
or the magnitude of the unit 0grade or degree1. 5elsius scale considers &ero
value to the temperature at which water solidifies and ()) value to the water
vaporisation temperature, at normal atmospheric pressure 7ahrenheit scale
considers 2 and respectively, 2(2?7 to the same water temperatures .
These two scales are defined based on well known and reproducible
temperatures.
+n thermodynamics it was considered to find a temperature scale
independent of the properties of a particular substance. 3uch a scale is called
a thermodynamic scale or an absolute temperature scale. This scale was
imagined starting from the properties of ideal gas when there is a variation
of its pressure with temperature. +f it was considered a gas thermometer
having a constant volume it was noticed that in the field of low pressures the
gas temperature is proportional with gas pressure 0at constant volume1. 8r it
can be written that gas temperature T varies linearly with gas pressure p or
T 9 a < bp,
in which a, b are constants of the gas thermometer. 3uch a scale is called
temperature scale of ideal gas and can be determined measuring gas pressure
at two reproducible temperatures such as water solidification and
vapori&ation at normal atmospheric pressure and the e4uation is determined
knowing a and b for 5elsius scale. +f the nature of the gas is changed from
0for e%ample 2 o%ygen, B argon1 then similarly can be determined two
points and another proportional line like in fig.(.
7igure (. =elation between pressure and temperature for gas thermometer
+t can be noticed that no matter the nature of the gas the two lines intersects
in a point corresponding to &ero pressure and correspondent temperature to
this point is #2@,(A?5.This temperature is the lowest reachable temperature
attributing &ero value and the scale is called >elvin scale. 2t this
temperature the gas molecules are no longer in motion The value of a
p
0
Gas A
Gas B
-273,15 t (C )
constant is &ero and e4uation T 9 bp, meaning that it is enough one point to
define an absolute temperature scale. +t is considered that the absolute
temperature scale is identical with thermodynamic scale in the field of
linear variation of ideal gas, thus meaning all temperature range e%cepting
very low temperatures to which condensation appears and very high
temperatures to which dissociation and ionisation appear.
=elation between >elvin scale and 5elsius scale is
t
5
9 T
>
# 2@,(A .
2 degree 5elsius is e4ual to a >elvin degree , (?59( >, but the
origins of the scales are different. 7ahrenheit scale differs from >elvin scale
and 5elsius scale through the origin of the scale and magnitude of the
unit.The connection between 7ahrenheit and 5elsius scales is given by
relation :
t
7
9 (,*t
5
< 2 .
+n the British units system there is an absolute temperature scale
called =ankine in which absolute &ero is identic to absolute &ero in >elvin
scale , but the magnitude of the degree is different (=9(,* >.
=elation of transformation between =ankine and 5elsius degrees is
t
=
9 t
7
< BAC,:@
2 degree =ankine e4uals a degree 7ahrenheit, (=9(?7, but the
origins are different.
In thermodynamic calculations it is used absolute temperature
expressed in Kelvin scale.
1.3.3 ressure
.ressure is defined as normal force applied on unit of surface , for a static
fluid, pressure gas the same value on any direction. 7or fluids it used
hydrostatic pressure e%pressed as
h g p
0D # density of the fluid, g#
gravitational acceleration , h # the height of the fluid column1.
.ressure is classified according to method of measurement in
- 2bsolute pressure pressure measured reported to absolute
vacuum 0p1
- =elative pressure 0p
r
1 pressure measured reported to atmospheric
pressure 0p
a
1
a r
p p p
The technical gauges measure relative pressure p
r
.
$anometers measure the increase of pressure from atmospheric pressure,
pressure called manometric pressure 0p
manom
1 or supra pressure ,when
a
p p
, and a man
p p p
"acuum#meters measure the decrease of pressure from atmospheric
pressure, pressure called vacuum#metric pressure or vacuum pressure p
v
or
0p
vac
1 when
a
p p
,and
p p p
a vac

6hen
a
p p
in calculation is used also the EvacuumF e%pressed in percentage:
( ) ( ) ( ) G ()) G ()) G
a
vac
a
r
p
p
p
p
vacuum
+n other words the absolute pressure is measured reported 0 or having as
reference 1 the absolute vacuum :
p9p
a
H p
r
in which it is considered the plus sign when relative pressure is an over
pressure called manometric pressure p
r
9p
m
and the minus sign when
relative pressure is a depressure called vacuum pressure p
r
9p
v
.
Barometers measure absolute atmospheric pressure p
bar
.
In thermodynamic calculation it is used the absolute pressure.
=elations between pressure units
Init !'m
2
bar kgf'm
2
at
kgf'cm
2
atm torr
mm -
g
mm -
2
8
(
!'m
2
9.ascal
( ()
#A
).()2 ).()2.()
#
B
).C*@.()
#
A
@A).()
#A
).()2
( bar ()
A
( ).()2.()
A
(.)2 ).C*@ @A) ).().()
A
( kgf'm
2
C.*( C.*(.()
#A
( ()
#B
C.:*.()
#A
@A.:.()
#
B
(
( at
(kgf'cm
2
C.*(.()
B
).C*( ()
B
( ).C:* @A.: ()
B
( atm (.)(.()
A
(.)( ().2 (.)( ( @:) (.)(.()
B
( torr
(mm -g
(. (..()
#
(.: (.:.()
#B
(.2.()
#
( (.:
(mm-
2
8 C.*( C.*(.()
#A
( ()
#B
C.:*.()
#A
@A.:.()
#
B
(
#2 physical atmosphere ( atm 9 ()(2A !'m
2
9 ().2.2@: kgf'm
2
9 @:)
torr.
#(bar 9 ()
A
!'m
2
#2 technical atmosphere (at 9(kgf'cm
2
9C.*(.()
B
!'m
2
.
#,4uivalent pressure of (mm column of mercury is called torr
( torr 9 (.22 !'m
2
9 (.ACA( kgf'm
2
9 (.(A@*C.()
#B
atm.
# ,4uivalent pressure of (mm column of water
( mm -
2
89C.*( !'m
2
+n order to compare the properties of gaseous substances they must be in the
same state of pressure and temperature. +t was defined a standardi&ed state
called normal physical state by:
bar cm kgf mmHg p
N
)( . ( ' ) . ( @:)
2

C t sau K T
N N
) )
) (A . 2@
+n thermodynamics is used a unit of volume measurement#normal cubic
meter
( )
(
N
m
which is a unit of volume but also a unit of mass, representing
the mass of gas contained in a volume of ( m
in the conditions of normal

physical state.
There is also a tolerated unit called normal technical state defined by:
bari cm kgf p
n
C*( . ) ' (
2

C t K T
n n
)
2) (A . 2C
1.3.!. "ensity #specific mass$
Jensity is the mass of unit of volume, being the reverse of specific volume.
,
_
m
kg
V
m
+n thermodynamics it is used also specific gravity K defined as

,
_
m
N
V
mg
or
g
.
1.!. rocess measures. %or& and heat
The thermodynamic process or state transformation is a physical
phenomenon in which the bodies e%change energy in form of heat and
mechanic work. 2s a conse4uence of energy variation the thermodynamic
system modifies its state of energetic balance meaning the modification of
thermodynamic state. 2 thermodynamic transformation means the passing of
a thermodynamic system from an initial e4uilibrium state to a final
e4uilibrium state, through continuous, successive, intermediate e4uilibrium
states. 2ny thermodynamic process is featured by specific measures called
process measures which depend on the path the system passes that mean
they depend on intermediate states of the system. The intermediate state can
be e4uilibrium states or not. 5lassification of thermodynamic processes can
be done after several criteria.
a. 2fter relative variation of state parameters:
Jifferential processes or infinitesimal for which the relative
variation of state parameters is very small;
7inite processes when at least one parameter suffer a relatively high
variation.
b. 2fter the nature of intermediate states:
Luasistatic processes 0at e4uilibrium 1, in which intermediate states
can be considered close enough to e4uilibrium states in every moment
of the process;
!onstatic processes, in which intermediate states of the system
cannot be completely described from a thermodynamic point of view.
6hen a thermodynamic system leaves the e4uilibrium state, after a period of
time called time of rela%ation, it recovers its initial state. 6hen the
thermodynamic processes performs with smaller speeds than rela%ation
speed, in any step of the process, the state parameters have values
corresponding to e4uilibrium state and it is said that the process is
4uasistatic. =eal processes are non static and 4uasistatic processes are only
appro%imations of real processes. Luasistatic processes can be represented
in diagrams, for e%ample in p#" 0 pressure volume1, by means of a
continuous line between initial and final state, 0fig2a1 and non#static
processes cannot be represented like a continuous line because in the
intemediate states which are not in e4uilibrium the state parameters have not
a uni4ue value for the whole system 0fig.2b1.
7ig.2 =epresentation of 4uasistatic 0a1 and non#static processes 0b1.
c. 2fter the procedure of passing from the initial state 0i1 into final state 0f1
and reverse, the thermodynamic processes can be divided in:
=eversibile process, in which the system passes from initial to final
state directly and reversely,e%actly through the same points, on the
same path.
+n order to perform such a process, the e%ternal conditions should modify
e%tremely slow so the system to adapt progresively to the new variations
which gradually appears;
!on reversible process, in which the system passes from initial to
final state and reversed through different points,on other path.
=eal processes cannot be considered reversible .2 process can be considered
reversible if intermediate states when passing from initial to final state are
close enough to intemediate states when passing from final to initial state.
d. 2fter connection between initial and final state:
5yclic processes when initial state is the same with final state;
!on cyclic processes 0open1, when initial state differs from final state.
6ork and heat are macroscopic forms of energy transfer between bodies
6ork and heat do not feature the state of the system at a given moment 0they
are not state parameters1. 6ork and heat represent specific process measures.
6ork and heat are not forms of energy, but forms of energy transfer.
p
V
i
f
i
f
p
V
(a) (b)
1.!.1.%or&
;et us consider a gas in a cylinder of an internal combustion engine which
e%pands and actuates upon the piston. -itting the piston wall the molecules
modify a%ial components of the speeds; the variation of molecular energy
will transmit to piston as work, which is a ordered form of energy transfer
because it affects only one direction components of the molecular speeds.
6ork sums at macroscopic level 0piston motion1 the effect of molecule
motions.
+n mathematical calculations there are used three formulas for work. +n
,nglish literature the abbreviation of work is 6, in =omanian one is ;
0;ucru mechanic#$echanic 6ork1.
a1 6ork produced by state transformation 0Boundary work1
+t is considered an enclosure with gas at pressure p. 8utside the enclosure
there is e%ternal pressure p
e
. +n time interval d the volume of gas is
increasing with d". 7or an elementary surface d3 from initial surface with
the versor of normal direction and dn the motion of d3 on normal
direction. +ntegrating on the whole volume " it results the relation for
elementary work ; by variation of the volume as result of pressure forces.
( )
v
e
dSdn p L
dV p L
e

;ast formula e%presses the mechanical work produced modifying the
volume of the fluid as a conse4uence of pressure forces.
8bservations
(1
Because work is not a state parameter, its elementary variation id not a
total differential # so M; represent a infinitesimal 4uantity of work .
7inite work released or consumed in a thermodynamic process when
passing from an initial state ( 0 parameters p
(
,"
(
, T
(
1 to a final state 2
0 parameters p
2
,"
2
,T
2
1 is noted with:
2
(
2 (
L L
, never

2
(
( 2
L L L
21 +n relation of work appears p
e
and
dV p L
e

+f e%ternal pressure is identical with internal pressure
p p
e

or
dp p p
e
t
,
then
pdV L
0neglecting the infinitesimals of second order 1.
These conditions are met when the processes are reversible and 4uasi#static.
+n thermodynamic calculations all real processes are replaced with
e4uivalent 4uasi#static processes and elementary work is calculated with
formula
pdV L
,in which p pressure of the fluid .
The signs of the work are deducted for the elementary work formula.
pdV L
2s ) p then the sign of work is given by the sign of variation of elementary
volume: in e%pansion processes ( ) ) dV ) L
)
(2
L
, the performed work
towards e%terior of the system is positive; similar, in compression processes,
( ) ) dV

) L

)
(2
L
,and the work received by the system 0 performed by
e%terior upon the system1 is negative.
/raphical representation of the processes
+t is considered the e%pansion process from figure from initial state i to final
state f .
7ig. 6ork of the state transformation
The work of the e%pansion process is pd", in which :
pdV L
and M; is elementary work given by a current value of the pressure
0pressure is considered constant for a infinitesimal variation of volume d"1
2
(
2 (
pdV L
The work is e4ual to area under curve made with abscissa ". 7rom graphic it
is noticed that transformation i#f or (#2 can actuate also on other paths and
work of the transformation (#2 could have different values according to
specific path 0intermediate states 1 on which the system works. +n other
words in the transformation from state ( to state 2, the work depends on the
path of the transformation.
b$ 7low 6ork 0work consumed to actuate a fluid1
5onsidering a pipe through which a fluid is flowing, if we imagine three
&ones of the same length l at constant pressure p 9 constant. +t is called work
p
i
p
i
f
p
e
V
Vi Vf
consumed to actuate a volume of fluid " in an environment of constant
pressure p or flow work , the product
pV pSl L
d

;
d
work consumed to actuate a volume of fluid " at constant pressure p.
The fluid from area + actuates upon the fluid from area ++, the fluid from
area ++ actuates upon the fluid from area +++ and so on resulting the motion of
the fluid. This type of work does not increase fluid energy, ;
d
contributes
only to the increase of energy of the fluid accumulated in the reservoir at the
end of the flow pipe.
8ne of the forms of energy applied to a fluid is enthalpy, +, being the sum
between I, internal energy and product p".
( ) J pV ! enthalp" +
.
c$ 3haft work is the total mechanical work performed upon or consumed by
a heat engine taking into account both the thermodynamic processes of the
working agent in the engine and intake and e%haust processes into and
outside engine. +t is considered the same source of working agent which
enters and leave the engine.
ev adm t
L L pdV L + +
2
(
( )
( )
+
released V p #ork flo# L L
received V p #ork flo# L L
d ev
d adm
2 2
N
( (
O
.
.
( ) ( )

+ +
2
(
2
(
2
(
( ( 2 2
2
(
Vdp pV d pdV V p V p pdV L
t

2
(
Vdp L
t
# shaft work is the total work produced or consumed by a
working agent in a heat engine. The shaft work is e4uivalent to area between
the graphic of state transformation and coordinate a%is of pressure p.
7ig.. 3haft work of a state transformation
1.!.2. 'eat exchan(e
-eat is a form of macroscopic transfer of energy, generally produced
between two bodies with different temperatures without mechanical
interactions.
6hat is called e%change of energy as heat at macroscopic scale is an
e%change of molecular kinetic energy at microscopic level.
6hen water is heated in a bowl by a flame, the amplitude of the molecule
motion is increased. The molecules of the fluid took the energy from the
bowl, the water temperature increases and there is an e%change of kinetic
energy from gas to water. -eat is a disordered form of energy transfer the
flame contains highly activated molecules.
The heat e%change in an elementary process is e%pressed
mcdt $
+n which m mass of the body , c# real specific heat and dt# difference of
temperature.
7or a chemical process #

2
(
2
(
2
(
2 (
t
t
t
t
cdt m mcdt $ $
p
i
p
i
f
p
e
V
Vi Vf
2s heat is not a parameter of state 0it is not a form of energy, but a form of
transfer of energy1,
$
is not a total e%act differential.
-eat is considered positive when the system receives energy from
environment and negative when the system releases energy to the
environment.
1.).Specific heats
+t was e%perimentally noticed that in order to heat different bodies with the
same number of degrees are re4uired different heat 4uantities. 3o in order to
describe substance from this point of view it was introduced the term caloric
capacity. The caloric capacity is the ratio between the heat
$
in an
elementary process and the corresponding variation of its temperature dT,
dT
dL
5
.
5aloric capacity can be also defined as the physical 4uantity of heat
absorbed by a body in order to modify its temperature with ( unit 0( grade1.
Init of measure is P'>.
3pecific heat is a physical property of the substances which depends on the
nature, phase of the body, temperature and for gases, on the nature of
thermodynamic process in which the heat transfer is done 0 at constant
pressure or at constant volume1. 3pecific heat or the caloric capacity of unit
of mass is the physical measure numerically e4ual to heat 4uantity
e%changed by unit of mass of a body with the surroundings in order to
modify its temperature with ( unit. Between specific heat c and caloric
capacity 5, there is the following relation: 5 9 mc
3pecific heat can be classified according to unit of substance reported as
follows:
a1 3pecific heat reported to ( kg of mass 0mass specific heat1
'
1
]
1
mcdt $
kgK
J
t m
$
c
with m, the mass of the body e%pressed in kg, Qt is temperature variation of

the body, in degrees .
b1
3pecific heat reported to ( kmol of substance 0molar specific heat 1
'
1
]
1
dt nc $
kmolK
J
t n
$
c
M
M
with n, number of kilomoles , Qt is temperature variation of the body, in

degrees.
c1
3pecific heat reported to
(
N
m
'
1
]
1
dt C V $
K m
J
t V
$
C
N N
N N
N
with "
!
, volume e%pressed in normal state, Qt is temperature variation of
the body .
2 gas can be heated 0 or cooled1 in several ways, keeping some parameters
constant. 2 gas can be heated at constant volume or at constant pressure.
,%periments showed that the heat at constant pressure of the same amount of
gas for the same difference of temperature is higher than the heat at constant
volume 0of the same amount of gas for the same difference of temperature1.
+n other words a gas can have two specific heats according to the nature of
the process:
- 3pecific heat at constant pressure 0marked with inde% p1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
K m
J
C
kmolK
J
c
kgK
J
c
N
Np M p
p
; ;
- 3pecific heat at constant volume 0marked with inde% v1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
K m
J
C
kmolK
J
c
kgK
J
c
N
NV M V
V
; ;
7or gases , c
p
and c
v
have different values 0c
p
R c
v
1 but to solid and li4uid
substances the difference between values is very small and are neglected.
There are the following e4uivalent relations between the three types of
specific heats
( )
( )
'
%vogadro m kmol l C c
kg M kmol Mc c
N N M
M
B(B . 22 B(B . 22
(
The e%pressions above can be e%plained like this:
$olar specific heat is e4ual to the product between $olar mass of the gas
0M1 and mass specific heat 0c1.
$olar specific heat is e4ual to the product between the constant &&'()( and
specific heat reported to
(
N
m
0C
N
1.
3pecific heat of bodies increases with the increase of temperature the
variation c9c0t1 can be done graphically or analytically.
2nalytically c is made of a sum of polynomials which follow the form of
graphic:
'
+
+ + + + +

t b a c
linear for or
gt ft et dt bt a c
( (
2 2
. .
.......
a1 +n order to select c values according to temperature variation it is
considered the linear variation of V p M M V p
C C c c c c
V p
, , , , ,
b1 +t can be considered also average 0mean1 values of c given between t
)
and
t.
( ) t f c c
t
t p
m
p

)
5onsidering the hypothesis of linear variation
( )
2
2 (
)
t t
t t c c c
m
t
t m
+

or
( 2
( 2
(
)
2
)
t t
c t c t
c
t
t
t
t
m
+n thermodynamic applications, to make the calculations easier specific

heats are appro%imated to average values between two temperatures.
2nother type of specific heat #latent heat
There are thermal processes in which even the heat is transmitted to the
body, its temperature does not vary 0e%. melting or vapori&ation1. +n this case
the heat transmitted is used for the change of phase of the body and in this
situation a new caloric coefficient is defined, called latent heat for phase
transformation 0 latent heat of vapori&ation, latent heat of fusion1
m
L

,
This coefficient is defined as heat 4uantity re4uired for changing the phase
of the unit of mass from a substance, at a constant temperature and pressure.
The unit is P'kg. 7or the same substance the latent heat of vapori&ation is
e4ual to latent heat of condensation and the latent heat of fusion is e4ual to
latent heat of solidification.
*uestions
(. 6hat studies thermodynamics S /ive e%amples of thermal
phenomena.
2. 6hat is a physic systemS 6hat is a thermodynamic system S
. 6hat is an isolated systemS
B. 6hat is the difference between an open and a closed system S
A. -ow do you e%press the state of a system S
:. 6hat is thermodynamic e4uilibrium S
@. 6hat are e%tensive parameters S 6hat are intensive parameters S
*. -ow is classified pressure according to measurement method S
C. 6hat type of pressure is measured with manometers and vacuum#
meters S
().6hat type of pressure is measured with barometer S
((. 6hat property is described by temperatureS
(2.6hat is a thermal measure 0or 4uantity1 S Jo you have some
e%amples S
(.5an be directly measured the temperature of a body S 6hy S
(B.-ow do you enounce the &eroth law of thermodynamicsS
(A.6hat is a scale of temperature S
(:.-ow do you classify the scales of temperature and which are theyS
(@.6hich are the relations between the origins and units of the scales S
(*.-ow was determined the lowest temperature and what is its meaning S
(C.-ow is defined the specific volumeS
2).-ow is defined the molar volume S -ow is defined the kilomoleS
2(.6hich are normal physical gas state S
22.-ow is defined the density S -ow is defined the specific gravity S
2.6hat are finite thermodynamic processes S
2B.6hat is the difference between 4uasi#static and non#static processesS
2A.6hen a process is reversible S 6hen a process is irreversible S
2:.6hat is mechanic work S
2@.-ow is classified work in thermodynamics S
2*.+n p#" representation of a transformation of state of a gas which is the
significance of the boundary work 0 work of the state transformation 1
But of the shaft work S
2C.6hich is the sign rule for workS
).6hat is heat S +s a 4uantity of state or a processS
(.6hich is the sign rule for heat S
2.-ow is e%pressed the heat change which produces the heating of a
body S
.-ow is e%pressed the heat change which produces the change of phase
of a body S
B.6hat is specific heat S -ow is reported to different units of mass S
A.+s specific heat constant with temperature S
Chapter . 2. +irst la, of thermodynamics
3ome calculations and e%periments performed in the T+T th century
demostrated that mechanical work and any other form of energy can be
transformed in heat and reversed and it was determined the e4uivalency
ratio of transformation. +n technical system heat is e%pressed in kilocalories 0
a calorie is the amount of heat 0energy1 re4uired to raise the temperature of
one gram of water by ( ?51 and work in kgf.m 0work produced moving a
body of ( kg on a length of ( m1, those units being in that period considered
as independent.
+n (*B2 =obert $ayer introduces the mechanical e4uivalent of heat unit and
determined its value by calculations, in the same year Poule determined the
caloric e4uivalent of work and -elmholt& demostrated the e4uivalence
between the thermal and mechanical energy.
Lecture--The mechanical equivalent of heat
Joule*s Heat %pparatus+ ),(-, Joule*s apparatus for measuring the
mechanical e.uivalent of heat
/urther e0periments and measurements b" Joule led him to estimate the
mechanical e.uivalent of heat as ,1, ft2lbf of #ork to raise the temperature
of a pound of #ater b" one degree /ahrenheit' He announced his results at a
meeting of the chemical section of the 3ritish %ssociation for the
%dvancement of Science in Cork in ),(1 and #as met b" silence'
Joule #as undaunted and started to seek a purel" mechanical demonstration
of the conversion of #ork into heat' 3" forcing #ater through a perforated
c"linder+ he #as able to measure the slight viscous heating of the fluid' He
obtained a mechanical e.uivalent of 445 ft2lbf63tu 7(')( J6cal8' The fact that
the values obtained both b" electrical and purel" mechanical means #ere in
agreement to at least one order of magnitude #as+ to Joule+ compelling
evidence of the realit" of the convertibilit" of #ork into heat'
Joule no# tried a third route' He measured the heat generated against the
#ork done in compressing a gas' He obtained a mechanical e.uivalent of
,&1 ft2lbf63tu 7('(1 J6cal8' !n ),(-+ Joule read his paper 9n the mechanical
e.uivalent of heat to the 3ritish %ssociation meeting in Cambridge' !n this
#ork+ he reported his best:kno#n e0periment+ involving the use of a falling
#eight to spin a paddle:#heel in an insulated barrel of #ater+ #hose
increased temperature he measured' He no# estimated a mechanical
e.uivalent of ,); ft2lbf63tu 7('() J6cal8'
+n (*A), Poule published a refined measurement of @@2.:C2 ftUlbf'Btu 0B.(AC
P'cal1, closer to twentieth century estimates.
2n important contribution had 5.$iculescu, a =omanian physicist who
established the value of mechanical e4uivalent of the calory : (kcal9B(*A,@
P, a value very close to the closest value (kcal9B(*A,A P.
2.1. Internal -ner(y
The first law of thermodynamics represents the energy conservation and
transformation law applied to thermodynamics processes in which energy
change is done as heat and work variation. 7irst law is based on a state
measure called internal energy.
2 body, which in thermodynamics is called thermodynamic system, is made
of very high, but finite number of particles in continuous, disordered
motion, which interact amongst them. +t means that the particles have a
kinetic energy corresponding to thermal, disordered motion and a potential
energy due to forces of interaction between them 0intermoleculare forces1
and due to interaction with other e%ternal forces 0 e%. gravitational field1.
2ll these energies form internal energy of the system. 3o internal energy of a
system is made of kinetic energies corespunding to particle macroscopic
motions as well as potential energy of interaction of particles.
+nternal energy represents the sum of kinetic and potential energies of the
particles within a body and of the energies within the molecules 0e%. energy
of chemical bonds, inter and intra atomic1.The last energy, although is
contained in internal energy,does not change during thermodynamic
processes because it is not changed the structure of the body.That is why it is
of interest only the variation of internal energy due to kinetic and potential
energy. +nternal energy is noted with I and for thermodynamic processes is
the sum of kinetic and potential energy of molecules.
n oscillatio rotation trasition

cin cin cin cin
pot cin
+ +
+
$olecules of li4uid and gas may have translation and rotation motions; in
the molecules the groups of atoms have oscilation motions.
7or e%ample, internal energy of a gas enclosed in a vessel is composed of :
kynetic energy of translation and rotation of gas molecules; potential energy
of molecules depending on molecular interaction forces; kinetic and
potential energies corresponding to atom oscilation within molecules;
electron energy from atoms; motion and interaction energy of particles
which compose the nucleus of atoms.The last two forms of energy are
contained in intermolecular energy ,
).
+nternal energy
[ ] kcal J ,
is a state measure or 4uantity meaning that it
depends only by the state of the system. 6hen a system passes from a state
having I
(
internal energy to another state having I
2
internal energy, no
matter if the process is reversible or not, variation I9I
2
#I
(
of internal
energy does not depend on intermediate states throgh which the system
passed, it depends only on the initial and final states 0 their internal
energies1. +nternal energy is an additive measure meaning that the internal
energy of a system is e4ual to the sum of energies of the components.The
ratio of internal energy to the mass od the system is called specific internal
energy and is noted with u.
( )
( )
'
kg J u
kg m
mu '
2.2.-nouncements of first la, of thermodynamics
8n the basis of law there was the e%perimental observation that mechanic
work can be in heat and reversed.Transformation of the work in heat are met
at most friction processes between bodies, at gas compression and e%pasion,
when work is transformed in electric energy and then into heat.
a1 V-eat could be obtained from work and it can be transformed into work
always in the same e4uivalence ratio.F
+f in thermodynamic relationships appear heat e%pressed in kcal and work
e%pressed in Pouli or kgfm, in order to have homogeneus formula it must
e%pressed the ratio beween heat and work as the caloric e4uivalent of unit
for work 2
L';92 , 2# caloric e4uivalent of unit for work.
m kgf kcal B2@ *: , B2: (
kgfm
kcal
%
B2@
(
+f
[ ] [ ] kgfm L kcal $
%L $
in technical system
b1 V+t can not be produced a heat engine in continuos operation to produce
work ;, without consuming an e4uivalent 4uantity of heat L.F
c1 8swald:
E.erpetual motion machine of the first kind does not e%ist.F2 perpetual
motion machine of the first kind is a machine which produces more work
; than e4uivalent heat L, thus meaning it produces energy from nothing; in
this way, it violates the law of conservation of energy.
+n a thermodynamic process the variation of internal energy of the system
e4uals the sum of mechanic e4uivalents of all energy changes between the
system and surroundings.2ny form of energy can be e%pressed through
mechanical e4uivalent,P.
2.3. .athematical formulation of first la, for open systems
2n open system is a thermodynamic system changing energy and mass with
the surroundings.
7or a heat engine 0a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy
or more e%actly a system which operates continuously and only heat and
work may pass across its boundaries1 is e%pressed the energy balance of the
system for

period of time, meaning the balance energy transfer forms
and mechanical and thermal energies.
7ig.B.3cheme of energy changes in a heat engine
+t is consider a heat engine from fig. B in which point ( represents the intake
of thermal agent and point 2 represents the e%haust of thermal agent .The
heat engine is supplied by fuel which is burned releasing heat L
(#2
; the heat
engine produced shaft work noted ;
t(#2
. The thermal agent in point ( has
pressure p
(
,temperature T
(
, specific volume v
(
, specific internal energy u
(
and specific enthalpy i
(
and it gets into the engine with w
(
velocity level
difference h
(
.
The thermal agent in point 2 has pressure p
2
, temperature T
2
, specific
volume v
2
, specific internal energy u
2
Wi specific enthalpy i
2
and it gets out
engine with w
2
velocity at a a level difference h
2
.
$asic balance e4uation written between points ( and 2 indicates mass
conservation m
(
9m
2
9 m .
,nergy balance e4uation written on the control area between points ( and 2
is:
released received
< < < < + +
2 (
7or a time interval

( ) J mu mgh
m#
<
( (
2
(
(
2
+ +
Heat engine
h
1
h
2
Referene p!an
"
1-2
#
t1-2
1
2
$
1
$
2
( ) J mu mgh
m#
<
2 2
2
2
2
2
+ +
( ( 2 (
V p $ <
received
+

( )
( (
m mv V
2 2
V p L <
t released
+
( )
2 2
m mv V
2 2
V p
# flow work
=eplacing in energy balance:
2 2 2 2
2
2
( ( 2 ( ( (
2
(
2 2
V p L mu mgh
m#
V p $ mu mgh
m#
t
+ + + + + + + +

'
,
_
,
_
kg
J
m
L
l
kg
J
m
$
.
t
t
2 (
2 (
=eplacing in energy balance for ( kg of thermal agent passing through the
engine
( ) ( )

,
_
+ +
+

kg
J
l . v p v p h h g
# #
u u
t 2 ( ( ( 2 2 ( 2
2
(
2
2
( 2
2
(X1 ( ) ( )
t
l . h h g
# #
i i +
+
2 ( ( 2
2
(
2
2
( 2
2
+n which
pv u i +
Jiferentiating it is obtained
(1
( )

,
_
,
_
+

kg
J
l . dh g
#
d di
t

2 (
2
2
+n which

2
(
vdp
lt
=elation (1 has a general character and can be applied in any open system
having ; and L as forms of energy transfer.The second e4uation is true for
mechanical energy transfers 0pumps, etc.1.
2.!. .athematical formulation of first la, for closed systems
2 closed system is a system which do not change mass with the
surroundings, for e%ample the gas from the cylinder of a piston engine. 7or
e4uations 0(1 and 0(X1 from aforementioned chapter for open systems,
considering intake and e%haust velocities &ero and the same value of
reference levels.
'

2 (
2 (
)
h h
# #
t
l . v p v p u u +
2 ( ( ( 2 2 ( 2
+t is obtained
( )

+

2
(
2
(
2 ( ( 2
pv d vdp . u u
1

2
(
2 ( 2 ( 2 ( ( 2
l . pdV . u u
8r for m kilos of thermal agent
2 ( 2 ( ( 2
L $
7rom (X 02X1 t
l . i i
2 ( ( 2
and
( ) J L $ ! !
t

2 ( ( 2 for m kilos of agent in which
( )

2
(
J Vdp L
t
.
The mathematical e%pressions in differential form of the first law of
thermodynamics:
B1 kg pentru
vdp . di
pdv . du
(
'
and kg m pentru
Vdp $ d!
pdV $ d
'
The mathematical e%pression of the first law of thermodynamics for closed

systems
( ) J L $
2 ( 2 ( ( 2

favori&es the following hydraulic interpretation and analogy.
7ig.A. -ydraulic analogy of first law for close systems
The analogy emphasi&es that internal energy of the thermal agent varies in
function of value and sign of heat and work agent changes with the
surroundings.
3pecial cases :
2.7or adiabatic processes
)
2 (

$
the first law becomes a relation
between I and ;.6hen system does not receive energy from e%terior,
meaning that is adiabatically isolated, then it could perform work only on
the variation of internal energy, L9) resulting ; 9 #dI and in this
situation work does not depend on intermediate states, meaning that in this
particular situation work is a total diferential 0d;9#dI1.
B. 7or isochoric processes 0" 9 ct.1 with variation of volume &ero,work
of the isochoric transformation is &ero
)
i=
L
and first law becomes a
relation between I and L. +f the system does not perform work upon
e%terior and e%terior does not perform work upon the system, the heat
received by the system from e%terior determines an increase of its internal
energy and ;9pd"9) and dL 9 dI or
L
(#2
9 I
2
# I
(
. +n the isochoric process the heat is a total differential.
U
L
1-2
Q
1-2
5. 6hen
'
2 ( 2 (
2 (
2 (
1 . 0 tan . . . )
. . . )
L $
process isothermal t cons #ork peforms agent the L
heat receives agent the $
6hen agent receives heat and performs work, if these 4uantities are
e4ual, internal energy remains constant.
+n other words when internal energy does not change during its
interaction with the environment, then system cannot perform work unless
it receives energy from e%terior.7or dI9), it is obtained ; 9 L or L
(#2
9
;
(#2
.
2.) Caloric e/uation of state
The 4uantities intenal energy I and enthalpy + are called caloric state
4uantities repre&enting thermal forms of energy.
=ule EThe state of thermal e4uilibrium of a system is completely determined
if are known two intensive state parameters and masses mY of components of
the systemF. +ntensive parameters are pressure, temperature, specific
volume.
+t is considered a monocomponent system 0( body 1, having mass of ( kg
for which any state 4uantity can be e%pressed in function of two intensive
parameters.
+t is e%pressed:
( )
( ) p T f i
v T f u
,
,
(
.By differentiation
'
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
dp
p
i
dT
T
i
i d
dv
v
u
dT
T
u
du
T
p
T v
7or ( kilo of agent which suffers an elementar heating at constant volume:
( ) dT c .
v v

2ccording to first law for closed systems:
pdV . du
for
( ) ( ) ( ) dT c du and . du t cons v
v v v v
tan
( ) v t f ,
v
v
T
c

,
_
3imilarly results :
p
p
T
i
c

,
_
=eplacing in du and di results
'
,
_
,
_
+
dp
p
i
dT c i d
dv
v
u
dT c du
T
p
T
v
analog with capital letters for m kg :
'
,
_
,
_
+
dp
p
!
dT mc ! d
dV
v
dT mc d
T
p
T
v
These e4uations are called caloric e4uations of state.
*uestions
(. +s the work performed by a system a form of energy e%change S6hat
about the heat change S
2. 5an be mechanic work converted into heat S 5an be heat converted
into workS
. 6hat are units for work and heat S
B. 6hat is internal energy of a system S
A. 6hich is the enouncement of the first law of thermodynamics S
:. 6hich is the enouncement of the first law of thermodynamics for
closed systems S
@. 6hich is the hydraulic analogy of the first law of thermodynamics for
closed systems S
*. 6hich are the caloric e4uations of state S
Chapter 3. The ideal (as
+deal gas is a hypotetic notion # it represents a gaseous body having the
following properties:
- molecules are perfectly spherical;
- molecules are perfectly elastic;
- molecules have no interaction;
- moleculesX own volume can be neglected;
The perfect gas is also called ideal gas and, according to the kinetic
molecular theory, it cannot be li4uefied.
=elations e%pressing the properties of a perfect gas are:
a8 the e%pression of a gasX pressure 0Bernoulli1
2
2
2
m#
V
N
p
b8 the e%pression of kinetic energy <
c
as a function of the velocity
distribution #
2 2
2
m#
kT 0$a%well Bolt&mann1
m molecule mass
N number of molecules in "
8ut of the two relations,
2:
() . * , ( where ,

k kNT pV
# the Bolt&mann
constant
7or a constant mass of gas 0! 9 constant1 it results :
constant
T
pV
# the ecuation of state for a hypotetical perfect gas.
+n certain pressure and temperature conditions, gases in nature almost obey
the rigurous relations for the hypotetical perfect gas: these generic
conditions consist of small and medium pressures and medium and high
temperatures so states that are far enough from the li4uefying point.
/ases in the nature that are in such conditions can be considered perfect
gases; the simple laws established in T"++#T+T centuries that are not
rigurously correct were determined by e%periments on gaseous bodies in
the nature, in pressure and temperature conditions far away of li4uid states,
thus obtaining the laws of perfect gases. The appro%imation of the simple
laws of gases is sometimes under the errors introduced by mathematical
models of the phenomena.
3.1. 0a,s of the perfect (as
7or a constant mass 0kg1 of perfect gas, these laws are as follows:
a1 Thermal state e4uation
m>T pV ct
T
pV
or
- the variables are e%pressed in different measurement units:
'
kmol T > pV
nkmol T n> pV
mkg m>T pV
kg >T pV
M
M
(
(
= is called the constant of the gas. +ts value doesnXt depend on its status, but
only on its nature and thermal properties.
7or a kmol of gas, the state e4uation becomes:
T > pV
M>T pvM
M M

, where >
M
is the the universal constant of the perfect gas, being
independent of the nature of the gas and having a value that can be
computed out of the state e4uation of the gas in normal physical conditions.
kmolK
J
T
V p
>
N
MN N
M
B , *(B
(A , 2@
B(B , 22 ()(2A

and
1
]
1

K kg
J
M M
>
>
M
.
B , *(B
,
_
2
m
N
p
,
( )

,
_
kg
m
v m V
,

[ ] K T
,
( ) ( ) kmoli n kg m ,
1
]
1
kgK
J
>
b1 Boyle $ariotte law
6hen
constant T
then
constant pV
c8 /ay ;ussac law
6hen
constant p
then
constant
T
V
d8 5harles law
6hen
constant V
then
constant
T
p
e8 2vogadro law 0(*((1
2t the same pressure p and temperature T, in e4ual volumes they are the
same numbers of molecules.
7or gases ( and 2 :
2 (
p p
2 (
T T
2 (
V V
2 (
N N
# numbers of molecules
( kmol contains !
2
9 :.)2 U ()
2:
molecules
B(B , 22 (
N
m kmol
+n normal state, ( kmol occupies the same volume V.
f1 Poule law
+nternal energy of perfect gases depends only on temperature.
( ) T
and
)
,
_

)
,
_
0independence on p or V1
,ntalpy of perfect gases depends only on T.
m>T pV ! + +

( ) T f !
(
5onse4uences:
- general e%pressions of caloric state e4uations:
dV
V
dT mc d
T
v

,
_
+
dp
p
!
dT mc d!
T
p
,
_
+
7or the perfect gases:
)
,
_
according to Poule law

)
,
_
according to Poule law.

6e obtain the following e%pressions of the caloric state e4uations for perfect
gases:
'
dT mc d!
dT mc d
p
v

7or ( kg
'
dT c di
dT c du
p
v
and, integrated,
( )
( )
( ) J
T T mc ! !
T T mc
pm
vm
'

( 2 ( 2
( 2 ( 2
3.2. Specific heat of perfect (ases
The ratio of specific heats is called adiabatic e%ponent and is noted as:
k
C
C
c
c
c
c
Nv
Np
Mv
Mp
v
p

Mc c
M

N M
C c B(B , 22
+t can also be written
>T u pv u i + +
and, in diferential form,
>dT du di +
or
>dT dT c dT c
v p
+
,
_

kgK
J
> c c
v p # $ayer relation
M> Mc Mc
v p

or
,
_

kmolK
J
> c c
M M M
v p

>M >
M

'
,
_
,
_
'
kgK
J
>
k
k
c
kgK
J
k
>
c
> c c
k
c
c
p
v
v p
v
p
(
(

'
,
_
,
_
kmolK
J
>
k
k
c
kmolK
J
k
>
c
M Mp
M
Mv
(
(
8ne can notice that specific heats of perfect gas can be determined as a
function of adiabatic e%ponent k and of the constants of the gas.
7or the hypotetic perfect gas, specific heats are considered constant and k 9
constant.
3pecific heats of gases considered as perfect can vary with temperature.
,%periments show that, for these gases, k stays constant in large intervals of
temperature. 7or first appro%imation computation, the following values are
adopted:
-
for monoatomic gases 0-e1, k 9 (.::
-
for biatomic gases 0!
2
, 8
2
, -
2
, 581, k 9 (.B
-
for polyatomic gases 058
2
, 38
2
Z.1, k 9 (.
The hypotetic perfect gas with punctiform molecules behave like a
monoatomic gas, with c constant and k constant. 7or gases of the nature with
two or more atoms in the molecule, the degrees of freedom in moleculesX
movement appear progressively with the increase of temperature.
-
for low temperatures only translation
-
for medium temperatures 0e.g. atmospheric temperature1 translation <
rotation
-
for high temperatures translation < rotation < oscillation.
2s a conse4uence of progressing in rotation and, then, in oscillation of
moleculeXs atoms, specific heats increase with temperature. 7or
termotechnical computation, in the first appro%imation, for biatomic gas the
adopted value is k 9 (.B.
3.3 1eal (ases
The differences between ideal and real gas can be described as follows:
# a gas behaves like an ideal gas when it is very rarefied in this case, the
own volume of molecules versus the whole volume occupied by the gas
can be neglected and molecular interraction forces are very low due to large
distances between molecules.
# a gas behaves like a real gas at high pressures and low temperatures, when
neither own moleculesX volume nor molecular interraction forces can be
neglected.
The status e4uation for a kilomol ideal gas, pv ? >T , becomes for the real
gas:
( ) >T b v
v
a
p
,
_
+
2
, 0"an de 6aals e4uation1, wher a and b are two
constants.
The real gas is different from the ideal gas 0whose internal energy depends
only on temperature1, as the internal energy of the real gas depends also on
volume, so
? 7T8 # for the ideal gas
? 7T+ V8 # for the real gas
+n ideal gases, molecules donXt interract and internal energy consists only of
the kinetic energy of the molecules, that depends only on the temperature of
the gas. The internal energy of the real gas consists of the kinetic energy and
potential energy of the molecules, due to their interraction the potential
energy depends on the distance between molecules, so, on the volume of the
gas.
3.!. .ixtures of perfect (ases
+n most installations, the gaseous thermal agents are not pure gases, but
mi%tures of gases.
,%amples:
-
the air is a mi%ture of gases, mainly
2 2
9 N +
-
e%haust gases consist of .....
2 2 2 2 2
C9 N 9 S9 9 H C9
vap
+ + + + +
2 mi%ture of perfect gases behave like a perfect gas:
m>T pV
7or the study of gaseous mi%tures, they are two hypoteses:
a1 mi%ed gases # molecules of each gas spread in whole the volume.
7ig.:. $i%ture of molecules in the whole volume
/iven three different gases, 2, B and 5, with molecules of different si&es, it
can be considered that they occupy all the available volume:
V V V V
C 3 %

A B C A A B C A B C
B B C B A A B C
A B C C A C B
C A B C A C
C B C A B C
A C B B A B C
A B B C A A
Temperature of the components can be considered as e4ual with that of the
mi%ture:
T T T T
C 3 %

.artial pressure is the pressure of a gas on the enclosure walls if it should be
alone. 7or the chosen three gases, partial pressures are not e4ual:
C 3 %
p p p
# partial pressures
The pressure of the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of
component (ases2
p p p p
C 3 %
+ +
# JaltonXs law
The sum of component masses is the mass of the mi%ture:
( ) kg m m m m
C 3 %
+ +
They are called mass fractions 0concentrations1 the ratios:
m
m
g
%
%

m
m
g
3
3

m
m
g
C
C
(
n
i
i
g
b1 component gases are separated by ima(inary walls, each having the
same pressure p and temperature T as the mi%ture.
7ig.@. $i%ture of molecules in partial 0imaginary1 volumes
7or this hypothesis
p p p p
C 3 %

T T T T
C 3 %

C 3 %
V V V
The partial volumes of the components are different because the partial
enclosures are different.
The sum of the partial volumes of the components is e/ual to the volume
of the mixture.
V V V V
C 3 %
+ +
# 2magat law
A A A
A
A
A A A
B B
B
B B
B
B B
B B
B
B B
C C
C
C
C C
C
C C
C C
C
There are called volumic fractions the ratios
V
V
r
%
%

V
V
r
3
3

V
V
r
C
C

(
n
i
i
r
roperties of ideal (as mixtures
1. Constant 1 of the mixture .
+t is considered the mi%ture made of gases 2, B and 5 in conditions
described in paragraph a1. 7or every component it can be written the
e4uation of state:
T > m V p
% % %

T > m V p
3 3 3

T > m V p
C C C

3umming the e4uations, it results:
( )T > m > m > m pV
C C 3 3 % %
+ +
m>T pV
e4uation of state of the mi%ture
C C 3 3 % %
> m > m > m m> + +
and dividing by m, it results
i
n
i
i C C 3 3 % % C
C
3
3
%
%
> g > g > g > g >
m
m
>
m
m
>
m
m
>

+ + + +
= constant of the mi%ture is e4ual to he sum of the gas constants of the
components, weighted with the mass fractions.
2. Specific mass of the mixture
V
m

0density1
5onsidering the hypothesis from paragraph b, it can be written
C C 3 3 % % C 3 %
V V V m m m m + + + +
and dividing to volume "
+ +
n
i
i i C C 3 3 % %
r r r r
Jensity
of a mi%ture is e4ual to the sum of gas densities weighted with

the volume fractions.
3. Specific volume of the mixture v

i i
i i i
v g
m
v m
m
V
m
V
v
in which
p
T >
v
i
i

are specific volumes of the components.
!. .olar mass #,ei(ht$ of the mixture .
$olar mass 0weight1 of the mi%ture is called conventional mass because it
does not have a measurable value in real life. +f it is considered the density
of the mi%ture and components

n
i
i i
r
in which
'

M
T >
p
>T
p
V
m
M
T >
p
T >
p
V
m
M
i
M i i
i
i
+t results the e4uality
T >
p
M

n
i
i i i
M
i
M r M M
T >
p
r M
$olar mass of the mi%ture $ e4uals the sum of molar masses of the
components weighted to volume fractions.
).artial pressures of the (as components
7or component i it is e%pressed the e4uations of state which correspond to
both hypothesis of the mi%tures which are considered to be e4ual:
T > m V p
i i i

T > m V p
i i i

p r p
V
V
p
i
i
i

The partial pressure of a component is 4ual to the pressure of the mi%ture p
weighted with the volume fraction of the component r
i
.
7or e%ample, for air at atmospheric pressure considered close to ( bar:
'
bar 2( , )
bar @C , )
2
2
9
N
p
p
3. Specific heat of the mixture
+t is considered a mi%ture which suffers an elementary heating process at
constant pressure or volume;heat change is e%pressed
mcdt $
in which specific heat c is either c
p
or c
v
.
-eat received by the mi%ture e4uals the sum of the heats received by every
component.

dt c m $i $
i i

n
i
i i
n
i
i
i
c g c
m
m
c
3imilarly, it can be demonstrated that
i
M i M
c r c
i N i N
C r C
4. Conversion of the fractions
The mi%ture composition is e%pressed through mass or volume fractions.
By definition :

i
i i
i
m
m
m
m
g
-
+n hypothesis b1 T
M
>
m T > m pV
i
M
i i i i

V
M V
T >
p
M V
T >
p
g
i i
M
i i
M
i
(
i i
i i
i
M r
M r
g
By definition :

i
i i
i
V
V
V
V
r
m
M
m
p
T >
M
m
p
T >
r
i
i M
i
i M
i
(
i
i
i
i
i
M
g
M
g
r
,%ample for air:
'

G @@ G @C
G 2 G 2(
2
2 2
2 N N
9 9
g r
g r
2 . )
2* @C . ) 2 2( . )
2 2( , )
2 2 2 2
2 2
2

+
0 0
0
M r M r
M r
g
N N o o
o o
9
@@ , )
2* @C . ) 2 2( . )
2* @C . )
2 2 2 2
2 2
2

+
0 0
0
M r M r
M r
g
N N o o
N N
N
5. .ean temperature of a mixture
There are considered several gases initially at different temperatures and it is
re4uired the final temperature of the mi%ture, after mi%ing process. 7om
e4uation of heat balance considering that a component releases heat and the
others absorb heat :
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 ( ( (
T T c m T T c m T T c m +
The temperature of the mi%ture is T
+ +
+ +
i i
i i i
c m
T c m
c m c m c m
T c m T c m T c m
T
2 2 ( (
2 2 2 ( ( (
Chapter 3. The ideal (as #continued$
3.). Thermodynamic processes applied to the ideal (as
6hen a heat engine is designed the real processes of heating, cooling,
compressing and e%panding are replaced with one or more simple
thermodynamic processes or transformations.
-
The thermodynamic process which takes place at constant volume is
called isochoric transformation 0" 9 constant1
-
The thermodynamic process which takes place at constant pressure is
called isobaric transformation 0p 9 constant1
-
The thermodynamic process which takes place at constant temperature is
called isothermal transformation 0T 9 constant1
-
The thermodynamic process which takes place without heat e%change
with the surroundings is called adiabatic transformation 0L 9)1
-
The thermodynamic process which takes place with variation of all
parameters of state, in the condition of a constant specific heat of the
process 0c
n
9constant1 is called polytropic transformation.
7or each type of the trnsformation it is necessary to know the e4uation of the
transformation, work, heat change and graphical representation in p#"
coordinates.
3.).1. Isochoric transformation
The isochoric transformation takes place at constant volume V 9 constant ,
0
t tan cons m
1, from e4uation of state
t cons
T
pV
tan
it results if V is
constat
t tan cons
T
p
0e4uation of the transformation 1 or

(
2
(
2
T
T
p
p
The mechanical work of the isochoric transformation is

2
(
2
(
2 (
tan ) t cons V as pdV L L
-eat transfer of the isochoric transformation is
( )

2
(
( 2 2 (
2
(
T
T
v v
T T mc dt mc $ $
m
5aloric e4uations of state :

( )
2 ( ( 2 ( 2
$ T T mc
m v
( )
( 2 ( 2
T T mc ! !
pm

/raphical representation of the transformation in p:V coordinates is like in
fig. *, where the transition from state ( to state 2 is characterised by keeping
the volume constant:
V V V
2 (
7ig. *. .lot of the isochoric transformation in p:V coordinates
V
1
2
p
p
2
p
1
H
e
a
t
i
n
g

C
%
%
!
i
n
g
2s the p6T ratio stays constant with pressure increase, e.g. passing from
state ( to state 2 0 p
&
@p
)
1, the temperature would increase, 0 T
&
@T
)
1 resulting
a heating of the gas. +f the process inverts, from state 2 to state (, the gas
would cool as the pressure decreases.
The physical model of a thermodynamic system undergoing such a
transformation is that of a fluid container with fi%ed e%terior walls. -eating
by an e%ternal source gives an increase of the temperature and of the
pressure in the container.
3.).2. The isobaric transform
The isobaric transform is characteri&ed by a constant pressure, p 9 constant ,
0
t tan cons m
1, in the state e4uation
t cons
T
pV
tan
. +t results, for p
constant,
t cons
T
V
tan
0the e4uation of the transformation1 and
(
2
(
2
T
T
V
V
$echanical work of the isobaric transform is:

2
(
2
(
2
(
2 (
dV p pdV L L
( ) ( ) J V V p L
( 2 2 (

-eat e%change of the isobaric transform with the e%ternal environment is

2
(
2
(
2 (
dT mc $ $
p
( ) ( ) J T T mc $
pm ( 2 2 (

7or heating, ) ) L + $
7or cooling,
) ) L + $
$odification of caloric state variables:
( ) ( ) J T T mc
vm ( 2 ( 2

( )
2 ( ( 2 ( 2
$ T T mc ! !
pm
fig. C, where the transition from state ( to state 2 is characterised by keeping
the pressure constant:
p p p
2 (
7ig. C. .lot of the isobaric transformation in p:V coordinates
2s the V6T ratio stays constant with volume increase, e.g. passing from state
( to state 2 0V
&
@V
)
1, the temperature would increase, 0 T
&
@T
)
1 resulting a a
heating of the gas. +f the process inverts, from state 2 to state (, as the
volume decreases, the gas is cooling.
transformation is that of a fluid container with a mobile e%terior wall pushed
by a constant force that gives a constant pressure. -eating by an e%ternal
source gives an increase of the temperature and of the volume occupied by
the gas.
3.).3. Isothermal transformation
The isothermal transformation takes place at constant temperature T 9
constant, 0
t tan cons m
1, from e4uation of state
p
p
Heating
1 2
V
V
1
V
2
C%%!ing
t cons
T
pV
tan
it results if T is constat
t tan cons pV
0e4uation of the
transformation 1 or
2 2 ( (
V p V p
The mechanical work of the isothermal transformation is:

2
(
2
(
2 (
pdV L L
where
2 2 ( (
V p V p t tan cons pV

2
(
2
(
(
2
( ( ( ( 2 (
V
V
ln V p
V
dV
V p
V
dV
ct L
( ) J
p
p
m>T
V
V
m>T
p
p
V p
V
V
V p L
2
(
(
2
2
(
( (
(
2
( ( 2 (
ln ln ln ln
-eat e%change of the isothermal transformation is :

mcdT $
) dT
) $
The isothermal process has a specific heat of . +n order to solve such an
undetermination, the general formulas of the (st principle are used:
( )
( )
'
+

Vdp L L $ Vdp $ d!
pdV L L $ pdV $ d
t t

and, using the caloric state e4uations for the perfect gas:
'
dT mc d!
dT mc d
p
v
it results, for
t tan cons T
'
L $
d )
or
( ) J L $
2 ( 2 (

8nly in the isothermal transformation, $ e%changed by the agent with the
environment is e4uivalent with the mechanical work done or consumed
by the thermal agent during the transformation.
( ) J
p
p
m>T
V
V
m>T
p
p
V p
V
V
V p $
2
(
(
2
2
(
( (
(
2
( ( 2 (
ln ln ln ln

fig. (), where the transition from state ( to state 2 is characterised by
keeping the product pV constant.
7ig. (). .lot of the isothermal transformation in p:V coordinates
The plot is an e4uilateral hyperbole arch.
+n the isothermal transformation:
( ) )
( 2 ( 2
T T mc
vm
( ) )
( 2 ( 2
T T mc ! !
pm
transformation is that of an engineXs cylinder that is intensely e%changing
heat with the environment. 6hen the piston moves, the decrease of volume
gives an increase of pressure so the temperature tends to increase as well.
2ssuming that cylinderXs walls allow the release of a heat thatXs large#
enough, it can result a constant temperature of the gas in the cylinder.
p
1
2
V
2
V
1
p
1
p
2
&'pansi%n
C%(pressi
%n
3.).!.6diabatic transformation
The adiabatic transformation is the thermodynamic transformation without
any heat e%change with the e%ternal environment
) )
2 (

$ $
.arameters p+ T+ V are variable and the goal is to find their relationship
under these conditions
(st principle:
'
+

Vdp $ d!
pdV $ d
5aloric e4uations of state:
'
dT mc d!
dT mc d
p
v
=eplacing d+ d! and computing the ratio, it gives:
pdV
Vdp
c
c
v
p

where
k
c
c
v
p
k is the adiabatic e%ponent that represents the ratio of specific heats of a gas
[n the isobaric respectively in the isochoric transformation.
+ntegrating the
) +
V
dV
k
p
dp
e4uation gives
( ) t cons V p
k
tan ln ln +
that
leads to the e4uation of the transformation in p and V coordinates:
t cons pV
k
tan
or
k k
V p V p
2 2 ( (

;ogarithmation and differentiation is applied to the state e4uation, in the
form
t tan cons
T
pV
.
+t results ( ) ) (
)

,
_
'
+
+
V
dV
k
T
dT
V
dV
k
p
dp
T
dT
V
dV
p
dp
,
that, after integration, gives the e4uation of the adiabatic transform with
parameters T and V:
t cons TV
k
tan
(
(
2 2
(
( (

k k
V T V T
=eplacing V gives
t cons
p
T
k
k
tan
(

or
k
k
p
p
T
T
(
(
2
(
2
,
_
that represents the

e4uation of the adiabatic transform with p and T.
The mechanical work of the adiabatic transform is:

2
(
2
(
2 (
pdV L L
where
k k k
V p V p t cons pV
2 2 ( (
tan

2
(
2
(
2 (
dV V ct
V
dV
ct L
k
k
( )
(
(
(
2 2 (
(
+ +
k k
V V
k
ct
L
the constant is replaced with
k
V p
2 2
and then with
k
V p
( (
.
(
2 2 ( (
2 (
k
V p V p
L or
( )
1
]
1
(
2 ( 2 (
2 (
(
( ( T
T
k
m>T
k
T T m>
L
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
k
k
p
p
k
V p
L
(
(
2 ( (
2 (
(
(
The heat e%change of the adiabatic transform is
) $

)
2 (

$
, that means
that for this transformation, the specific heat is &ero:
)
ad
c
.
"ariation of caloric state variables:
( )
( )
'

( 2 ( 2
( 2 ( 2
T T mc ! !
T T mc
pm
vm
where
[ ] J L
2 ( 2 (

2 (
! ! L
t

t cons pV
k
tan
fig. ((, where the transition from state ( to state 2 is characterised by
keeping the constant product:
V V V
2 (
7ig. ((. .lot of the adiabatic transformation in p:V coordinates
The plot is a hyperbole arch with greater slope than the e4uilateral
hyperbole, as the values k R (.
transformation is that of an engineXs cylinder with a perfectly thermal
isolation, that doesnXt allow any heat e%change with the environment.
3.).).The polytropic transform
The polytropic transform is a general transformation in which p,T," vary
and energy is e%changed in form of L and ; with environment .
The polytropic transform is a a process din which all parameters vary so in
order to define the transformation it is accepted that the specific heat is
given and constant
( )
n
c
.
c
n
9 polytropic specific heat
p
1
2
V
2
V
1
p
1
p
2
&'pansi%n
C%(pressi
%n
dT mc $
n

To find out the e4uation of the trasformation:
7irst law
'
+

Vdp $ d!
pdV $ d
with
'
dT mc d!
mcvdT d
p

dT mc $
n

'

pdV dT mc dT mc
Vdp dT mc dT mc
n v
n p
=atio
pdV
Vdp
c c
c c
n v
n p

is noted with
n v
n p
c c
c c
n
and
is called polytropic e%ponent. +t is considered that ratio constant
0n9constant 1 during a polytropic transform.
) +
V
dV
n
p
dp

t tan cons pV
n
# e4uation of the transformation in p,"

or
n n
V p V p
2 2 ( (

'
+
T
dT
V
dV
p
dp
;
) +
V
ndV
p
dp

( ) ) (
,
_
+
V
dV
n
T
dT
t tan cons TV
n
(
# e4uation of the transformation in T," or
(
2 2
(
( (

n n
V T V T
t tan cons
p
T
n
n

(
# e4uation of the transformation in T,p or
n
n
p
p
T
T
(
(
2
(
2
,
_
The work of the polytropic transform is

2
(
2
(
2 (
pdV L L
n n n
V p V p ct pV
2 2 ( (

( )
( (
( ( 2 2 (
(
(
2
2
(
2
(
2 (
+

+

+ +

n
V p V p
V V
n
ct
dV V ct
V
dV
ct L
n n n
n
(
2 2 ( (
2 (
n
V p V p
L
( )
1
]
1
(
2 ( 2 (
2 (
(
( ( T
T
n
m>T
n
T T m>
L
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
n
n
p
p
n
V p
L
(
(
2 ( (
2 (
(
(
The heat e%change of polytropic transform is:
dT mc $
n

( )

2
(
2
(
( 2 2 (
T T mc dT mc $ $
nm n
5onsidering n constant, as known, for o given polytropic transform, it can be

deduced c
n
from ratio
(
n
c nc
c
c c
c c
n
p v
n
n v
n p
cu
k
c
c
v
p
v n
c
n
k n
c
(
dT c
n
k n
m dT mc $
v n
(

( ) ( )
( 2 ( 2 2 (
(
T T c
n
k n
m T T mc $
vm nm

+t is usual to e%press
2 (
$
in function of ;
mec
L $ d
k n
k
k n
n
dT mc
dT mc
$
d
$
dL
n
v

( (
( ( (

L
k
n k
$
(
, iar 2 ( 2 (
(

L
k
n k
$
The caloric state 4uantities of polytropic transform are:
( )
( )
( ) J
T T mc ! !
T T mc
pm
vm
'

( 2 ( 2
( 2 ( 2
/iving to n values in the interval 0
+
1 it can be obtained an infinity of
polytropic transform; not all corespond to heat engine processes.
,%perimentally it was determined that:
(1 The compression and e%pansion processes form heat engines are
accompanied by heat e%change of the agent to the environment; this heat
e%change is not so intense to reach an isothermal process.
21 Juring real compression and e%pansion processes the heat e%change
with the environment cannot be completely avoided and these processes do
not undertake perfectly adiabatic.
5onclusions : =eal compression and e%pansion processes can be considered
as polytropic processes situated between isothermal and adiabatic
transformation.
7rom the e4uation of real polytropic transform
t tan cons pV
n
isothermal ct pV n (
adiabate ct pV k n
k

3o in thermodynamic calculation it is of interest the study of polytropic
transformation having n coplying the ine4uation
k n (
, in which
k9(,...(,:.The graphic of the transform versus n values is :
p
1
V
2a) 2p%
!
2i*
7ig.(2. =epre&entation of polytropic e%pansion and compression in
coordinate p#"
8bservations:
/iving particular values to VnF the simple transformations can be deduced
from polytropic transformation.
a1
( n ct pV ct pV
n

= v n
ci c
n
k n
c
(
b1
k n ct pV ct pV
k n
)
(

ad v n
c c
n
k n
c
c1
) n i=obarA ct p ct pV
n

v p v n
kc c c
n
k n
c
(
d1
n

i=ocorA ct V ct V p ct pV
n
n

(
v n
c c
The specific heats for different polytropic transformation can be obtained
according to n values from diagram.
p
V
1
2i* 2p%! 2a)
7ig.(.3pecific polytropic heat versus polytropic e%ponent
The polytropic curves in function of n if it isconsidered that all curves pass
through a given point.
a1 n 9 ) p 9 ct (#(
b1 n 9 ( T 9 ct 2#2
c1 n 9 k adiabatic #
d1 n 9 H \ " 9 ct B#B
e1 n 9 #( A#A
f1 #\]n]#( :#: [ntre 0B#B, A#A1
+
0 1
,
g1 #(]n]) @#@ [ntre 0A#A, (#(1
h1 (]n]k *#* [ntre 02#2, #1
7ig.(B. .olytropic curves in the hypothesis that pass through a given point.
7romthe point of view of the heat e%change the adiabatic splits the p#" area
in two &ones in any transformation which starts from a point of the
adiabatic and undertakes upwards the adiabatic , in &one +, the heat
e%change is positive.
p
1 1
2
2
3
3
-
- 5
5
.
7
7
/
/
A
V
.
7ig.(A.The &ones of the heat e%change defined by adiabatic curve
+ ) $ # e%ample: 2BX 2 (, 22, 2A
+n any transformation which starts from 2 and undertakes under adiabatic
curve #X 0&one ++1 the heat e%chanege is negative.
++
) $
# e%ample: 2B, 2#(X, 22X,2AX.
*uestions
(. 6hich are the hypothesis of the ideal gas S
2. 6hich is the e4uation of state of ideal gas S 6hat is the
meaning of the 4uantities usedS
. 6hat are the laws of ideal gas S
B. -ow is defined the adiabatic e%ponent k S
p
10
1
20
50
30
2
3
5
1
11
V
-0
A
-
A. 6hich is $ayerXs e4uationsS
:. 6hat is the e4uation of real gas S +n what conditions the real
gas is close to ideal gas S
@. 6hich are the hypothesis to gas mi%ture S
*. 6hat is Jalton law S 6hat is 2magat law S
C. 6hat is a simple transformation S 6hich are the simple
transformations of ideal gas S
(). 6hich is the e4uation of isochoric transformation S 6hich is
its representation in p#" S
((. 6hich is the e4uation of isobaric transformation S 6hich is its
representation in p#" S
(2. 6hich is the e4uation of isothermal transformation S 6hich is
(. 6hich is the e4uation of adiabatic transformation S 6hich is
(B. 6hich is the e4uation of polytropic transformation S 6hich is
(A. -ow is defined the polytropic e%ponent S
Course 3
Chapter !. Second la, of thermodynamics
!.1. Thermodynamic cycles
+t is called thermodynamic cycle 0or a cyclic thermodynamic process1 a
series of succesive thermodynamic processes 0or transformations1 which
undertake in such a way that at the end of last transformation the thermal
agent is brought in the initial state of the first transformation.
+f it is considered the cycle (22B(
7ig.(:. The thermodynamic cycle in coordinates p#"
+t is called the work of the cycle the sum of all works 0;c 9 mec
L
1
performed in the transformations which compose the cycle.

(
(
(
(
2 (
L L L L
3 %
c

+ +
2
(
( 2 2 (
(
2 %
3 %
3
c
L L L L L
# in transformation (#2#2 ) dV and
) )
2 (

%
L pdV L
# in transformation 2#B#(
) dV
and
) )
( 23
L pdV L
( O 22 (
2 (
% area L
%

O 2 O (( 2
( 2
3 area L
3

( 2 (
( 2 2 ( ( 2 2 (
3 % area L L L L L
3 % 3 % c
+

5onsidering the sign of work , the cycles are divided in:
a1 6ork producing cycles # )
c
L when cycle is perfomed clock wise,
characteristic to energ" producing aggregates, such as internal combustion
engines, gas turbines.
b1 6ork consuming cycles #
)
c
L
when cycle is perfomed anti clock wise
0trigonometric1, characteristic to energ" consuming aggregates such as
compressors, refrigerating installations.
p
V
#
1
2
A
B
2
0
0
0
1
0
7or an arbitrary cycle the points ( and 2 are in contact to 2 adiabates.
7ig.(@. The cycle placed between two adiabates
7or a heat engine working on this cycle, the first law of thermodynamics is
e%pressed:
L $ pdV $ d
+t is applied the formula for the cycle (2B(
(1
L $ d

21
)
d
1

c
L L
B1

+
(
2
2
( 3 %
$ $ $
+n which

2
(
2 (
)
%
%
$ $
p
V
#
1
2
A
B
2
0
0
0
1
0
A)iabate
1
A)iabate 11
The transformation (22 begins on the first adiabate and undertakes upwards
0beyond1 the adiabate.

(
2
( 2
)
3
3
$ $
The transformation 2B( begins on the second adiabate and undertakes
downwards 0beneath1 the adiabate.
+t is noted heat amount received by the agent during the transformations of
the cycle L, ) $
+t is noted heat amount released by the agent during the transformations of
the cycle L
),
)
)
$
)
$ $ $ +

or ) )
$ $ L $ $ $
c

+n an work producing cycle performed by an ideal gas, only a part of the
heat received by the agent 0L1 is transformed in work ;
c
, the rest of the heat
being released to the environment during the rest of the cycle
transformations.
+t is called thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle the e%pression :
$
L
c
t

$
$
$
$ $
t
) )
(

The efficiency e%presses the thermodynamic 4uality of the cycle.
!.2.1eversible and irreversible processes
2s presented in chapter (.B, the thermodynamic processes can be divided in:
=eversibile process, in which the system passes from initial to final
state directly and reversely,e%actly through the same points, on the
same path.
+n order to perform such a process, the e%ternal conditions should modify
e%tremely slow, so the system to adapt progresively to the new variations
which gradually appears;
+rreversible or non#reversible process, in which the system passes
from initial to final state and reversed through different points, on
other path.
=eal processes cannot be considered reversible. 2 process can be considered
reversible if intermediate states when passing from initial to final state are
close enough to intermediate states when passing from final to initial state.
2ll thermal and mechanical processes in nature are irreversible, they
undertake naturaly in one way, to a state with higher probability of
achievement; the causes of ireversibility are:
#.rocesses have finite velocities 0not very slow1;
#friction during process;
#molecular difusion;
#heat e%change at finite temperature difference;
#finite variation of internal and e%ternal conditions.
+n order to study real processes from heat engines, all real irreversible
processes are replaced with e4uivalent reversible processes.
,%amples of irreversible processes:
.assing of gas 0 on its own, naturally 1 from an area of high pressure
to an area of lower pressure and never in reverse way.
2t the contact of two bodies of different temperatures, after a period
of time, the bodies reach an intermediate temperature, never happened
that hot body to become hotter and the cold one to become colder, even
the first law of thermodynamics is obeyed.
+f two gases 0 or a water#sugar solution 1 are introduced in the same
enclosure the tendency of the molecules will be to mi%, never to separate, no
matter how long we will wait for.
8ther irreversibile processes are the errosion of the ,arth crust, metal
corrosion, aging of material and people.
!.3.7ersions of second la,
7irst law represents the generali&ation of energy conservation law for
thermal processes and the second law was discovered during e%perimental
research of heat engines, and its content applies to other energy changes, not
only of thermal nature. The physicist notices that heat engines can not
transform totally absorbed heat in work. The second law asserts the
irreversibility of the natural processes e%plaining terms of conversion of
heat into work
L $
and rounds the first law.
7irst law: 6ork turns into heat on the same e4uivalent ratio, meaning
$ L
and
L $
,but it does not say anything about the possibility of
reverse transformation, emphasi&ing Yust the e4uivalence.
3econd law says the possibility and the sense in which the processes are
undertaken.
6ork turns into heat
$ L
spontaneously, integrally 0on its own # de la
sine1. -eat turns into work
L $
by means of a heat engine in which
irreversible processes take place and
L $
transformation is partial.
The second la, says that temperature differences between systems in
contact with each other tend to become e4ual and work can be produced
from non#e4uilibrium differences 0temperature, pressure and density
differences1. 7or an isolated system all parameters, particularly temperature
will eventually have constant, uniform values. 2 heat engine is a mechanical
device that provides useful work from the difference in temperature of two
bodies:
3ince any thermodynamic engine re4uires such a temperature difference, it
follows that no useful work can be derived from an isolated system in
e4uilibrium; there must always be an e%ternal energy source 0hot source or
reservoir 1 and a cold source 0sink1. 3o, second law shows that work can be
totally turned into heat, the inverse trasformation is not correct, heat cannot
be totally turned into work.
The cause of the assymetry is the fact that work corresponds to a ordered
motion of particles and heat corresponds to a disordered one.3econd law has
many formulations of the physicists who studied thermodynamics,which are
e4uivalent.
H%t
s%2r
e
C%!)
sin,
Heat
engine
" "
0
#
+ormulations
a. 5lausius: E -eat generally cannot spontaneously flow from a material
at lower temperature to a material at higher temperature.F0irreversibility of
spontaneous phenomena1.
b. V+t cannot be reversed on the same path 0 through the same
intemediate states1 a process in which friction generated heat.0irreversibility
of processes accompanied by friction1F.
c. 5lausius: E2 heat engine running continuously converting to work the
heat absorbed from a hot source without releasing heat to a cold source is
impossible.F
d. >elvin:F +t is impossible to convert heat completely into work.F
E+t is impossible to produce work in the surroundings using a cyclic
process connected to a single heat reservoirF.
d. 8swald : V.erpetual motion machine of the second kind is
impossible.F
.erpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which runs
only with a hot source.
e. VThe heat of a hot source cannot be converted into work without
producing changes to environment V 0heat release to environment 1.
f. 2 thermodynamic system will naturally evoluate from the state with
lower thermodynamic probability to the state with higher thermodynamic
probability.
-xplanation 2 To understand the thermodynamic probability it is
considered that ! molecules occupy a given volume and it is surveyed the
distribution of the molecules in two halves of the volume. +t is considered
that at a given moment, !
(
molecules are situated in left side and !
2
in
right side.
2 (
N N N +
2ny change in molecules distribution will lead to a new state regarding
system distribution. 2 state is defined if it is in e4uilibrium and there are
known some characteristic 4uantities: mean kinetic molecular energy, mean
potential molecular energy, molecular distribution in the volume.
$olecules are continuously in motion, changing position and velocity.The
distribution of molecular velocities and positions 0 coordinates1 in the
3
1
3
2
enclosure at a given moment determine a micro#state of the system. 2s a
result of a perpetual molecular motion, the micro#states vary continuously.
2t the e4uilibrium, the macroscopic properties of the system do not vary in
time even at molecular level the microstates change; this is possible because
the thermodynamic properties appear as an mean effect of the processes
produced at molecular level.
2
2
2
# m
V
N
p , kT
# m
2
2
2
The number of microstates corresponding to an e4uilibrium state represents

the thermodynamic probability of the e4uilibrium state. The total number of
microstates determined by the variation 0permutation1 of velocities and
positions, keeping the mean kinetic molecular energy constant represents the
thermodynamic probability. 5oming back to the distribution of ! molecules
within the enclosure, it can be noticed that, in theory, at molecular level, are
possible any kind of distribution 0for e%ample
N N N
2 (
)
1; flowing of a
molecule from right to left or the change of position of two molecules
determine a new micro#state; applying the thermodynamic probability, it is
noticed that it is possible any distribution between !
(
and !
2
, but every
distribution has a different thermodynamic probability.
7or a system made of ! 9 ()) molecules, thermodynamic probability .
resulted from ! distribution in !
(
and !
2
:
B N B N
B N
C
2 (
!
(
) () 2) ) B) BA A)
!
2
()) C) *) @) :) AA A)
. ( (,:.()
(
A,2A.()
2)
2,*.()
2A
(,(.()
2*
:,:A.()
2*
(,(2.()
2C
2ll the e%periments showed that at macroscopic level the molecules will
distribute uniformely 2 (
N N
meaning that they reached the state with the
highest thermodynamic probability.
+f it is measured in the two halves of the enclosure the pressure and
temperature of gas, at e4uilibrium, the values are e4ual.
2lthough at microscopic level are possible all the distributions, at
macroscopic level is evident the state which corresponds to ma%imum
probability.
3econd law says that the thermodynamic processes undergoes in the sense of
reaching the ma%imum thermodynamic probability.The content of second
law is connected to the microscopic interpretation, being a statistic law.
!.! Carnot cycle
The most efficient cycle of transformation
L $
is the cycle in which the
agent gets in contact to two heat sources; a heat source 0thermostat1 is a
body with constant temperature having infinite caloric capacity. The cycle is
formed of two adiabates and two isothermes:
7ig.(*. =epresentation of 5arnot cycle 0work producing1 in p#"
coordinates
(#2 isothermal e%pansion 0T 9 ct1, the agent receives heat
source hot $ $
2 (
2# adiabatic e%pansion
)
2
$
#B isothermal compression 0T
)
9 ct1, the agent released heat
source cold $ $
) B
B ( adiabatic compression
)
B(
$
The efficiency of 5arnot cycle when the agent is an ideal gas is :
$
$
$
$ $
$
L
c
t
) )
(

in which )
$ $ L
c

7or 5arnot cycle when the agent is an ideal gas it can be written :
(
2
2 (
V
V
ln m>T $ $

p
V
1
2
3
-
#
"
"
0
B
) B )
ln
V
V
m>T $ $
in which
B
V V
and
)
)
$
.
B
) )
ln
V
V
m>T $
(
2
B
)
)
ln
ln
( (
V
V
m>T
V
V
m>T
$
$
c
t

But
(
2
B
V
V
ln
V
V
ln
,e%plained as follows :
# for 2#
(

(
2 2

k k
V T V T
(
)
(
2 2

k k
V T V T
# for B#(
(
B B
(
( (

k k
V T V T
(
B )
(
(

k k
V T TV
B
(
2
V
V
V
V

6hen the ratios of volumes are e4ual, so are their logarithms ratios so
they can be simplified. The e%pression of the efficiency is:
T
T
c
t
)
(
.ostulate: The efficiency of 5arnot cycle does not depend on the nature
of the agent, it depends only on the temperatures of heat sources.
+t was established that
T
T
$
$
$
L
c c
t
) )
( (
for 5arnot cycle.
7rom two e%pressions of efficiency
T
T
$
$
c
t
) )

,
)
)
< $
# the
released heat to cold source and
)
)
)
+
T
$
T
$
This function is 5arnot
function.
!o heat engine works on 5arnot cycle.The thermodynamic efficiency t
of the 5arnot cycle has ma%imum values if it is reported at the same

temperatures T and T
)
.
+t is considered a 5arnot cycle undergone in reverse sense 0 anticlock
wise or trigonometric1
7ig.(C. =epresentation of 5arnot cycle 0work consuming 1 in p#"
coordinates
)
c
L
# work consuming
# (#B adiabatic e%pansion
# B# isothermal e%pansion 0the agent receives heat 1 )
B )

$ $
# #2 adiabatic compression
# 2#( isothermal compression 0the agent releases
)
( 2

$ $
1
+n an inversed 5arnot cycle the agent receives L
)
at T
)
and releases L at
T. This cycle is characteristic to refrigeration installations.
c c c
L $ $ sau $ $ L L $ $ + < > <
) ) )
) , ) , )
+t is called coefficient of performance
c
f
L
$
)

. +t is not of interest that
heat is released to environment.The value of the coefficient of performance
can be higher than (.
Course 4.
p
V
1
2
3
-
#
"
"
0
Chapter !. Second la, of thermodynamics #continued$
!.).Clausius inte(ral . -ntropy
+t is considered a reversible thermodynamic cycle (ab2cd(, which is
intersected by infinite number of adiabates in cycle area.
7ig.2). =eversible cycle as a sum of elementary 5arnot cycles
+t will result an infinite number of elementary cycles as abcd.
5onsidering an elementary cycle, reversible, abcd:
ab isotherme at T constant
bc adiabate
cd isotherme at T
)
constant
da adiabate
+t is noted ML, the heat 4uantity received by the agent in elementary
isothermal transformation ab at T and analogue, ML
)
, the heat 4uantity
released by the agent in elementary isothermal transformation cd at T
)
.
7or elementary 5arnot cycle, it is e%pressed the 5arnot function.
)
)
)
+
T
$
T
$

,then it is integrated , in which

)
)
< $
.
p
V
1
2
a b
)
4"
4"
0
,
_
+ )
)
)
T
$
T
$
for all the cycles having the form of abcd and
)
T
$

(
2 (
)
3 %
T
$
T
$

2
(
(
2
)
% 3
T
$
T
$
as the transformation is
reversible it means that in can be performed,directly and reversely,through
the same intermediate states.
2s

(
2
2
( 3 3
T
$
T
$
it results that

2
(
2
( % 3
T
$
T
$
meaning that the integral
of the ratio heat#temperature does not depend on the path, having the same
value for path 2 or B.
7or the integral to be independent on the path it is needed as the ratio
T
$
to be a total diferential.
5lausius noted
dS
T
$
# being the mathematical e%pression of second

law, in which 3 4uantity was called entropy.
,ntropy 3 is a state 4uantity which can be written as
ms S
in which
1
]
1
Kkg
J
s
is specific entropy.
7or a reversible cycle, variation of entropy is ) and
T
$
dS

2
(
2
(
2
(
( 2
T
$
S S
T
$
dS
,
ML elementary heat e%change between agent and surroundings at T.
7or a reversible, adiabatic transformation
) $
T
$
dS
d3 9 ) and 3 9 constant,or
( 2
S S
.
The reversible, adiabatic transformation is called isentropic because
entropy is constant
ct S
8bservation: +n all transformations above,
T
$
is 5lausius integral.
=atio L'T is called reduced heat.
+n a reversible 5arnot cycle, the algaebrical sum of reduced heats is &ero
or 5arnot function is &ero.
!.3.-ntropy variation of ideal (as
The variation of entropy
S
is established for any process using general
formulas, for the case of ideal gas.
2ccording to second law
T
$
dS

pdV $ d
Vdp $ d! +
'
T
Vdp d!
dS
T
pdV d
dS
fundamental thermodynamics e4uations
3ome particular relations for ideal gas are replaced in fundamental
e4uations.
dT mc d
v
m>T pV
dT mc d!
p
+t will result :
V
m>dV
T
dT mc
dS
v
+
,
_
V
m>
T
p
p
m>dp
T
dT mc
dS
p

+ntegrating the relations
,
_
+
K
J
V
V
m>
T
T
mc S S
m
v
(
2
(
2
( 2
ln ln
,
_

K
J
p
p
m>
T
T
mc S S
m
p
(
2
(
2
( 2
ln ln
=eplacing temperature from d3 and integrating, it results:
(
2
(
2
( 2
ln ln
V
V
mc
p
p
mc S S
pm v
m
+
!.4.T8S dia(ram . 9raphical representation of processes in T8S
coordinates
The thermodynamic processes may be represented in temperature T# entropy
3 coordinates.
7ig.2(.=epresentation of a transformation in T#3 coordinates
+n T#3 representation the elementary area
Tds abcd area
is e4ual to
elementary heat:
Tds $

2
(
2
(
2 (
2
(
2 (
O ( O (22 area $ abcd area TdS $ $
7or any simple transformation of ideal gas for which there were made
representation in p#" coordinates, it must be ploted graphics in T#3
coordinates as it follows:
+sochoric transformation " 9 constant
T
dT mc
T
$
dS
v
(
2
( 2
T
T
ln mc S S
v

+n isochoric transformation, entropy varies logharitmically with temperature.
1
2
5
678
10
2
0
)9
5
)5
a
b
)
9 6:;78
7ig.2(.+sochoric process in T#3 coordinates
)
(
>
,
_
v ct v
v
c
T
m dS
dT
tg
T v
mc
v tg
3 N
3 %

0^
T
# temperature scale1
The segment !B is proportional to c
v
. +n T 3 diagram,the representation of
isochore is an e%ponential curve with positive slope.
+sobaric transformation p 9 constant
,
_
K
J
T
T
ln mc S S
T
dT mc
T
$
dS
p
p
(
2
( 2
+n isobaric transformation entropy varies logarithmically with
temperature.
)
(
>
,
_
p ct p
p
c
T
m dS
dT
tg
p T
mc %3
0^
T
# temperature scale 1
1
2
5
678
<
+
3
A B
9 6:;78
7ig.22.+sobaric process in T#3 coordinates
8bservation: 5omparing the formulas showing the slopes of " 9 constant
and p 9 constant processes, it can be written:
v
v
c
T
m
tg
(

and
p
p
c
T
m
tg
(

+f are plotted two curves of " 9 constant and p 9 constant in the same T# 3
diagram the curves intersecting in point ! will be distincted as follows the
e%ponential with higher slope is the isochore and the e%ponential with
smaller slope is the isobar.
1
2 5
678
<
p
3
A B 96:;78
7ig.2.5omparison between isochoric and isobaric curves in T#3
p v
tg tg >
as
,
_
( k k
c
c
c c
v
p
p v
+sothermal transformation 0T 9 constant1
T
$
dS

,
_

2
(
2
(
2 (
( 2
(
K
J
T
$
$
T T
$
S S
for T 9 constant
2
(
(
2
2
(
( (
(
2
( ( 2 ( 2 (
p
p
ln m>T
V
V
ln m>T
p
p
ln V p
V
V
ln V p L $

+t can be written :
2
(
(
2 2 (
( 2
p
p
ln m>
V
V
ln m>
T
$
S S

5
678
<
p
3
A B 9 6:;78
<
+
p=%nsta
nt
V=%nstant
# 7ig.2B.+sothermal process in T#3 coordinates
# +f the process performs from point ( to point 2 meaning that the
difference of entropy is positive, it means that the heat e%change is positive,
the system performs work and e%pands.
) )
2 ( ( 2
> >

$ S S
receiving heat.
2diabatic transformation
+n adiabatic transformation the heat e%change and variation of entropy are
&ero.
) $ )
2 (

$ ) dS t tan cons S
,
_
K
J
S S
2 (
# The adiabatic transformation which is also reversible is called isentropic 0of
constant entropy1.
#
# 7ig.2A.+sentropic process in T#3 coordinates
#
.olytropic transformation
5
&'pansi%
n>estin)
ere
1 2
9
9
1
9
2
C%(pressi
%n
9
1
2
5
C
%
(
p
r
e
s
s
i
%
n
(
a
r
e
r
e

&
'
p
a
n
s
i
%
n
e
r
e
e
'
(
2
(
2
( 2
(
(
T
T
ln c
n
k n
m
T
T
ln mc S S
dT c
n
k n
m dT mc $
T
$
dS
med v mediu n
v n
7ig.2:. .olytropic process in T#3 coordinates
The graphic of the transformation is e%ponential with negative slope
v n pol
p
c
T
k n
n
m c
T
m dS
dT
tg

,
_

( ( (
# for the tranformation having
k n < < (
) <
p
tg
when p
belongs to the second trigonometric 4uadrant, being

obtuse.
8bservations: (1 +n T#3 diagram a reversible 5arnot cycle is represented as a
rectangle.
5
9
?
<
p
1
2
&'pansi%n
7ig.2@. 5arnot cycle in T#3 coordinates
(#2 isothermal e%pansion it receives heat
2# adiabatic e%pansion
#B isothermal compression it releases heat
B#( adiabatic compression
( )
( )
ciclu
%3
3%
L $ $
$ % $ $
$ % $ $

<
>
)
) B B )
(2 2 (
)
)
21 +n T#3 coordinates for ideal gas transformations the isochores 0 isochoric
curves1 are parralel among them, the isobars also, the polytropic curves with
the same n are parralel too.
!.5. Clausius inte(ral and entropy variation in irreversible processes
There are considered two 5arnot cycles working between two sourses of
heat of temperatures T and T
)
.
The first cycle is reversible and the second is irreversible.
2ssuming that : irev rev
$ $
5
5
0
1
2
3
-
"
"
0
9
B A
7ig.2*. =eversible and irreversible cycles with the same sources
Taking into account the characteristics of irreversible processes it results
that
rev c irev c
L L
for the same amount of heat L taken from the hot source.
irev c crev
L L so
irev rev
$ $
) )

7or reversible 5arnot cycle
T
T
$
$
$
L
rev
rev
rev
rev c t
rev
) )
( (
irev
irev
irev
rev i c t
irev
$
$
$
L
)
(
resulting
)
)
)
)
)
+
T
$
T
$
T
T
$
$
irev
irev
irev
irev
#e%pression of 5arnot
function for irreversible 5arnot cycle.
+t is considered an irreversible cycle (22B(; the cycle intersects in p "
plane with an infinite number of adiabates.
H%t s%2re , 5
C%!) s%2re, 5
0
Heat
engin
e 1
Heat
engin
e 11
"re+ "ire+
#ire+
#re+
"
0
re
+
"
0
ire+
7ig.2C.Jecomposing of an irreversible cyle into an infinite number of
5arnot cycles
There are formed an infinite number of elementary irreversible 5arnot
cycles having the form abcd.
a#b elementary isothermal transformation at constant T
b#c adiabatic transformation
c#d elementary isothermal transformation at constant T
)
d#a adiabatic transformation .
The 5arnot function for elementary irreversible 5arnot cycle abcd is :
)
)
)
+
T
$
T
$

+ntegrating all 5arnot function for all elementary irreversible 5arnot cycle
having the form abcd,
p
V
1
2
a b
)
4"
4"
0
) , ) )
( 2 (
)
)

,
_
+

3 %
T
$
T
$
T
$
T
$
5lausius integral for an irreversible cycle (22B( is negative.
+t is considered the cycle (22B( irreversible
7ig.). 5ycle half reversible half irreversible
2ssuming that the cycle is made of (22 irreversible and 2B( reversible.
)
T
$
(
2 (
)
3 %
T
$

,
_
,
_
2
(
(
2
)
% 3
rev irev
T
$
T
$
+n which for reversible transformation

,
_
,
_
(
2
2
( 3 3 rev rev
T
$
T
$
1
A
2
B
p
V

,
_

,
_
2
(
2
(
2
(
( 2
3 3 3 rev rev
S S
T
$
or dS
T
$
resulting
,
_
2
(
( 2
) 1 0
%
S S
T
$
or
,
_
2
(
( 2
%
S S
T
$
The formula e%presses the variation of entropy in an ordinary irreversible
process. Jifferentiating results leads to irev
T
$
dS

mathematical
formulation of the second law of thermodynamics for irreversible processes.
!.:.-xamples of thermodynamic processes; typically irreversible
a1 -eat e%change between two bodies with finite temperature difference.
+t is considered an isolated system made of two bodies of different
temperatures.
7ig.(.2diabatic system
+f the first body has a higher temperature than the second one it releases heat
towards the second L
(#2
2 ( 2 (
$ T T
+n the system ) dS as th heat e%change at finite difference is an irreversible
process. 7or body +: the analysis of irreversible process is done replacing
real proces with an e4uivalent isothermal, reversible process.
5
1
5
2
"
1
11
)
(
$
T
$
S
!
# the body releases L
2nalog
)
2
$
T
$
S
!!
# the body receives L
7or all the system, adiabatic and irreversible
)
2 (
+ + S
T
$
T
$
S S S
!! !
as T
(
RT
2
b1./as laminar flow
Jefinition: 2 laminar flow is a fluid flow through an orifice with a smaller
section than upstream which is produced by e%panding without performing
work to surroundings.
7ig.2. ;aminar flow of gas when passing through a diafragm
The minimum section is downstream orifice. ,%perimentally were noticed
energy loss 0friction and vortices1 which turn into heat which is absorbed by
fluid, resulting
( 2
p p
.
+n order to find out the thermodynamic properties of laminar flow it is
written the first law for closed systems as energy balance.
1 2
$
1
$
2
p
1
,5
1
,i
1 p
2 ,
5
2
,i
2
( )

,
_
+

kg
J
lt . h h g
# #
i i
2 ( ( 2
2
(
2
2
( 2
2
+n laminar flow 2 ( ( 2 ( 2
. h h # #
negligible .
/as has the e%terior temperature and it is imposed the condition not to
perform shaft work ,
) lt
. The condition is obeyed if 2 ( ( 2 ( 2
. h h # #
negligible, wich lead to e4uality of the enthalpies of the two sections The
laminary flow is an isenthalpic process, resulting ( 2
i i
.
The analysis of entropy variation: considering that gas has temperature e4ual
to environmental temperature
T T
) the laminar flow can be studied as a
adiabatic irreversible process.
Jue to frictions heat is realeased and stored in gas and entropy increases.The
e4uivalent process do not consider temperature variation the process being
replaced by a reversible isothermal process in which the pressure decreases.
1
]
1

K
J
p
p
ln m>
V
V
ln m> S S
2
(
(
2
( 2
2
(
(
2
( 2
p
p
ln >
V
V
ln > s s
# for ( kilo of agent
*uestions
(. 6hat is a thermodynamic cycle S
2. 6hat is the e%pression of work in a thermodynamic cycle S
. -ow are classified the thermodynamic cyclesS
B. 6hich is the formula for thermodynamic efficiency S
A. ,nounce the second law of thermodynamics in several versions.
:. 6hat is 5arnot cycle S 6hich is its thermodynamic efficiency S
@. 6hat is inversed 5arnot cycle S 6hat is coefficent of performance of
refrigerating installationsS
*. -ow is defined entropy and which is the connection to second law of
thermodynamicsS
C. 6hich is the entropy variation in isobaric transformation and how is
represented in T#3 coordinates S
().6hich is the entropy variation in isochoric transformation and how is
((. 6hich is the entropy variation in isothermal transformation and how
is represented in T#3 coordinates S
(2.6hich is the entropy variation in adiabatic transformation and how is
(.6hich is the entropy variation in polytropic transformation and how
is represented in T#3 coordinates S
(B.6hat is the influence of irreversibility of processes upon entropy S
Course 5
Chapter ). +uel combustion
5ombustion is a chemical e%othermal o%idation reaction of combustible
substances. 7uels are substances releasing a large amount of heat when are
burned, heat being used in industrial processes. 7uel composition contains a
fraction of organic material 0carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, o%ygen, sulpur1, a
fraction of mineral material 0non#combustible substances producing ash1 and
humidity.
7uel classification
.hase !atural 2rtificial
3olid 6ood, straw, coal,
bitumen
3awdust
5harcoal 0mangal1
5oke
5oal bri4uette
;i4uid 8il .etrol 0/asoline1
.etrol for illumination and heating
Jiesel engine fuel
7uel oil
$ethanol, ethanol
;ubricant oils
;i4uefied petroleum gas
/aseous !atural gas
=efinery gas
5oke gas,
-ydrogen
The combustion process can be described using the chemical combustion
e4uations considering the combustible elements from fuel: The combustion
can be complete when the o%idation is total and the combustion products do
not contain anymore chemical energy. The combustion can be incomplete
when the o%idation is not total and the combustion products still can be
o%idated and still contain chemical energy.
7uel composition is established doing elementary chemical analysis. The
elementary chemical analysis of solid and li4uid fuels is e%pressed as mass
fractions of component elements carbon 0c1, hydrogen 0h1, sulphur 0s1,
nitrogen 0n1, o%ygen 0o1, humidity 0u1, ash 0a1 from ( kilogram of fuel .
a u o n s h c fuel kg + + + + + + (
The chemical composition of gaseous fuels is e%pressed as volume fractions
of component gases within the gas mi%ture, meaning in the most general
situation carbon mono%ide 0co1, hydrogen 0h1, hydrocarbons 0c
m
h
n
1, hydrogen
sulfide 0h
2
s1, o%ygen 0o1, carbon dio%ide 0co
2
1, nitrogen 0n1, and humidity
0u1.
+ + + + + + + u n co o s h h c h co fuel m
n m N 2 2
(
The chemical elements which release heat when burning are
s + h + c
.
The combustion takes place when fuel and 8
2
0air1 are brought to ignition
temperature by heating 0with e%haust gas1 , by compressing or by ignition
from an e%ternal source.
+t is noted min air
m
# the mass of minimum air 0including minimum o%ygen
mass re4uired 1 for the complete combustion of the fuel and air
m
# air
mass used in burning.
The ratio of the air masses : real air mass and minimum air mass is called
e%cess air coefficient .
min min air
air
air
air
V
V
m
m

# e%cess air coefficient
6hen the complete combustion is done using the minimum o%ygen mass, the
combustion is said to be stoechiometric. Isually the combustion is done with
higher amount of o%ygen than minimum o%igen re4uired for the complete
combustion and the combustion is said to be with e%cess o%ygen or e%cess
air.
).1.The complete combustion of solid and li/uid fuels
7or ( kilogram of solid or li4uid fuel the chemical composition is:
,... , ,
, (
2
kgfuel
kgS
s
kgfuel
kgH
h
fuel kg
kgC
c #ith
a u o n s h c fuel kg

+ + + + + +
0e%.fuel oil
)( . ) )2 . ) (2 . ) *A . ) o s h c
1.
By total combustion of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur it can be written the
chemical reactions of those o%idations.
7or carbon:
2 2
C9 9 C +
2 2
( ( ( C9 kmol kmol9 kmolC +
5arbon has atomic mass (2 and molar mass 0 weight1 is $ 9 (2 kg'kmol
2 2
( ( (2 C9 kmol kmol9 kgC +
c C9 kmol kmol9 kgC
2 2
(2
(
(2
(
( +
2 2
(2 (2
C9 kmol
c
kmol9
c
kgC c +
7or hydrogen
9 H 9 H
2 2 2
2
(
+
9 kmolH kmol9 kmolH
2 2 2
(
2
(
( +
-ydrogen has atomic mass ( and molar mass $ 9 2 kg'kmol
9 kmolH kmol9 kgH
2 2 2
(
2
(
2 +
h 9 kmolH kmol9 kgH
2 2 2
2
(
B
(
( +
9 kmolH
h
kmol9
h
kgH h
2 2 2
2 B
+
7or sulphur
2 2
S9 9 S +
2 2
( ( ( 9 kmolS kmol9 kmolS +
3ulphur has atomic mass 2 and molar mass $92kg'kmol
2 2
( ( 2 9 kmolS kmol9 kgS +
s 9 kmolS kmol9 kgS
2 2
2
(
2
(
( +
2 2
2 2
9 kmolS
s
kmol9
s
kgS s +
+n order to burn ( kg of fuel it is necessary to calculate the minimum
re4uired o%ygen mass for total 0complete1 combustion:
fuel kg
kmol9 o s h c
9
2
min 2
2 2 B (2

,
_
+ +
fuel kg
kg9 o s h c
m
9
2
2
2 2 B (2
min 2

,
_
+ +
fuel kg
9 m o s h c
V
N
9
2
B(B . 22
2 2 B (2
min 2

,
_
+ +
1
1
]
1
kgfuel
m V
V
air N 9
air
min
min
2( . )
2
D r
N
@C
2

D r
9
2(
2

1
]
1
kgfuel
m
V V
Nair
air air
min
The value of e%cess air coefficient depends on fuel type and combustion
installation. 7or e%ample, the solid fuels re4uire
2 ... ( . (
, 0 _wood
9(.2Z(.B ; _ coal 9 (.A..2 1 and for li4uid fuels
B . ( .... (A . (
.
The o%idation products are e%haust gases whose volumes are the sum of gas
volumes resulted from aforementioned o%idations , "
g
1
]
1
+ + + +
fuel kg
gas m
V V V V V V
N
e0 air N S9 9 H C9 g
min
2 2 2 2
1
]
1

fuel kg
C9 m c
V
N
C9
2
B . 22
(2
2
1
]
1

,
_
+
fuel kg
9 H m u h
V
N
9 H
2
B . 22
(* 2
2
1
]
1

fuel kg
S9 m s
V
N
S9
2
B . 22
2
2
1
]
1
+
fuel kg
N m n
V V
N
air N
2
min min
B . 22
2*
@C . )
2
( )
min min min min
(
air air air air air air e0
V V V V V V
$ass of combustion products is
e0 air N S9 9 H C9
m m m m m mg + + + +
min
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
C9 C9 N C9
V m
9 H 9 H N 9 H
V m
2 2 2

2 2 2
S9 S9 N S9
V m
min N N N min N
V m
2 2 2

e0 air air N e0 air
V m
1
]
1
B(B . 22
N N M
N
m
kg M
V
M
).2. The complete combustion of (aseous fuels

+f it is considered a normal cubic meter of gaseous fuel with the composition
known:
2 2
( co u n o s h h c h co m
n m N
+ + + + + + +

,... , :
Nfuel
N
Nfuel
N
m
H m
h
m
C9 m
co #ith
the volume fractions of the components in
the gas mi%ture, are carbon mono%ide 0co1, hydrogen 0h1, hydrocarbons
0c
m
h
n
1, hydrogen sulfide 0h
2
s1, o%ygen 0o1, nitrogen 0n1, humidity 0h1 and
carbon dio%ide 0co
2
1, then through complete combustion of combustible
elements 0carbon mono%ide, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide1 it
can be written the chemical reactions of o%idation.
,%ample of a mi%ture of combustible gas, known as cracking gas :
)A . )
( . ) )2 . ) (* . ) (B . ) ( . ) * . ) ) . ) )
() B * B * : 2 B 2 B

n
h c h c h c h c h c ch h co
7or carbon mono%ide 58:
2 2
2
(
C9 9 C9 +
2 2
(
2
(
( C9 kmol kmol9 kmolC9 +
2
2

B . 22
2
(
. B . 22 B . 22 C9 m 9 m C9 m
N N N
+
co C9 m 9 m C9 m
N N N 2
2

(
2
(
( +
2
2

2
C9 m co 9 m
co
C9 m co
N N N
+
7or hydrogen -
2
:
9 H 9 H
2 2 2
2
(
+
9 H m 9 m H m
N N N 2
B . 22 B . 22
2
(
B . 22 +
h 9 H m 9 m H m
N N N 2
(
2
(
( +
9 H hm 9 m
h
H m h
N N N 2
2
+
7or a hydrocarbon 5
m
-
n
:
9 H
n
mC9 9
n
m H C
n m 2 2 2
2 B
+
,
_
+ +
9 kmolH
n
mkmolC9 kmol9
n
m H C kmol
n m 2 2 2
2 B
( +
,
_
+ +
n m N N N n m N
h c 9 H m
n
C9 mm 9 m
n
m H C m
2
2

2 B
( +
,
_
+ +
9 H m
n
h c C9 m h c 9 m
n
m h c H C m h c
N n m N n m N n m n m N n m 2
2

2 B
+
,
_
+ +
7or hydrogen sulphide :
9 H S9 9 S H
2 2 2 2
2
+ +
9 kmolH kmolS9 kmol9 S H kmol
2 2 2 2
( (
2
( + +
9 H m S9 m 9 m S H m
N N N N 2
B . 22 B . 22 B . 22
2
B . 22 + +
s h 9 H m S9 m 9 m S H m
N N N N 2 2
( (
2
( + +
9 H sm h S9 sm h 9 sm h S H m s h
N N N N 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
+ +
The minimum volume of o%ygen re4uired for complete o%idation is:
fuel m
9 m
o s h h c
n
m
h co
V
N
N
n m 9
2 min
2
B 2 2
2
,
_
+
,
_
+ + +

The minimum air volume for complete combustion is
fuel m
air m
V
V
N
N
9
air
min
min
2( . )
2
The real air volume is min min air air

V V
The combustion products are e%haust gas having the volumes of gases
resulted from aforementioned o%idations, "
g
min
2 2 2 2
N e0 air S9 9 H C9 g
V V V V V V + + + +
1
]
1
+ +
fuel m
C9 m
co h c m co V
N
N
n m C9
2
2
1
1
]
1
+ + +
fuel m
9 H m
h c
n
u s h h V
N
N
n m 9 H
2
2
2
2
1
]
1
fuel m
S9 m
s h V
N
N
S9
2
2
2
1
]
1
+
fuel m
N m
n V V
N
N
air N
2
min min
@C . )
2
( )
1
]
1

fuel m
air m
V V
N
N
air e0 air
min
(
The mass of combustion products is :
e0 air N S9 9 H C9
m m m m m mg + + + +
min
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
C9 C9 N C9
V m
9 H 9 H N 9 H
V m
2 2 2

2 2 2
S9 S9 N S9
V m
min N N N min N
V m
2 2 2

e0 air air N e0 air
V m
1
]
1
B(B . 22
N N M
N
m
kg M
V
M
).3.'eatin( value
The heating value or calorific value of a substance is the amount of heat
released during the complete combustion 0at
mmHg p p @:)
)

1 of a
specified amount of it 0which is ( kilogram for solid and li4uid fuels and (
N
m
for gas fuel1.The heating value is measured in energy per unit weight
which is P'kg 0kP'kg1 or cal'kg 0kcal'kg1 0(cal9B.(*:P1 or P'mol for solid
and li4uid fuels or P'
N
m
for gaseous fuel.
The heating value is classified according to phase of water e%istent in
e%haust gas in: hi(her heatin( value 0or gross calorific value1 and lo,er
heatin( value 0 or net calorific value1. The higher heating value is the heat
amont released by combustion of unit of fuel when all the products of
combustion are brought back to precombustion temperature and all vapour
are condensed 0especially water vapor are of interest1.This means that higher
heating value contains the latent heat of vapori&ation of the water produced
by combustion.
The lower heating value is the heat amont released by combustion of unit of
fuel without bringing back products to precombustion temperature and
without water vapor condensed.This means that lower heating value does not
contain the latent heat of vapori&ation of the water produced by
combustion.+n practice the lower heating value is obtained by subtracting
latent heat of vapori&ation of water from the higher heating value.
The lower heating value can be determined e%perimentally or in function of
elementary fuel composition :
# 7or solid and li4uid fuel
1
]
1
,
_
+
kg
kJ
u s
o
h c $
i
2A)) ()B@)
*
((C*A) C))
# 7or gaseous fuel
1
]
1
+ +
+ + + + + +
() B *
: 2 B 2 B 2
(2(:2@ CA@A
:BA( ACCAA A@C@ 22C*A ()@:) (2:BB
N
i
m
kJ
h c h c
h c h c ch s h h co $
Isually the higher heating value is a value e%perimentally determined in a
laboratory, in real life and designing calculation it is used lower heating
value. 2s a rule of the thumb, the lower heating value of a fuel is ()#(AG
smaller than its higher heating value.
3ome lower heating values for common fuels are as follows:
7uel ;ower heating value 0$P'kg1
5oal anthracite .
5oal inferior 4uality (*
6ood (2#(: +f wet :#C
58 ().C
$ethane 5-
B
A).(
!atural gas *.(
/asoline B2.A
Jiesel fuel B
-ydrogen (2).(
5arbon 2
3ulphur C
7or fuel mi%tures, the lower heating value is calculated with the formula:
k
k
i
k
i
gi$ $
# for fuels reported to mass unit in which g
i
are mass fraction
of fuel k within the fuel mi%ture;
or with formula:
k
i
k
i
$ ri $

# for fuels reported to normal volumes in which r

i
are volume
fractions of fuel k within the fuel mi%ture.
).!.-ffects of combustion processes
The ideal combustion of fuel is represented in the scheme
7uel
8
2
, !
2
, 58
2
, -
2
8,
8
2
, !
2
, 58
2
, -
2
8,
+i(.34 +deal combustion
1)ea! %(b2sti%n
7uel !8
%
0!8<!8
2
1, -5
8
2
, !
2
, 58
2
, -
2
8,
8
2
, !
2
, 58
2
, -
2
8, 58, 38
%
038
2
<38
1,
+i(.35. =eal combustion
+deal combustion has 58
2
and water as products. =eal combustion is not
complete and besides 58
2
and water there are some incomplete combustion
products in e%haust gas which have harmful effects on human health and
environment.
#58
2
was considered till recently a VcleanF combustion product, but now is
the main producer of Vgreen house effectF.
# -
2
8 is a clean combustion product being included in its own natural
circuit.
#-5 0unburned hydrocarbons1 are produced if the fuel does not find enough
air 0o%ygen1 during combustion ; -5 are either to%ic or harmless, but many
of them are carcinogenic to humans and affect the atmosphere
0photochemical smog1.
#58 occurs at incomplete combustion of carbon within fuel; it is to%ic at
high concentrations 58 rapidly combines with hemoglobine from blood.
# !8
%
and 38
%

cause acid rains which destroy vegetation and stratospheric
o&one ; to humans they produce irritations to respiratory ducts, asthma,
pulmonary edeme.
The combustion of fossil fuels is considered as the most pollutant factor
affecting the environment, creating green house effect, depleting o&one layer
and producing acid rains. The combustion of fuel is re4uired in energy
industry in order to produce electric and thermal energy 0in power stations1
in transportation using internal combustion engines and in most of chemical,
petrochemical and metal processing industries.
Rea! %(b2sti%n
*uestions
(. 6hat is combustion S
2. -ow fuels are classified S
. 6hat is stoechiometric combustion S
B. 6hat is e%cess air coefficient S
A. 6hat is the elementary composition of solid and li4uid fuels S
:. 6hat is the composition of gaseous fuels S
@. -ow is determined the o%ygen volume and mass re4uired for total
o%idation of unit mass of a fuelS
*. -ow is determined the air volume and mass re4uired for total
o%idation of unit mass of a fuelS
C. -ow is determined the volume and mass of combustion productsS
().6hat is heating value of a fuelS -ow is classified S
((. 6hich are the harmful effects of combustion of fuel S
Course :.
Chapter 3. 'eat en(ines <theoretical cycles
-eat engines are thermodynamic systems which transform thermal energy in
mechanic work or mechanic work in thermal energy. 7rom the first category
belong combustion engines and turbines 0 steam or gas1 and from the second
compressors and refrigeration installations.
3.1. Theoretical cycles of combustion en(ines
The combustion engines are heat engines which transform the chemical
energy of fuel released through combustion into mechanic work. =egarding
where the combustion takes place the combustion engines are divided in
e%ternal combustion engines 0combustion is produced outside the engine1
and internal combustion engines 0combustion is produced inside the engine1.
.lease access to see engine cycles in motion at www.animatedengines.com
7ig.C. 3ection through internal combustion engine
+nternal combustion engines are classified on several criteria such as number
of strokes 0four stroke and two stroke engines1, ignition procedure 0spark
ignition engines or 8tto engines and compression engines or diesel engines1
fuel type 0 one fuel, dual fuel engines1, cooling procedure 0air or li4uid
cooled engines1
The cycle is made of a succesion of processes which are periodically
repeated within engine cylinders. The process taken place during a motion of
a piston is called stroke. 2 combustion cycle of the engine can be undertaken
in four strokes 0 two revolutions of the crankshaft 1 or in two strokes 0one
revolution of the crankshaft 1 ;
+or four stro&e en(ines
+nside the cylinder the piston is actuated, transmitting tor4ue to crankshaft
by means of connection rod . The cylinder is sealed upwards with a part
called cylinder head in which there are intake and e%haust valves . Through
intake valve the air or air#fuel mi%ture is introduced in combustion chamber
from intake duct and e%haust valve releases the e%haust gas to e%haust duct.
The valves are actuated by a distribution mechanism . The air fuel mi%ture in
combustion chamber is ignited by the spark plug . Jownwards, the engine is
enclosed through cranckcase, upside is called cylinder block. Juring
operation the piston moves between two e%treme points called dead centres.
6hen piston is upwards or at the highest distance from crankshaft, the space
upwards piston is combustion chamber and the piston position is top dead
centre 0TJ51.6hen the piston moves downwards it reaches the closest
position to crankshaft bottom dead centre 0BT51; travelling the stroke by
the piston generates a swept volume which is called cylinder displacement.
To the four stroke engines, the most spread ones, the thermal processs
correspond with piston motions: induction 0intake1 compression, e%pansion
0or power1 and e%haust. The combustion process undertakes partly during
compression and partly during e%pansion.
+or t,o stro&e
The processes are similar to four stroke and piston opens and closes some
apertures allowing fuel#air mi%ture to be drawnin the cylinder and to e%haust
gases to be pushed out.
7unctionally, the spark ignition engines use a air#fuel 0petrol or gasoline1
mi%ture which is compressed in combustion chamber and ignited by a
spark; the front flame propagates rapidly into all combustion chamber.
The compression ignition engines 0diesel1 are different than spark ignition
engines as there is no spark and within the air compressed by piston 0 with
high pressure and temperature1 is inYected the fuel very finely sprayed; at
contact with hot air the first drops of fuel vaporise and autoignite, a rapid
combustion takes place like an e%plosive autoignition 0rapid phase1 ; the fuel
which is gradually inYected, it burns as it is inYected 0progressive
combustion1.
The real thermodynamical processes in engines can be represented in p#"
coordinates as follows:
7ig.B). a.Jiagram of real cycles of four stroke engine.
p
V
in)2ti%n
e'ha2st
e'pansi%n
%(pressi%n
%(b2sti%n
Va Vs
spar,
b.Jiagram of real cycles of two stroke engine.
The specific design parameter of the engines is the compression ratio
defined as the ration of cylinder volume when the piston is in bottom
dead centre and the cylinder volume when the piston is in top dead
centre.
+t is called volumetric compression ratio `
ca
S ca
ca
V
V V
V
V
+

(
The theoretical study of internal combustion engines introduces several

simplifying hypothesis:
a1 The agent behaves like an ideal gas. +t is not considered the change of
gas composition during operation. +t is assumed that the same amount
p
V
in)2ti%
n
e'ha2st
e'pansi%n
%(pressi%n
%(b2sti%n
Va Vs
spar,
of ideal gas continuously evolves durig the cycle, without considering
induction and e%haust.
b1 The compression and e%pansion processes are considered adiabate or
polytropic.
c1 +n order to close the cycle, it is introduced a process e4uivalent to a
isochoric cooling which corresponds to the free e%haust of gas in real
operation.
d1 The theoretical cycle for both four stroke and two stroke engines has
the same shape as there were not considered the differences produced
by induction and e%haust.
There are several theoretical cycles of internal combustion engines from
which representative are the following ones, considered for four stroke:
3.1.1.Constant volume combustion cycle
This model of combustion cycle is close to the thermal processes within
spark ignition engines 08tto1, for four stroke.
-ypothesis : real combustion is replaced with an isochoric heating of the
agent.
7ig.B(. Theoretical processes in a constant volume combustion cycle
Volume chamber Combustion V V
ca
a a
2

S
V V V +
2 (
(#2 adiabatic compression
2# constant volume heating9combustion
#B adiabatic gas e%pansion
B#( constnt volume cooling
ct V
0free e%haust 1
( ) J L $ $
c

)
There are introduced two parameters:
(1
2
( (
V
V
V
V
ca

volumetric compression ratio,
( *
at actual spark engines
21
2
p
p
p
p
i
f

pressure 0 increase1 ratio during combustion process,
A .
p
V
1
-
"
0
V1
Vs V2
2
3
"
#
5>C B>C
The calculation of the engine starts with finding the cycle parameters p",T
in all points of the cycle:
a.+nitial data
( ( (
, , V T T T p
a a
+
, p
a
#atmospheric pressure , T
a
#ambient temperature ,
Juring the admission the air is heated in contact with the hot engine with
bT
2
The engine is considered a closed system running continuously the ssme
mass of thermal agent m.which can be calculated from the state e4uation
applied in point (:
(
( (
>T
V p
m
with
M
>
>
M
and

(
2
V
V V
ca
b..arameters of state of cycle points
(#2 adiabatic transformation
'
,
_
,
_
,
_
(
(
(
2
(
(
(
(
2
( 2
(
2
(
( 2
k
k
k
k
k
k
T
V
V
T
p
p
T T
p
V
V
p p

(
2
V
V V
k
p p p
( 2

2# isochoric transformationt
'
,
_
(
(
2
2
2
k
T T
T T
p
p
T T
( B
V V
#B adiabatic transformation
'
,
_
,
_
(
(
(
B
B
(
B
B
T T
V
V
T T
p p
V
V
p p
k
k
k
k
k
c.$echanic work of the cycle and engine power
,
_
+ + +
c"cle
J
L L L L L
c B( B 2 (2
( )
( ( (
(
(
2 ( (
(2
(
(
(
(

,
_
,
_
k
k
k
k
V p
p
p
k
V p
L
( )
( ) (
(
(
(
(
(
(
( ( (
(
( (
(
B
B

1
]
1
,
_
,
_
k
k
k
k
k
ad
k
V p
k
V p
p
p
k
V p
L
( ) ( ) [ ]

,
_

c"cle
J
k
V p
L
k
c
( (
(
( ( (

Theoretical power of the engine
i
revs
n
c"cle
J
L
C
c
t
()
min
sec
:)
2
min
,
_
,
_
,
_
with
# number of strokes 0 B or 21, i

number of cylinders, n : engine speed
The effective power of the engine is smaller than theoretical power due to
subunitary indicated efficiency and mechanical efficiency .
( ) kE C C
t mec ind ef

c"cle
real
c
r
indicat
L
L
L
L

r
ef
mec
L
L

The mechanic work of the cycle ;
c
is the area of the transformation (2B
and is calculated by measuring that area. =eal mechanic work ;
r
is the
mechanic work determined e%perimentally using the indicator diagram. The
effective mechanic work ;
ef
is the mechanic work produced at the engine
flywheel 0or at the crankshaft1.
d. 5ycle efficiency
( )
2 2
T T mc $ $
v

( ) )
) B ( ( B )

$ T T mc $ $
v
( )
( )
(
(
( (
(
( (
2
( B
(
( ( (

k k k
v
v
TF
T T
T T
T T mc
T T mc

The thermodynamic efficiency for the spark ignition engine with combustion
at constant volume
TF
depends only by volumetric compression ratio
.
3o the compresion ratio is an engine design parameter which determines the
fuel economy of the engine.
TD
7@@@@@@A
B
20
7ig.B2. "ariation of thermodynamic efficiency with compression ratio
2 significant increase of efficiency is obtained untill
2)
. .ractically the
interval for compression ratio is
( ) (2 .. *
.This limitation is caused by fuel
petrol to which an increase of
over ((..(2 will produce an abnormal

combustion called knock an e%plosive phenomenon which must be
avoided because it decreases the engine power and destroys the parts.
e. ,ffective efficiency of the engine
,ffective efficiency ef
e%presses the real fuel economy of the

engine.
const
ef
ef
$
L

c
r c
ef
L
L
$
L

mec ind TF
real
ef
L
L

+n actual design phase the effective ratios varies according to design
parameters around
* . ) 2A . )
ef
from heat released within combustion

chamber will contribute to the production of mechanic work, the rest of
energy is dissipated into environment.
3.1.2. "ual combustion cycle
The dual combustion cycle is close to thermal processes within compression
ignition engines 0 diesel engines1 at high speeds. The real combustion is
replaced by two heatings.
# +sochoric transformation 0heating1 coresponding to rapid
combustion e%plosive autoignition;
# +sobaric transformation 0heating1 #at p 9 ct., coresponding to
progresive combustion.
7ig.B. Theoretic processes in a combined combustion cycle
ca
V V
2
2# constant volume heating 0combustion1
#X constant pressure heating 0combustion1
X#B adiabatic e%pansion 0e%haust gas1
B#( constant volume cooling 0free e%haust1
c
L $ $
)
p v
$ $ $ +
The study of the engine uses three parameters:
(1
2
(
V
V

2) (:
#compression ratio
2t diesel engines, during intake stroke only air is introduced within cylinder
and is compressed and fuel is inYected at the end of compression. Jue to the
nature of diesel fuel, the combustion has no knock.
21
2
p
p
( ) B . ( .. A . ( . (
# pressure 0increase1 ratio
p
V
1
-
"
0
V1
Vs V2
2
3
"
+
#
"
p
30
1
V
V
*

volume increase ratio in progresive combustion 0inYection rate or
cut#off ratio1
2 @ . (
The calculation of the engine starts with finding the cycle parameters p",T
in all points of the cycle
a. +nitial data
7or the study of the cycle
a
p p
(
,
( % a
T T T +
p
a
#atmospheric pressure , T
a
#atmospheric
temperature
Juring the admission the air is heated in contact with the hot engine with
bT
2
The engine is considered a closed system running continuously the ssme
mass of thermal agent m.which can be calculated from the state e4uation
applied in point (:
(
( (
>T
V p
m
The volume of the combustion chamber can be calculated knowing V
)
and
compression ratio,
(
2
V
V
b. .arameters of state in the main points of the cycle
(
(
(
2
(
( 2
(
2
(
( 2
,
_
,
_
k
k
k
k
T
V
V
T T
p
V
V
p p

(
2
V
V V
k
p p p
( 2
k *
p p p
(
(
V V V
*

#X isobaric transformation
(
(
,
_
k
*
*
T T
V
V
T T
( B
V V
X#B adiabatic e%pansion
k
k *
k
*
*
k
*
*
V
V
p
V
V
V
V
p
V
V
p p

,
_
,
_
,
_
(
2
B
B (
(
( B
(
p p p p
k
k
k k

(
(
B
(
B
B
T
V
V
V
V
p
V
V
p p
k
k k
*
*
k
*
*

,
_
,
_
,
_

c.$echanic work of the cycle
,
_
+ + + +
c"cle
J
L L L L L L
c B( B O O 2 (2
( )
( ( (
(
(
2 ( (
(2
(
(
(
(

,
_
,
_
k
k
k
k
V p
p
p
k
V p
L
( ) ( ) ( ) ( (
(
( (
O
O

k
V p V p V V p L
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
k
k
p
p
k
V p
L
(
B
O
B O
(
(
(
in which
'

( B
(
O
p p
p p p
k
k

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( (
(
( ( ( (
B (2
+ +
+ +

k k k
c
k
k
V p
L L L L
( ) kE i
revs
n
c"cle
J
L
C
c
t
()
min
sec
:)
2
min
,
_
,
_
,
_
# number of strokes 2 or B
i number of cylinders
( ) kE C C
t mec ind ef

'

r
ef
mec
c
r
indicat
L
L
L
L
;real work of real diagram
ind
#indicated efficiency e%presses the degree of perfection of theoretic

diagram.
2s in constant volume combustion the work of the cycle ;
c
is the area of the
transformation (2cB and can be calculated measuring area.=eal work ;
r
is
the mechanic work determined e%perimentally using the indicator diagram.
The effective mechanic work ;
ef
is the mechanic work produced at the
engine flywheel 0or at the crankshaft1.
d. 5ycle efficiency
$
$
$
$ $
$
L
c
t
) )
(

( ) ( )
O
2
T T mc T T mc $ $ $
pm vm p v
+ +
( ) )
) B ( )
$ T T mc $
vm
it is taken )
$
in absolute value
( )
( ) ( )
O
2
( B
(
T T mc T T mc
T T mc
pm vm
vm
TF
+

There are considered the mean specific heats at constant volume and
constant pressure and as the temperature intervals are close enough so it can
be simplified replacing c
pm
with k:
[ ]
( ) ( ) [ ]
( (
(
(
(
+
k
k
k
TF
( ) ( ) ( (
( (
(
(
+
k
k
k TF
2nalysing TF
it is noticed that the efficiency increases with volumetric

compression ratio. 5onsidering
C9NST%NT $ $ $
o v
+
it can be noticed that
efficiency increases when _ 0pressure increase ratio1 decreases , respectively
when D 0volume increase ratio1 decreases.
e. ,ffective efficiency
mec ind TF
c
c
r
r
ef ef
ef
$
L
L
L
L
L
$
L

7or dual combustion cycle the effective efficiency is
B) . ) 2: . )
ef
=bservations2
6. /iving to dual combustion cycle particular values
(

V V
*
# the
isobaric combustion dissapears and the cycle becomes identic with constant
volume combustion cycle .
(
(
(

k TF
B. /iving to dual combustion cycle particular values

(
, the isochoric
combustion dissapears and the cycle becomes identical to original =udolf
Jiesel cycle. !owadays this cycle is similar to processes in low speed diesel
engines.
p
V
1
-
"
0
V1
Vs V2
2
2
#
"
p
3
B. 5omparing efficiencies TF
for constant volume cycle and dual

combustion cycle :
a1 7or the same compression ratio the efficiency of 8tto is higher than
diesel `
( ) 1 0combined TF ct v t TF

0theoretical speculation 1
b1 +n real life spark engine
(( *
Jiesel engine
2) (:
Jue to high value of compression ratio `,
( ) ( ) ct v TF combined TF

3o diesel engine efficiency is higher than efficiency of spark ignition
engines due to higher values of compression ratio
.
Course 1>.
Chapter 3. 'eat en(ines <theoretical cycles
3.2. Compressors
5ompressors are heat engines which consume mechanical work in order to
increase gas pressure 0increasing internal energy of thermal agent1.
5ompresssors are driven by electric motors or by internal combustion
engines.
7rom the design point of view the compressors are divided into reciprocating
compressors and centrifugal compressors. The reciprocating compressors
use a mechanism similar to internal combustion engines 0 piston#connection
rod# cranckshaft1 for compressing of working fluids and centrifugal
compressors use the centrifugal force driven by a rotor to thermal agent.
The ne%t e%plainations reffers to reciprocating compressors.The design of a
a reciprocating compressor is close to that of an engine. +nside of a cylinder
which represents the compression chamber, it is actuated the piston which is
connected to crank shaft through the connecting rod. The cylinder is sealed
upwards by the cylinder head in which are placed intake 0suction1 valve,
32, through which gas is introduced at ambient pressure and discharge
0e%haust1 valve, 3,, through which gas is e%hausted in compressed
state.Juring operation the piston moves between two dead centers. 6hen
piston is in top dead centre, there is some space up to cylinder head wall
wich is called clearance volume which has a negative effect on
compressing process.The clearance volume represents ).)d).): of piston
displacement volume, "s.
The cylinder head is a cast part with interior channels and a plane surface for
sealing the cylinder which includes the valves made of disks, plates and
rings kept on their seats by springs.
5ompressors run automatically.The intake 0suction1 valve opens when the
cylinder pressure is smaller than atmospheric pressure and is closed when
the cylinder pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure.
,%haust 0discharge1 valve 3, opens when cylinder pressure is a little higher
than e%haust duct pressure and is closed when cylinder pressure is a little
smaller than e%haust duct pressure.
2ll compresors are fitted with a compressed gas tank; discharge duct
pressure is e4ual to tank pressure.
The real operation diagram determines the function
( ) V f p
by means of an
apparatus called indicator.
7ig.BB. =eal operation diagram of a piston compressor
)
V
# clearance volume , S
F
V
s
B
2
in which J piston diameter ,

F S , ( (
# piston stroke ) (
V V V
s
+
p
a
intake pressure , p
ev
e%haust pressure
3.2.1.Theoretical compressor
p
p
a
V
V
0
Vs
V
1
#
r
9A
9&
5>CC
?1
B>CC
?&
pe+
2s the first ideal model of compressor operation it is considered the
theoretical compressor which is an ideal compressor having the following
simplifying hypothesis:
# +t is not considered the clearance volume;
# +ntake and e%haust processes are isobaric at p
)
0atmospheric pressure1
and at p
ev
0e%haust gas pressure 1

;
# 5ompression is either isothermal, polytropic or adiabatic;
# Jiagram is closed by a process showing a sudden drop of pressure
a ev
p p
, which appears when piston is in TJ5;
# The thermal agent is an ideal gas.
7ig.BA.5ycle of teoretic compressor
Juring piston motion in cylinder the gas is introduced at pressure p
(
in
empty space produced by piston motion at isobar intake, the intake valve
being opened and the transformation (#2 represents the fluid compression
from pressure p
(
up to pressure p
2
.,volution 2# is the release of
compressed gas in the tank at constant pressure p
2
and #) is the
e4ualisation of pressure when suction valve is opened and discharge valve
is closed.
The cycle is composed of the following process:
) ( . isobaric intake 0suction1
ct p p
a

(
V
V
1
p
1
p
2
1
2 3
0
#
t
( 2 . isothermal, adiabatic or polytropic compression with
k n (
2 . isobaric e%haust 0discharge1
ct p p
ev

2
) . instantaneous reduction of presure from a ev
p to p
+t is considered that opening and closing of suction and discharge valves is
done e%actly in dead centres , without considering the inertia of fluid mass.
'
(
)
!S%
FS%
'
2
!S<
FS<
J32# opening of suction valve;
+32# closing of suction valve;
J3, # opening of discharge valve;
+3, # closing of discharge valve.
The total mechanical work consumed by the compressor to perform of cycle
is e4ual to the sum of all mechanical works corresponding to the four
transformations and is e4ual to work shaft ;
t
,
_
+ + +

crankshaft rev
J
L L L L L
t
.
) 2 (2 )(
mec
L L
)( # flow work during intake process
( ( )(
V p L L
adm d

2 2 2
V p L L
ev d

# 0negative because is consumed 1

2
(
2
(
(2
pdV L L
# 0depends on type of compression process1
,
_
+
rot
J
L V p V p L
t (2 2 2 ( (
There are studied three separated cases for
(2
L
in the three hypothesis of
compression .
a1 5ompressor with isothermal compression
)
(2
2
(
( (
(
2
( ( (2
L
p
p
ln V p
V
V
ln V p L
i=
7or
t tan cons T
2 2 ( (
V p V p
2
(
( ( 2 2 ( (
p
p
ln V p V p V p L
i= t
+
)
t
L
# shaft work consumed by compressor
b1 5ompressor with adiabatic compression
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
k
k
ad
p
p
k
V p
k
V p V p
L
(
(
2 ( ( 2 2 ( (
2 (
(
( (
( )
2 2 ( (
2 2 ( (
2 2 ( (
( (
V p V p
k
k
k
V p V p
V p V p L
ad t

+
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
k
k
ad ad t
p
p
V p
k
k
kL L
(
(
2
( ( 2 (
(
(
c1 5ompressor with polytropic compression
k n (
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
n
n
pol
p
p
n
V p
n
V p V p
L
(
(
2 ( ( 2 2 ( (
2 (
(
( (
( ) [ ]
2 2 ( (
2 2 ( (
2 2 ( (
( (
V p V p
n
n
n
V p V p
V p V p L
pol t

+
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
n
n
pol pol t
p
p
V p
n
n
nL L
(
(
2
( ( 2 (
(
(
+n order to compare t
L
consumed in the three hypothesis of compression, it
is plotted on the same diagram, variation p#" of the compressor.
7ig.B: . 3haft work of compression process
)(2
i= i= t
area L )(2
pol pol t
area L )(2
ad ad t
area L
ad
pol t
i=
L L L
The isothermal compressor consumes minimum work, which is true in real
operation; in practice there is a tendency to produce the isothermal
compression by means of cooling the cylinder 0water or air cooled1 and by
fractioning the compression process and practicing intermediate cooling of
the agent.
3.2.2.Technical compressor
The second ideal model of apro%imation of processes during piston
compression operation is represented by technic compressor .There are
maintained hypothesiss of theoretic compressor but it is considered
clearance volume.
p
V
1
2i* 2p%
!
2a) 3
0
p
1
o +ntake and e%haust are isobaric;
o 5ompression is either polytropic or adiabatic;
o /as e%pansion from )
V
# is either polytropice or adiabatic.
( )
)
m V
# clearance volume
S
d
V
s
B
2
# volume of piston stroke

) (
V V V
S
+
# total volume
s
V
V
)
)
): ) ) )
)
+ +
)
# clearance ratio
7ig.B@. 5ycle of technic compressor
(#2 polytropic compression
2# isobaric e%haust 0discharge1
p
p
a
V
V
0
Vs
V
1
#
t
9A
9&
5>C
?1
B>C
&
V
-
V
a
1
2 3
-
#B polytropic e%pansion
B#( isobaric intake
'
FS%
!S%
B
(
'
!S<
FS<
,
_
+ + +
rot
J
L L L L L
t B 2 (2 B(
( )
B ( ( B(
V V p V p L
a a

( )
2 2 2
V V p V p L L
ev ev ev d

(
B B
B
n
V p V p
L
(
2 2 ( (
(2
n
V p V p
L
+t is considered the same polytropic e%ponent n for (#2 and #B.
( ) ( )
( )
1
]
1
+
+
1
]
1
+
( (
B B
B ( 2
2 2 ( (
2 2 ( (
n
V p V p
V p V p
n
V p V p
V p V p L
t
B (
p p
2
p p
( ) ( )
B B 2 2 ( (
( (
V p V p
n
n
V p V p
n
n
L
t

1
1
1
]
1
,
_
1
1
1
]
1
,
_

n
n
n
n
t
p
p
V p
n
n
p
p
V p
n
n
L
(
B
B B
(
(
2
( (
(
(
(
(
B (
(
(
2
(
(
(
V V V #ith
p
p
V p
n
n
L
a
n
n
a t

1
1
1
]
1
,
_
5alculation of a
V
# aspirated volume will lead to the determination of real
compressor flow.
+t is noted
s
a
V
V

0volumetric efficiency 1.
s s
s
s
V
V
V
V V V
V
V V
B
)
B ) B (
( +
+

7rom transformation #B:
n n
V p V p
B B

n n
p
p
V
p
p
V V
(
(
2
)
(
B
,
_
,
_
+t is obtained :
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+
( (
(
(
(
2
)
(
(
2 )
)
n
n
s
p
p
p
p
V
V

for a given compressor
The volumetric efficiency decreases when the pressure ratio
(
2
p
p
increases.
7or two compressors which has to produce the same increase of pressure 0
(
2
p
p
given1 the volumetric efficiency decreases when the clearance volume
increases
( )
)
.
The e%istence of clearance volume leads to the decrease of aspirated volume,
decreasing the compressor flow.
3.2.3.Compressor flo,; efficiency and po,er
The theroretical flow of technic compressor is:
,
_
,
_
min
revs
n
revs
m
V F
r a n
r
# compressor speed
N
F
# flow e%pressed in normal conditions
,
_
min
m
T
T
p
p
F F
N N
N
N
(
(
=eal flow of compresor is e%pressed in function of s
V
.
,
_

min
m
n V F
N
r s
flow coefficient B 2 (

(

(
volumetric efficiency 0consideres )
V
1
2
considers
a
p p
(
considers
a
T T
(
( )
c atmospheri s c"linderga
T T
B
considers the gas loss from cylinder and piston and lack of
sealing of intake valves.
8rientative values for
*A ) :A ) + +
for small and rapid compressors.The
real flow is e%pressed in
N
m
%
N
N
%
r s N
T
T
p
p
n V F
+sothermal efficiency ratio between mechanic work of theoretical
0 technical1 diagram in the hypothesis of isothermal compression and real
work .
r
i= t
i=
L
L

t
L
# theoretical work
ef
r
mec
L
L

mechanical efficiency e%presses the friction loss in bearings,
ring# cylinder and the work consumed for driving water and oil pumps.
# subunitary measures#the heat engines is consuming work so loss will

contribute to the increase of consumed work
ef r t
L L L L
7or calculation it is introduced c
0global, general efficiency 1

mec i=
ef
t
c
L
L

The power re4uired for compressor driving
Theoretical power:
:)
n L
C
t
t

,ffective power:
c
t
ef
C
C
3.2.3. .ulti8sta(e compressors

+n order to compress gas at high pressure the compression process is divided
in succesive stages of compression; the process is produced in series
cylinders and after every stage the gas is cooled.
7ig.B*.3cheme of a three stage compressor
+t is noticed that the gas is compressed in the first stage from p
(
to p
2
, then it
is cooled and introduced inthe second stage of compression at p
2
and is
compressed up to p
, it is cooled again and introduced at p
in the third stage

and compressed up to p
B
.
The reasons of stage compression are:
(1 6hen pressure is increased, the gas temperature increases too. The
lubrication oil is heated and its viscosity decreases under acceptable
limits; at high temperatures light fraction of lubricants are vapori&ed.
2 fraction of oil can be leaked through cylinder rings and it can
burned because of high temperature of hot air.
21 3tage compression and intermediate cooling tend to the isothermal
compression and minimises the consume of work.
1 The compression procedure is chosen according to final pressure :
7or p
e
bars @ A
it is used one stage compressor
bars p
e
2A A
two# stage compressors
bars p
e
*) 2)
three# stage compressors
bars p
e
2)) :)
four#stage compressors .
7or final pressure
*)) :))
bar there are seven stages of compressors.
3.2.!.T,o sta(e compressor
+t is considered a two stage compressor 0configuration of fig. B*, but with
only two stages 1. +n the first stage the agent enters pressure p
(
and
temperature T
(
and is compressed up to pressure p
%
and temperature T
%
. +n
the second stage the agent enters at pressure p
%
and temperature T
%
and it is
compressed up to pressure p
2
and temperature T
2
: By hypothesis the cooling
in the cooler is considered good enough so the gas temperature aspirated in
the second stage to be e4ual to the gas temperature aspirated in the first
stage, meaning (
T T
0

. The mass flow of each stage is the same and the
volume flow is smaller in the second stage because the pressures are higher.
The compression processes in both stages are considered to be polytropic
with the same n.
7ig.BC. 5ompression processes in two stage compressor
.roceses from compressors are :
7irst stage
'

e disch ct p 0 0
n compressio pol"tropic 0
admission ct p p
0
a
arg , O O O
a O (
, ( )
(
3econd stage
'

ct p p at e disch
n compressio pol"tropic 0
admission ct p 0 0
ev
0
2
arg 2
a 2
, O O
The discharged volume in the first stage at 0
p
corresponds to
* 0 * * 0
.
The discharged volume in the second stage at 0
p
corresponds to
0 * * 0
.
The aspirated volume inthe second stage is smaller than discharged volume
as
* 0 * * 0 0 * * 0
.
The shaft work is the sum of shaft works corresponding to both stages.
!! t ! t t
L L L +
1
2
0
'0 '
3
p
'
' 00
#
1
#
11
5
'
= 5
1
p
V
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
n
n
0
0 0 !! t
n
n
0
! t
p
p
V p
n
n
L
p
p
V p
n
n
L
(
2
(
(
( (
(
(
(
(
( (
V p V p T T
0 0 a!! a!

1
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_

n
n
0
n
n
0
t
p
p
p
p
V p
n
n
L
(
2
(
(
( (
2
(
+n order to fi% the intermediate pressure 0
p
, from the condition that the
consumed work is minimum, it will result:
0
0
t
p
dp
dL
)
n
n
m
p
p
p
p
dp
d
m
0
m
0
0
(
noted is +t
)
2 (
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_

)
( (
2
(
2 (
(
(

,
_
,
_

p p
mp
p p
p
m
m
0
m
0
2 ( (
2
2
(
(
(
p p p
p
p
p
p
p
p
0 m
0
m
m
m
0
m
m
0

+

or
0
0
p
p
p
p
2
(

or
(
2
(
p
p
p
p
0
5onsumed shaft work is minimum when its components are e4ual t!! t!
L L
5onsumed shaft work is
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
n
n
t
p
p
V p
n
n
L
2
(
(
2
( (
(
(
2
8bservations: =esults are similar also for technic compressor.
+n general situation for a compressor with & stages and the hypothesis:
( +ntake temperature is the same in every stage
2 The diagram of compressor is that of a technic compressor
5ompression and e%pansion are polytropic with the same n,
+t will result an e4uation
=
adm
ev
G
G
p
p
p
p
,
_
+(
, in which p
Y
is the pressure
corresponding to the Y stage of compression and consumed shaft work is
,
_
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
rev
J
V p
p
p
n
=n
L
a a
=n
n
adm
ev
t
(
(
(
+n which
( )
m V V
s a

for the first stage.
8bservations:
a1 The total compression process in a multistage compressor tends to an
isothermal process.
b1 5ompressing in stages and applying intermediate cooling will reduce the
consumed shaft work. 7or e%ample there are considered two compressors
with the same flow operating through the same pressures 2 (
p + p
, the first
compressor working in one stage, the second compressor working in two
stages; both compressors have the model of teoretic compressor.
7ig.A). 8peration of one stage and two stage compressors
'
2 O )(
2 O O
O O O )(
0 0 area L L L
0 0 area L
0 0 area L
t!! t! t
t!!
t!
two stages
2 O )( 0 area L
t one stage
1
2
0
'0 '
3
p
'
' 00
#
t1
#
t11
20 p
V
+t is noticed that there is a difference between two areas, area %,%c2c2,
which is e4ual to the economy of shaft work which appears at two stage
operation.
3.,5+7+5 +$2/,3 78= =,5+.=852T+!/ 58$.=,338=3
5ompressor valves
Course 11.
3.3. 9as turbines
/as turbines are thermal installations or heat engines which transform
e%pansion energy of e%haust gas after fuel combustion to produce
mechanical work.
The energetic dimensions of thermal installations e%pressed in thermal
power are :
8 3team power stations A) ())) $6
8 /as turbine installations A))) A) ))) k6 0ma%.()) ))) k61
8 +nternal combustion engines ( k6 )) k6 0) ))) k61.
/as turbines are simple in design, having reduced weight and bulk; they
have no parts in translation motion and can use low 4uality fuels.
The theoretical turbine cycle differs from internal combustion cycle by
that the e%haust gas e%pands up to intake pressure and some processes
take place in separate aggregates outside the turbine 0 in internal
combustion engines, all processes take place inside the engine1.
/as turbines are represented in fig.A(a
7ig.A(. /as turbine. .rinciple schemes for constant volume combustion
cycle and for constant pressure combustion cycle
6ithin compressor ( air is compressed, then introduced in the combustion
chamber 2 where fuel is burned then e%haust gas e%pands in turbine which
starts to rotate. 8n the turbine shaft are mounted air compressor and fuel
pump B. 7uel ignition is produced by spark plug A. The turbine drives the
compressor and the fuel pump and transmits work to a consumer which can
be a electrical generator. The rotational compressor is centrifugal or a%ial
and produces high air flows in combustion chamber at compression
pressures
bars p
compr
(B *
.
The combustion chamber can host the combustion either at constant volume
0upwards, fig.A(ba1. or at constant pressure 0downwards, fig.A(b1. +n the
first stage of turbine development the combustion chambers provided
combustion at constant volume
ct V
, being fitted with automated intake
and e%haust valves. Then in the second stage of turbine development, the
combustion was produced at constant pressure in open combustion chamber
in which fuel and air are inYected continuously. 2s a fuel it is used either
gaseous fuel or sprayed li4uid fuel 0 petrol1 or sprayed solid fuel 0 coal dust1.
6ithin the turbine, the internal energy of thermal agent is turned into
mechanic work in two stages: fuel internal energy is turned into e%haust gas
kinetic energy which e%pand through turbine blades producing mechanical
work.
The e%haust gases having a pressure
bars p (B *
and temperature
C t
)
())) @A) enters the convergent#divergent turbine no&&les in which
are partially e%panded causing a increase of speed up to ()
2
m's.
Then gases are e%panded up to e%haust pressure
bar p
ev
(
; during its flow
through channels it e%erts an active force 0impulse law1 which produce a
rotational tor4ue at turbine shaft and a reactive force upon blades; the
kinetic energy of gases is turned into work. 2t turbine e%haust the gases
have a pressure and temperature of
bar p (
C t
)
A) )) and speed of
s
m
v B) 2)
.
3.3.1.Constant pressure (as turbines
7ig.A2. /as turbine combustion at constant pressure
&'ha2st
gas
&!etri
generat%r
e!etri
D2e!
C%(b2sti%n
ha(ber
C%(press%r
9tarter
(%t%r
52rbine
p
-
=p
1
,5
-
p
3
=p
2
,5
3
p
1
,5
1
p
2
,5
2
At(%spheri
air
The theoretical cycle of the turbine has the following features:
The process is open 0compressor absorbs atmospheric air and turbine
eliminates e%haust gas1.
The process is cyclic having the following simplifying hypothesis:
(1 The thermal agent is an ideal gas; it is not considered the change of
gas composition; it is considered that the same mass of ideal gas
evolves continuously and cyclically.
21 /as compression in compressor and gas e%pansion in turbine are
adiabatic transformations. The real process in combustion chamber is
replaced by a heating process at constant pressure. The cycle is closed
by a hypothetical transformation of isobaric cooling of gas which
replaces the e%haust gas from turbine and air intake within
compressor.
7ig.A.The theoretical cycle of gas turbine combustion at constant pressure
The theoretical cycle is composed of :
(#2 adiabatic compression in compressor
2 (
p p
2# constant pressure heating 0 combustion1
( )
2
p p
#B adiabatic e%pansion 0in turbine 1 from 2
p p
to ( B
p p
p
V
p
2
2 3
#
"
"
0
- 1
p1
B#( constant pressure cooling
( )
a
p p p
( B corresponding to turbine gas
e%haust and air intake in compressor.
The cycle has two functional parameters.
(
2
p
p

pressure increase ratio in compressor, with current values
( ) (B (2 ... *
(
T
T

e%treme temperature ratio 0 ma%imum and minimum temperature
ratio1 of the cycle T
ma%
and T
min
a
T T
( T
a
air temperature
K T T T
a a
)) ... 2C)
(
+
The temperature at the end of combustion,
T
,is limited ; it is
recommended for gas turbine with uncooled steel blades that
T
not to
e%ceed @)) @A)
)
5 0
K T ()))

1 ; if the blades are cooled or made of
ceramic materials the temperature can reach
C t
)
(()) ()))
or
K T (B)) ())

.
The values of e%treme temperatures ratios are
( ) A , ..
for steel blades
and
( ) A .. B
for ceramic materials.
The thermodynamic study of gas turbine is made considering that ( kg of
agent flows through it, resulting unitary values of the work .The final
values are multiplied with the agent mass flow rate.
+t is noted c
l
as the unitary values of work, meaning the work cycle
divided to the mass of thermal agent evolving in the cycle :
m
L
l
c
c

The unitary mechanical work of the cycle can be written as a summ of
mechanical works of each cycle transformation.
,
_
+ + +
kg
J
l l l l l
c B( B 2 (2
2lso the unitary mechanical work of the cycle can be written as a
difference between shaft works of the two aggregates 0 turbine marked
with subscript T and compressor marked with subscript k:
,
_

kg
J
l l l
k T c
T
l
# unitary shaft work produced in turbine
k
l
# unitary shaft work consumed by compressor
,
_
1
]
1
kg
J
v p
k
k
l
k
k
k
(
( (
(
(

,
_
1
]
1
kg
J
>T
k
k
l
k
k
k
(
(
(
(

)
k
l
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
k
k
T
p
p
v p
k
k
l
(
B

(
(
1
1
]
1
k
k
T
>T
k
k
l
(
(
(
(
in which
2
(
B
p
p
p
p
(
T T
+t results:
,
_
,
_
( (
(
(
(
(
k
k
k
k
k T c
>T
k
k
l l l
The theoretical power of the installation t

C
is e4ual to product between
the unitary work multiplied by turbine flow.
( ) kE
m l
C
c
t
()
, with
m
#mass flow rate of the agent
The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle:
.
l
.
.
c
t

)
(
.
unitary heat received in transformation 2# 0isobaric heating1
( )
2
T T c .
pm

)
.
unitary heat released in transformation B#(, in isobaric cooling, with
negative value
( )
B ( )
T T c .
pm

( )
( )
2
( B
2
( B
)
( ( (
T T
T T
T T c
T T c
.
.
pm
pm
t

7or constant pm
c
in the ratio,
a a
T T T +
(
k
k
k
k
T
p
p
T T
(
(
(
(
2
( 2
,
_

(
T T
k
k
k
k
T
p
p
T T
(
(
(
B
B

,
_
k
k
k
k
k
k
t
T T
T T
T T
T T
( (
( (
( ( (
2
( B
(
( ( (

7ig.AB.Thermodynamic efficiency versus f
t
/@@@@@@1-
E
2
0
The pressure increase ratio f is limited at
( ) (B (2 *
because when air
pressure is increased in compressor, it is increased the mechanic work
consumed by compressor and useful power u
C
of gas tubine installation is
reduced. Iseful power is obtained by subtracting from the power generated
by turbine, the power consumed by compressor.
( ) kE C C C
k T u

and if f is increased then useful power is reduced.
+t is noted
T
c
T
u
l
l
C
C

usefulness of turbine power
()
m l
C C
c
t u

T
k
T
k T
T
c
l
l
l
l l
l
l

(
=eplacing the e%pressions for T k
l and l
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
k
k
k
k
>T
k
k
>T
k
k
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
k
k (
(

+t is observed that for a certain value of g, for
T
given, the usefulness of
turbine power lowers when f, the compression pressure ratio 0in
compressor1, is increased. 7or gas turbine installations,
D D B) )
meaning
D C
u
B) )
of T
C
, showing that compressor consumes up to h from turbine
power .
+f f would increase over (2...(B, then the usefulness of turbine power
would decrease more, so the optimal value of
( ) (B (2 *
was reached
from contradictory reasons.
+n order to have a gas turbine installation of a given power it must be used a
gas turbine having a power #B times higher, meaning higher
investments.The compromise on f selection is illustrated in the following
table:
f * () (2 (B
t
),BB* ),B* ),A)* ),A2C

t
0g 9
,B1
),B: ),B2 ),C ),:A
t
0 g 9 B1 0),AA1 0),A21 0),BC1 0),B@1

k
k
t
(
(
(

B +
for ordinary blades
( ) B
for cooled blades
3.3.2. 'eat recovery in (as turbine installations
+n order to increase the efficiency of gas turbine installations, these are
fitted with heat recovery systems which are taken over some of e%haust gas
heat and use it to heat the compressed air. By preheating it is reduced the
differece between e%haust gas temperature and air intake temperature, the
fuel consumption being reduced.
7ig.AA. /as turbine installation with heat recovery
&'ha2st
gas
Generat%r
e!etri
D2e!
C%(b2sti%n
ha(ber
C%(press%r
9tarting
(%t%r
52rbine
p
-
=p
1
,5
-
p
3
=p
2
,5
3
p
1
,5
1
p
2
,5
2
Air
Heat re%+erF

7ig.A:.Theoretical cycle of gas turbine installation with heat recovery
8n the graphic, the cycle transformations are the same as in case without
heat recovery, the difference being that heating 2#A is done by the heat
recovered from e%haust gas. +t is noted the recovered heat rec
$
# heat taken
from e%haust gas and
* $
# heat absorbed from combustion:
2#A preheating with e%haust gas
A# heating 0 combustion1 at constant pressure
( )
2 A
T T mc $
pm rec

( )
A
O T T mc $
pm

p
V
p
2
2 3
#
"
"
0
- 1
5
7ig.A@. Theoretical cycle of gas turbine installation with heat recovery in T#
3.
Theoretically, the preheating can be done up to BX corresponding to
B
T
which is the e%haust gas temperature at turbine e%it.The temperature up to
which the preheating is done is T
A
which is smaller than the gas
temperature at turbine e%it T
BX
9T
B
.
+t is defined heat recovery degree i:
( )
( )
2 B
2 A
2 B
2 A
T T
T T
T T mc
T T mc
pm
pm

*A ) * ) + + ( )
2 B 2 A
T T T T +
(
2
p
p

(
T T
k
k
T T

(
( B

The mechanical work of cycle with heat recovery is identical with the
mechanical work of cycle without heat recovery:
7or ( kg of agent
k T c
l l l
5
9
2
3
- -0
5
1
1
1
]
1
k
k
T
>T
k
k
l
(
(
(
(
(
1
]
1
k
k
k
>T
k
k
l
(
(
(
(

1
]
1
1
1
]
1
( (
(
(
(
(
k
k
k
k
c
>T
k
k
l
The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is modified because 4 is

replaced by 4j
.
l
c
in which
( ) ( ) [ ]
2 2 B A
(
O T T T T
k
k>
T T c .
pm

,
_
,
_
,
_

k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
rec
t
( ( (
( (
( (

6hen
(
B A
T T
and the cycle recovers totally the heat.
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_

(
(
( (
(
( (
( (
(
(
( (
(
( (
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
rec
t
or
k
k
rec
t
(
(

2t gas turbine installation with heat recovery ratio
)
, the thermodynamic
efficiency t
varies inversely with compression pressure ratio f.

k
k
t
(
(
(

# without recovery
k
k
rec
t
(
(

7ig.A* Thermodynamic efficiency variation versus f with and without heat
recovery
-eat recovery is efficient up to a compression pressure ratio limit f
lim
reduced at * (), for
A +
.The method of heat recovery is a method of
recovery the efficiency.
+n order to apply the method, at high f, it must be lowered the temperature
2
T
0there are several steps of compression1; to apply the heat recovery,
B
T
must be high, using gas turbine with e%pansion in stages.
3.3.3.9as turbine efficiency
7or gas turbines are used two efficiencies, an internal efficiency which
considers the loss from thermodynamic processes due to irreversibility and
frictions between gas and parts and the second efficiency a mechanical
efficiency which consider mechanical frictions 0 bearings1 and work
consumed for driving oil pump, speed regulator and other au%iliaries.
t
E
!i(
E
$ith%2t
heat
re%+erF
$ith heat
re%+erF
Their e4uations are reported to compressor and turbine :
2 for rotative compressors 0engines consuming work1
!nternal efficienc"
r + k
k
i + k
l
l

mec k
l l
consumed work
real mec r + k
l l
+f the compression process is adiabatic, it is possible to represent in T#3 both
reversible and irreversible processes, written for ( kilogram of agent.
7ig.AC. =eversible and irreversible adiabatic compression
(#2 adiabatic reversible compression 0theoretical1
(#2X adiabatic irreversible compression 0real1
The adiabatic irreversible process increases entropy even there is no change
of heat with the environment
a1 7or adiabatic compression 0reversible1
,
_
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
kg
J
p
p
>T
k
k
vdp l
k
k
k
2
(
(
(
2
(
(
(
in which

(
2
p
p
5
s
1
=s
2
1
2
20
p
2
p
1
s
or

,
_

kg
J
i i vdp l
k 2 (
vdp . di +
cu
) .
b1 7or adiabatic compression, real, irreversible

2 ( ,
i i l
r k
and analog with aforementioned formula
(
O
2
( 2
,
i i
i i
i k

( 2
( 2
T T
T T
*
i + k

7or compressor driven by gas turbines
C2 ) *A ) + +
i + k

Mechanical efficienc"
ef k
r k
mec k
l
l
,
,
,

in which l
k,ef
# mechanic work consumed at the compressor
shaft
C* , ) .. CB , )
,

mec k
B for gas turbine

!nternal efficienc"
T
r + T
i + T
l
l

r + T
l
# real mechanical work in turbine T
l
# theoretical
mechanic work in turbine
7ig.:).2diabatic reversible and irreversible e%pansion
5
s
3
=s
-
- -0
3
2
p
3
p
-
s
#B adiabatic reversible e%pansion 0 theoretical1
#BX adiabatic irreversible e%pansion 0real1 with increase of entropy
a1
,
_
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
B
(
( kg
J
p
p >T
k
k
vdp l
k
k
T
,
_
(
;
2
(
B
(
p
p
p
p
T T
,
_
kg
J
i i vdp l
T
B
B from
vdp . di +
*
r + T
i i l
B

B
O
B
,
,
i i
i i
l
l
T
r T
i T

or
B
B
T T
T T
*
i + T
CA ) ** ) + ''' +
i + T

Mechanical efficienc"
r + T
ef + T
mec + t
l
l

ef + T
l
# effective work at turbine shaft
5#,ffective efficiency at turbine shaft 0 ef
1
C%
mec k i + k
k
T mec T i + T
ef
.
l
l

7inal 0 effective1 efficiency of the turbine installation considers internal and
mechanical efficiencies of the compressor and turbine, but also the
efficiency of the combustion chamber.
C%
efficiency of combustion chamber

.
#received heat
( )

,
_

kg
J
T T c . .
pm 2 2
The efficiency of the combustion chamber is the ratio of the heat generated
in the combustion chamber divided to the effective heat released through
fuel combustion.
i
C%
bH
.

in which b-
i
#effective heat released
b specific fuel consumption
,
_
agent kg
fuel kg
i
H
# fuel low heating value
,
_
fuel kg
J
The specific fuel consumption is calculated as follows:
,
_
,
_
h
agent kg
m
h
fuel kg
3
b
,with B# fuel flow rate 0 masic1 and

m
#thermal agent flow
rate
6pplications
9as turbine blades
-xamples of use of (as turbine en(ines
8pen#cycle constant#pressure gas#turbine engine
P*A /eneral ,lectric (@a turboYet engine # military use
o,er (eneration (as turbine8 The 3/T#()))7 is designed for high#
efficiency power generation in industrial and fossil#fueled power plants. The
photo shows the rotor of an 3/T#()))7 gas turbine at the Berlin plant in
/ermany. This type of gas turbine has a capacity of :* megawatts.
Super .arine 9as Turbine
Turbochar(in( of internal combustion en(ine
5an be done by mounting on the internal combustion engine a device called
turbocharger.
+t has two parts, a turbine and a compressor on the same shaft. The e%haust
gas of the engine e%pands in the turbine, the turbine rotates and actuates the
compressor which compresses the fresh air at the engine intake.2s you can
see in the image the path ways of the fluids 0 e%haust gas and air 1 are
separated. The effect on the engine is to increase the power and to lower the
specific fuel consumption.
This effect is amplified when the compressed air is cooled in a heat
e%changer 0intercooler, in image1 which allows to enter combustion chamber
a greater air# fuel mi%ture.
*uestions
(. 6hat are heat engines and how are classified S
2. 6hat are internal combustion engines and how are classified S
. 6hich is the operation principle of internal combustion engines S
B. 6hich are the parameters defining the theoretical cycle of internal
combustion engines S
A. 6hich is the theoretical cycle for spark ignition engines S
:. 6hich is the theoretical cycle for compression ignition enginesS
@. 6hich are the formulas for work, power and efficiency for a spark
ignition engineS
*. 6hich are the formulas for work, power and efficiency for a
compression ignition engineS
C. 6hat is a compressor S
().6hich are the parameters of compression process S
((. 6hich are the hypothesis of theoretical compressor S 6hich are the
hypothesis of technical compressor S
(2.6hich are the formulas for work, power and efficiency for a
reciprocating compressor S
(.6hy are used multistage compressorsS +n what termsS
(B.6hat is a gas turbine installationS -ow is made of S
(A.6hich are specific parameters of a gas turbine installationS
(:.6hich are the formulas for unitary work, power and efficiency of a
gas turbine installation S
5ourse (2
5hapter @. -eat transfer
4.1.'eat transfer forms
$ost of natural and industrial processes took place with heat e%change and
that is why it is important to know heat propagation or transfer, to study
thermal phenomena and their time variation, to determine heat e%change in
4uantitative terms. +t is important in engineering work how intense is the
heat transfer or how long a heat transfer process can last.
-eat propagation is produced in three ways: by conduction, convection and
radiation.
Thermal conduction is the heat transfer within the same body when there are
areas having different temperatures or in different bodies in contact, having
different temperatures.Thermal conduction is specific to solid bodies, being
produced by electron difusion ; for li4uid and gaseos phases the conduction
is produced only in boundary layer due to molecular oscillation.
Thermal convection is a macroscopic heat e%change specific to fluids in
motion which transfer heat energy from the high temperature areas to low
temperature areas.
Thermal radiation represents the heat transfer under the form of radiative
energy which appears between two surfaces with different temperatures,
separated by a space allowing the radiation.The transformation of thermal
energy into radiative energy and reversed is a intra#atomic phenomenon.
=eal heat transfer processes are performed by all three ways of propagation
which have different laws, but usually a way of propagation is
dominant.These phenomena are time variable being irreversible because the
temperature difference is finite and cannot be considered infinitesimal.
Temperature depends on space and time coordinates.+f it is considered a part
of space, every point has an associated local temperature after an arbitrary
distribution, creating a temperature field.The e4uations which define the
temperature field can use different coordinate systems: cartesian,
cylindrical, spherical, vectorial, having, respectively, the e4uations : t 9 f
0%,y,&,k1; t 9 f 0r,l,&, k 1; t 9 f 0r,l,m, k1; t 9 f 0r, k 1.
The field has usually different values of temperatures and it is considered as
continuous if a at infinite&imal variation of coordinates correspond
infinite&imal variation of temperature. +f temperature variation is finite for
infinite&imal variation of coordinates 0space1 then the temperature field is
discontinuous. The space points having the same temperature are called
isothermal curve 0or areas1. 6hen temperature varies with time the
temperature field is variable or non stationary and when temperature is
constant the temperature field is stationary or constant.
+f temperature field is stationary then its e4uation is t 9 f 0%,y,&1. 7rom an
isothermal area can be plotted an infinite number of directions which can
intersect other isothermal areas of other constant temperature.7or two
isothermal areas having the temperature field t and t<bt, the direction for
which the temperature variation is ma%imum is on the perpendicular n,
plotted to both isothermal areas.
7ig.:(.Jirections of temperature variation
+n temperature field, in a given point can be determined a vector whose
direction is the direction of the shortest perpendicular between
isothermals,for which the temperature variation is ma%imum and the
absolute value is the temperature variation divided to unit of length of the
path on this direction.The vector is called temperature gradient and its sense
is positive in the direction of increasing temperature.
dn
dt
n
t
gradt
n

,
_
)
lim
+n heat transfer there are three very used measures heat, heat transfer rate
and heat flu%: (.-eat L is a form of energy being measured in Poule 0P1 in
03+1.
2.+n heat transfer is very important the heat variation in unit of time called
heat transfer rate or rate of heat transferred or heat flow per unit time 0n or
$
1.+ts value shows the intensity of the heat e%change.

[ ] E $
d
d$ $ $

,
_

)
lim
, with L is heat 4uantity transmitted in
time interval bk.
The standard unit for the rate of heat transferred is Poule per second or 6att
061,the unit for power.
. +f the rate of heat is divided to surface of heat e%change then it is obtained
heat flu% 4 0 heat rate propagated through unit of surface perpendicular on its
direction1 :
1
]
1
,
_
2
m
E
%
$
%
.
4.2.Conduction.9eneral e/uation
The law which formulates heat propagation through conduction, known as
7ourier law, e%presses the proportionality between heat flu% and
temperature gradient 0#grad t1.
4 9 _0 #grad t1 9 #_ grad t
The sense of vector 4 is reversed of temperature gradient, meaning that is the
same sense of temperature decreasing as heat propagation takes place on the
direction of ma%imum temperature variation and in the sense of decreasing
temperatures 0according to the second law of thermodynamics1.
The factor of proportionality from 7ourier law is called thermal conductivity
and it represents the heat transmitted in unit of time through a unit surface,
for a temperature variation of ( degree, on a unit of length of ( m'
1
]
1
,
_

mK
E
K
m
m
E
t
l
%
$
gradt
.
2
The coefficient _ e%presses the property of bodies to transmit thermal

energy and it has different values according to different materials, depending
on structure, density, humidity and temperature.
7rom all materials, metals and their alloys have the highest thermal
conductivity 0silver # B() 6'm>, copper CA, gold 2CB, iron BA1, the
smallest values being attributed to thermal isolator materials 0water at 2A?5
),A* 6'm>, wood ),)C 6'm>, cork ),)A 6'm>, polyurethane ),)A
6'm>, air at 2A?5 ),)2B 6'm> 1.
The general e4uation of thermal conduction is established separating from
the homogeneous and isothropic material an elementary parallelipiped with
sides parallel to coordinate a%is. The heat absorbed on % direction through
area 2B5J which has temperature t in time interval dk is:
d"d=d
0
t
d%d
0
t
$ d
0

7ig.:2.The thermal flu% on the three directions
The heat releases from parallelipiped on % direction in time interval dk
through area ,7/- is:
d0d"d=d
0
t
d"d=d
0
t
d"d=d d0
0
t
t
0
$ d
0 2
2
,
_

The heat retained in parallelipiped is
dVd
0
t
d0d"d=d
0
t
$ d $ d d$
0 0 0 2
2
2
2

7or y and & directions there can be written similar e4uations:
dVd
"
t
d$
" 2
2
, dVd
=
t
d$
= 2
2
The heat variation on three directions is :

dVd
=
t
"
t
0
t
d$ d$ d$ d$
= " 0

,
_
+ +
2
2
2
2
2
2
The heat transmitted to elementary volume produces a temperature increase
to elementary mass dm with value dt, and

dVd
=
t
"
t
0
t
d
d
dt
dmc d$

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
or
t a
=
t
"
t
0
t
c d
dt

,
_
2
2
2
2
2
2
in which a is thermal difusivity
c
a
e%pressed in m
2
'h and and t is
;aplace operator .
,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= " 0
8bservation: Jelta sign was bolded in order to pay attention on its
significance, it does not represent a difference of temperature but ;aplace
operator applied to temperature.
+f within parallelipiped there are punctual heat sources uniformely
distributed in unit of volume, then 7ourier e4uation becomes:
c
.
=
t
"
t
0
t
c d
dt
v

,
_
2
2
2
2
2
2
in which 4
v
is the heat flu% on unit volume of internal heat sources.
4.2.1. 'eat conduction at steady state
The steady state in heat conduction means that heat flu% is constant or, in
other words, the temperature of isothermal areas is constant in time or the
heat entering a unit of area must leave it too.
)
t
There will be considered several classical cases of conduction heat transfer
for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls:
a1 .lane walls
+t is considered an homogeneous plane wall, of infinite length and width,
having constant thickness M and constant thermal conductivity _. Ipon %
direction which is perpendicular on the wall plane it occurs a temperature
variation on wall sides having values t
(
and t
2
. This temperature field is
unidirectional 0 only on % direction 1 and 7ourier law is written. The aim of
the calculation is to find how temperature varies in the wall,as a function
of % coordinate or t 9 f 0%1.
7ig.:.Temperature field distribution in plane wall
6riting the 7ourier law on % direction it yields:
0
t
.

or
dt d0 .
By integration and separation of variables :

)
2
(
1 0
t
t
dt d0 .
+ntegrating for % 9 ), t 9 t
(
and for % 9 M , t 9 t
2
; it results:
( ) ( )
1
]
1

2 2 ( ( 2
m
E
t t t t .
or
( )
1
]
1
2
2 (
m
E t t
.
The ratio
is called thermal resistance of the wall 0=

t
1 and is a measure
analog to electric resistance from 8hm law:
( )
t
>
t t
.
2 (

similar to
e
>
!
with +# current 021, I#voltage 0 "1 and =
e

electric resistance 08hm1.
Being given the thermal flu% 4 it is calculated the rate of heat transfered o,in
6:
( )
2 (
t t % .%
The heat L which is transmitted through wall in time k , e%pressed in Poules

is:
( )
% t t .% $
2 (

The temperature t at distance % measured from lateral face of the wall can
be obtained by integrating the e4uation of the heat flu% :
0
. t t
( or
( )
2 ( (
t t
0
t t
The formula is used to calculate the temperature inside the wall in any point.
!n an homogeneous plane #all #ith constant thermal conductivit"+ the
temperature has a linear variation #ith thickness of the #all'
+f the wall has several layers 0n layers 1 of different thickness M
i
and
conductivities _
i
then the thermal flu% 4 is constant for each layer.
7or e%ample,for two layer wall with t
(
,t
2
,t
,
temperatures of first
wall,interface surface and second wall, respectively, the heat flu% is :
( )
2
2
(
(
(
t t
.
and
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 (
(
(
t t t t .
7or n layers heat flu%

( )
i
i
n
i
#e #i
t t
.
(
,with t
wi
#temperature of the first wall and
t
we
the temperature of the last wall.
The total rate of heat transfer which passes through the wall surface 2 has
the e4uation, o:
( )
%
t t
.%
i
i
n
i
#e #i

(
p6q
b1 5ylindrical wall
+t is considered a homogeneous tube or pipe having a constant circular
section, constant thermal conductivity _ and length high enough to consider
that temperature variation is only radial and not a%ial.The inner tube
temperature is t
(
and the outer temperature is t
2
, with t
(
Rt
2
.
7ig.:B. Temperature field distribution in cylindrical wall
+t is considered an imaginary annular section inside the tube of thickness dr
and radius r limited by two isothermal cylindrical areas. The temperture
changes only in radial direction.+n steady state the rate of heat transfer n is
constant and its e4uation according to 7ourier law is:
rl
dr
dt
%
dr
dt
.% 2
2 is the lateral area of the cylinder surface through which the heat e%change
is done.2s thermal conductivity _ and rate of heat transfer n are constant,
the variables can be separated and can be integrated on the contour for r 9 r
(
t 9 t
(
and for r 9 r
2
t 9 t
2
r

2
(
2
(
2
t
t
r
r
dt l
r
dr
and
(
2
2 (
ln
2 r
r
l
t t
( ) ( )
2 (
(
2
2 (
(
2
ln
2
(
ln
2
t t
d
d
l
t t
r
r
l

Jividing the rate of heat to the length of tube l, it is obtained the linear rate
of heat o
l
0the rate of heat transmitted through a tube of ( m length1,which
has the unit 6'm:
( )
(
2
2 (
ln
2
(
d
d
t t
l
l

and
( ) ( )
(
2
2 ( 2 (
ln
2
(
d
d
t t
>
t t
t
l

The thermal resistance of the wall is =
t
,with
(
2
ln .
2
(
d
d
>
t
The thermal flu%es for the tube surfaces 0inner and outer surfaces1,e%pressed
in 6'm
2
, are:
( )
(
2
(
2 (
(
(
ln
2
d
d
d
t t
l d
.

and
( )
(
2
2
2 (
2
2
ln
2
d
d
d
t t
l d
.

The dependency relations between the linear rate of heat transfer n

l
and
flu%es are:
2 2 ( (
. d . d
l

!n an homogeneous c"lindrical #all #ith constant thermal conductivit"+ the
temperature has a logarithmic variation #ith #all thickness '
The temperature in a point in the cylindrical wall at diameter d is :
(
(
2
2 (
(
(
(
ln
ln
ln
2 d
d
d
d
t t
t
d
d
l
t t

+f the cylindric wall has several layers 0n layers 1 of M
i
thickness and _
i
conductivities then linear rate of heat transfer is:
1t res2!ts
( ) ( )
i
i
i
n
i
t
l
d
d
t t
>
t t
(
(
2 ( 2 (
ln
2
(
+
c1 3pherical wall
+t is considered a spherical wall with constant thermal conductivity.The inner
sphere temperature is t
(
, and outer t
2
, with t
(
Rt
2
.+t is considered an
imaginary spherical annular section having the thickness dr and radius r
limited by two spherical isothermal surfaces.+n steady state the thermal flu%
is constant and its e%pression is given by 7ourier law. 2s thermal
conductivity and heat flu% are constant the variables are separated and then
are integrated on the contour for r 9 r
(
t 9 t
(
and for r 9 r
2
t 9 t
2
rresulting the
flu% reported to sphere.
7ig.:A. Temperature field distribution in spherical wall
dr
dt
.
r
%

#

s B

2

and
dt
r
dr
#Bs
2
+ntegrating on r and t, it results :
,
_
,
_

2 (
2 (
2 (
2 (
( (
2
( ( (
B
(
d d
t t
r r
t t

( ) ( )
,
_

2 (
2 ( 2 (
( (
2
(
d d
t t
>
t t
t
The thermal conductive resistance =

t
is
,
_

2 (
( (
.
2
(
d d
>
t
!n an homogeneous spherical #all #ith constant thermal conductivit"+ the

temperature has a h"perbolic variation #ith sphere radius '
+f the spherical wall has several layers 0n layers 1 of M
i
thickness and _
i
conductivities then the rate heat transfer reported to sphere is o with the
e%pression:
( ) ( )
,
_
( (
2 ( 2 (
( (
2
(
i i i
n
i
t
d d
t t
>
t t
Course 13
4.3.Convection
-eat transfer convection is a process of e%hange of heat between a solid and
a fluid in motion due to a temperature gradient.5onvection can have two
forms a1 free convection 0or natural convection1 having small fluid
velocities produced by non#uniformities of temperature fields generated
by density gradients within fluid b1 forced convection having high fluid
velocities generated by pressure variations produced by mechanical
means 0fans, pumps1.
5onvection is influenced by:
# 7luid properties 0_ thermal conductivity, c#specific heat, a#
difusivity ,D# density, t#0kinematic 1 viscosity1;
# /eometry of e%hange heat surfaces and orientation towards flow
direction;
# 7luid flow: a1 laminar, specific to small velocities with low convective
phenomenon and b1 turbulent, specific to high velocities with
dominant convective phenomenon.
The convective flu% cannot be computed applying 7ourier law because it is
not known the temperature gradient at the contact surface between wall and
fluid. That is why it is used another law, !ewtonXs law, which determines the
thermal flu% transfered by the surface of a solid body with s
t
temperature
to a fluid in motion.
( ) S t t $
f s

( )
f s
t t
S
$
.
t
s
solid body temperature, t
f
fluid
temperature
g convection coefficient in unit
K m
E
2
5onvection coefficient depends on variables
( ) a + + + c + + t + t + # + l f
p f s

l
# legth specific to fluid flow
w # flow velocity
_ thermal conductivity
c
p
# specific heat at constant pressure
D fluid density
t kinematic fluid viscosity
a difusivity coefficient
5onvection coefficient
is defined as the heat 4uantity e%changed

through convection on unit of surface, in unit time, for a difference of
temperature of (
)
5. This coefficient is e%perimentally determined getting
results for different real cases and then the results are generali&ed using
similitude.
3imilitude or similarity teory is based on the fact that two phenomena or
systems are thermally similar if associated thermal measures of a
phenomenon are in a constant ratio with thermal measures of the other
phenomenon, measures being done in similar points and moments of time.
3imilitude can be applied to other phenomena, not only to thermal ones, but
also to dynamic, hydraulic processes.
3imilitude started with geometrical similitude studying the behavior of a
prototype system 0 original1 towards that of a model, found at a given scale
ratio 0e%ample: lift of airplane wing, drag of a boat1.
.hysical similitude deals with the study of similarity studying on the model
the phenomenon of the original.The physical phenomena described by the
same mathematical models generate a class of similar phenomena.
.hysical similitude is based on three a%ioms and three laws.
2
(
1 any physical phenomenon can be mathematically modelled;
2
2
1 a law true for an element of the field is true for the whole field of the
phenomenon;
2
1 the mathematical model of a class of similar phenomena is invariant to

transformation of the class phenomenon.
3imilitude laws are enounced defining the similitude criterium a
nondimensional group of physical measures which characterises similar
phenomena.
;
(
1 !ewton: physical phenomena are similar if homologous similitude
criteria have the same values; phenomenon 2 and B are similar if similitude
criterium u has the same value for 2 and B phenomenon, meaning u
2
9
u
B
.
;
2
1 "aschy Buckingham#7ederman: any physical phenomenon can be
e%pressed through a criterial relation.
,%ample: 2 relation between physical parameters can be replaced with a
criterial relation
( ) ( ) )
2 (
+ + / l + # + t + v + + c + f
;
1 >irpicev#/uhman: 2 necessary and sufficient condition as two

phenomena to be similar is to have homologous similitude criteria e4ual.
The criteria are non#dimensional and represent combination of measures
which describe a process.
,%ample: it is considered the flow of two fluids through two pipes,with
velocities
2 (
, # #
described by the ratio of space and time.
(
(
(
l
#
2
2
2
l
#
2s the motion of flow inside the pipes is similar, then
#
k
#
#
(
2
l
k
l
l
(
2
k
(
2
k
k
k
l
# or
(
l
#
k
k k
or
t tan cons
l
#
l
#
2
2 2
(
( (
# criterium of homocronicity
t tan cons
l
#
7or particular case of convective heat transfer it is considered that similitude

criterium depends on the measures which influence the convective
phenomenon, but it is not known the e%ponent of these measures.
+t is noted with a, b, c, d, e, f and g the e%ponents of the measures imposing
the condition that sum of the e%ponents to be &ero, for every dimensions
because u criterium is adimensional.
g f e d c b a
cp d #
[ ]
g
f
e d
c
b a
Tt
M
T t
L
L
M
Lt
M
L
t
L
Tt
ML
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1

2
2

+t results for every fundamental dimension 0$# mass, ;# length, t# time,T#
temperature1 a distinct e4uation which generates a homogeneous system
with B e4uations and @ unknown variables which is not determined:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] )
) 2
) 2
)

+ + +
+ + +
g f a T
g f d b a t
f e d c b a L
g e d a M
imp
The solutions are determined for independent variables 0g, f, b1,considering
a particular value for
. ( g
Then
a9(#f
c9b#(
d9f#b
e9b
and
( ( (

f b b f b b f
cp d #
then it is grouped in brackets after
b + f + g
b f
p
#d
c
d

,
_
,
_
,
_
(
=atio
Nu
d
is !usselt invariant 0criterium1

=atio
.r
a
c
c
p
p

is .randtl invariant
=atio
=e

#d #d
is =eynolds invariant
5riterial e4uation ( ) ( )
b f
>e Cr C Nu characterises the convective heat transfer
in forced motion
5riterial e4uation ( ) ( )
b a
Hr Cr C Nu characterises the convective heat transfer
in free motion, in which /r represents /rasshoff invariant.
2
t gl
Hr

, in which
m
T
(

, T
m
# average temperature between wall and fluid in >elvin ,
g# gravitational acceleration;
l# flow specific dimension;
t
# temperature difference between wall and fluid;
t # kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
4.!.Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is a heat e%change between bodies found at distance, even
placed in vacuum and is based on the property of bodies of emitting and
absorbing radiations. Thermal radiation is the effect of electromagnetic
wave absorbtion produced by the electron and ion oscillation which is
transformed into thermal energy.
!n other #ords heat transfer due to emission of electromagnetic #aves is
kno#n as thermal radiation.
=adiation has dual feature of wave and corpuscle 0 photon emission1 and
thermal radiation is specific to infrared spectrum with wavelength ranging
).*im#).*mm.
7or solids and li4uids in which the intermolecular distances are close to
wavelengths of thermal radiation, radiation is produced on a very thin layer
on the surface and absorbtion and emission are produced over a continuous
spectrum of wavelenghts. 7or gas and vapors in which the intermolecular
distances are greater than wavelengths of thermal radiation, the radiation
took place in entire volume in discontinuous spectral bands, specific to
every substance.
7or a body the incident radiation can be reflected, absorbed or transmitted
further.
The bodies absorbing the whole incident radiative energy are called black
bodies and the bodies which do not absorb totally the whole incident
radiative energy 0is partly reflected, absorbed or transmitted1, are called gray
bodies.
% black bod" is defined as a bod" that absorbs all radiation that falls on its
surface' %ctual black bodies don*t e0ist in nature : though its characteristics
are appro0imated b" a hole in a bo0 filled #ith highl" absorptive material'
% black bod" is a h"pothetic bod" that completel" absorbs all #avelengths
of thermal radiation incident on it' Such bodies do not reflect light+ and
therefore appear black if their temperatures are lo# enough so as not to be
self:luminous' %ll blackbodies heated to a given temperature emit thermal
radiation'
There are several laws gouverning radiative heat transfer, the most important
being:
3tefan#Bolt&mann lawE The energy radiated by a blackbody in all
directions and on all wavelenghtes by the unit of surface and in unit of
time is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of
the body.+n other words the heat flu% 4 is proportional to absolute
temperature at the fourth power.
1
1
]
1
,
_
B
)
())
T
C .
r , in 6'm
2
, with 5
)
#-'I4510)5
:,
7E6m
&
K
(
8 3tefan#
Bolt&mann constant,
>irchhoff law# The energy radiated by a graybody in all directions
and on all wavelenghtes by the unit of surface and in unit of time is
proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the body
and with emissivity of the gray body .
J : indicates the radiation of heat from a body according the Stefan8
Bolt?mann 0a,; compared with the radiation of heat from a ideal
blac& body where the emissivity coefficient J ? ).
1
1
]
1
,
_
B
)
())
T
C .
r

in 6'm
2
, `# emissivity coefficient of the
graybody which lies in the range 5 K J K ) depending on the type of
material and the temperature of the surface.
,missivity ` is the ratio of the radiation emitted by a surface to the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature.
The radiant heat flu% transmitted through two parallel plane plates is :
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
B
2
B
(
)
()) ())
T T
C .
p6'm
2
q and the rate of heat is :
S
T T
C $
r
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
B
2
B
(
)
()) ())
, p6q,
,%ample # =adiation from the surface of the 3un
+f the surface temperature of the sun is -,55 K and if we assume that the sun
can be regarded as a black body, the radiation energy per unit time and
surface can be e%pressed like:
4
r
9 7-'I451 )5
:,
E6m
&
K
(
8 7-,55 K8
(
? I'(& )5
4
E6m
&
'
4.) =verall heat transfer bet,een fluids separated by ,alls
The heat transfer between fluids separated by walls is performed
simultaneously through conduction, convection and radiation, the
phenomena influencing one each other and that is why the overall heat
transfer must be considered according to dominant phenomenon.
2t the contact between fluid and wall having a temperature difference
between them, there are simultaneously produced convection and
radiation.!ever convection can be separated by radiation but at lower
temperatures radiation can be neglected. The heat transmitted from wall to
fluid r c
$ $ $ +
is a sum of convective and radiant heats. The e4uation is
the same if reported to unit of surface
e%pressed in heat flu%es:
c r
. . . +
>eeping the heat transfer form given by
!ewton law it can be written
( ) S t t $
f p r r

and g is overall heat
coefficient through convection and
radiation.
g
c
convective heat transfer coefficient
g
r
radiative heat transfer coefficient
7ig.:A. Thermal flu% from wall to fluid
+f convection is dominant, it can be written the radiative thermal flu% in the
following way, in which the radiative flu% 4
r
keeps the form of e4uation for
convective heat transfer2
( )
f p r r
t t .
+f radiation is dominant it can be written the convective thermal flu% in the
following way, in which the convective flu% 4
c
keeps the form of e4uation
for radiative heat transfer.
7inally :
( ) ( ) ( )
f p r c
f p
c r c
t t
T T
C . . . +
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+ +
B B
)
()) ())
The e%pression of emission coefficient caused by convection phenomenon
`
c
results from e4uality aforementioned :
( )
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
B B
)
()) ())
f p
f p c
c
T T
C
t t
The radiative heat transfer coefficient results also as:

( )
f p
f p
r
t t
T T
C
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
'
()) ())
B B
)

Case studies
6. lane ,all
7or a heat transfer from two fluids separated through a plane wall, from left
to right, in fig.::, there will be a convective#radiative heat flow from fluid
( to wall, a conductive heat transfer through the wall 0decreasing
temperature from t
p(
to t
p2
1 and a a convective#radiative heat flow from wall
to fluid 2.
+n steady state the global thermal heat flow 0 or rate of heat1 o between
fluids is e4ual to thermal flu% through any of three environments, meaning:
7ig.::.Thermal flu% through fluids separated by a plane wall
The heat flu%es through every environment can be written:
with g
(
coefficient of convection from fluid ( to the wall, _# thermal
conductivity of the wall , M # wall thickness and

g
2
coefficient of
convection from the wall towards the fluid 2.
The total temperature variation between the fluids can be written as :
2 2 2 ( ( ( 2 (
f
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
f
t
f
t
f
t + +
By repacinf temperature differences from flu% formula above,it results:
> overall heat transfer coefficient beween fluids through the wall
2nalog, e4uations are determined for every type of wall according to its
thermal resistance.
B. 0ayered plane ,all
7ig.:@. Thermal flu% through fluids separated by a layered plane wall
The thermal flu% is similar to the homogeneous plane wall made of one
single type of material, but as there are several layers 0n1 of material with
different thicknesses M
i
and thermal conductivities _
i
,then the overall heat
flu% 4 is:
C. Cylindrical ,all
7ig.:*. Thermal heat flow through fluids separated by a cylindrical wall
7or the cylindrical wall the heat flow n is the same in convectionfron the
fluid ( to the wall ,then in conduction inside the wall and finally in
convection from outer wall towards fluid 2.
+n steady state ,knwing the surfaces of heat e%change, it can be written:
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
(
2
2 (
( ( ( (
# s
ln
#
2s # s
f p
p p
p f
t t l d
d
d
t t
l t t l d
2s in case of plane wall there are calculated three differences which will be
summed to get:
,
_
2 2 ( (
2 (
(
(
2
ln
2
( (

s
#
d d
d
d
l
t t
f f
( ) l t t
f f
K
d d
d
d
#
2 (

2 2
(
(
2
ln
2
(
( (
(
(

". 0ayered cylindrical ,all
7ig.:C. Thermal heat flow through fluids separated by a layered cylindrical
wall
3imilar to the cylindrical homogeneous wall,it can be written for the multi#
layered wall:
( ) l t t
f f
K
n
d
n
i i
d
i
d
i
d
#
2 (
(
(

2
(
(
ln
2
(
( (
(
(

+
+

-. Spherical ,all
7ig.@). Thermal heat flow through fluids separated by a sperical wall
5ondition of a steady state for homogenous wall 0n 9 ( 1 :
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
2 (
2 (
( (
2
( (
# s

( (

#
2s # s
f p
p p
p f
t t d
d d
t t
t t d

2s in previous situations three temperature differences are calculated and
summed up to get 2 (
#
f f
t t
, then resulting :
( )
,
_
#
2 (
2
2 2
2 (
2
( (

( ( (
2
( (
(

f f
t t
K
d
d d
d

+. 0ayered spherical ,all2
( )
,
_
+
+

+
#
2 (
2
(
(
2
( (

2
(
(
( (
2
( (
(

f f
t t
i i
K
n
d
n
i
d d
i
d

9. 1ibbed ,all
7ig.@(. Thermal flu% through fluids separated by a ribbed wall
=ibbed area 2
2
, is used in that side where the convection coefficient is
0much1 smaller 0
2
] 0 ] 1
(
1
The ribbs are relatively thin so that the conductive transfer is
appro%imated considering only the wall of thickness
5ondition for steady state transfer is:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 ( ( ( ( (
# #

#
f p p p p f
t t % t t t t %

and, as previous,three temperature differences are calculated and summed
up to get 2 (
#
f f
t t
,then resulting :
( ) #
2 (
2 2
(
(

(

( (
(

f f
t t
K
%
%
%

*uestions
(. 6hich are the forms of heat transfer S
2. 6hat is a stationary 0steady state1 heat transferS
. -ow is defined a thermal flu%S
B. 6hat is thermal flu% densityS
A. 6hat is the e4uation of 7ourier law S
:. -ow is defined thermal conductivity S
@. 6hat is the e%pression of conduction heat transfer for homogeneous
plane wallsS 2nd for non#homogeneous onesS
*. 6hat is the e%pression of conduction heat transfer for homogeneous
cylindrical wallsS 2nd for non#homogeneous onesS
C. 6hat is the e%pression of conduction heat transfer for homogeneous
spherical wallsS
().6hich are the measures determining convective heat transfer S
((. 6hich is !ewtonXs law S
(2.6hich are the laws and principles of similitude S
(.6hich is the radiant heat transfer law S
(B.6hich is the e%pression of overall heat flu% between two fluids
separated by a wall S

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Chapter 1.

The specific volume is inverse of density or specific mass

"olume of a kilomole of substance is called molar volume "

The molar volume is the volume reported to number of kilomol of

in the conditions of normal

+n thermodynamics it is used also specific gravity K defined as

with m, the mass of the body e%pressed in kg, Qt is temperature variation of

with n, number of kilomoles , Qt is temperature variation of the body, in

+n thermodynamic applications, to make the calculations easier specific

The mathematical e%pression of the first law of thermodynamics for closed

=eplacing in du and di results

according to Poule law

according to Poule law.

of a mi%ture is e4ual to the sum of gas densities weighted with

0e4uation of the transformation 1 or

The mechanical work of the isochoric transformation is

5aloric e4uations of state :

$echanical work of the isobaric transform is:

-eat e%change of the isobaric transform with the e%ternal environment is

-eat e%change of the isothermal transformation is :

/raphical representation of the transformation in p:V coordinates is like in

5aloric e4uations of state:

that represents the

# e4uation of the transformation in p,"

The work of the polytropic transform is

5onsidering n constant, as known, for o given polytropic transform, it can be

The number of microstates corresponding to an e4uilibrium state represents

of the 5arnot cycle has ma%imum values if it is reported at the same

,then it is integrated , in which

# being the mathematical e%pression of second

belongs to the second trigonometric 4uadrant, being

).2. The complete combustion of (aseous fuels

The real air volume is min min air air

# for fuels reported to normal volumes in which r

The theoretical study of internal combustion engines introduces several

# number of strokes 0 B or 21, i

depends only by volumetric compression ratio

over ((..(2 will produce an abnormal

e%presses the real fuel economy of the

from heat released within combustion

#indicated efficiency e%presses the degree of perfection of theoretic

it is noticed that the efficiency increases with volumetric

B. /iving to dual combustion cycle particular values

for constant volume cycle and dual

in which J piston diameter ,

# volume of piston stroke

# subunitary measures#the heat engines is consuming work so loss will

0global, general efficiency 1

3.2.3. .ulti8sta(e compressors

, it is cooled again and introduced at p

in the third stage

The theoretical power of the installation t

7ig.AB.Thermodynamic efficiency versus f

),BB* ),B* ),A)* ),A2C

0 g 9 B1 0),AA1 0),A21 0),BC1 0),B@1

The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is modified because 4 is

varies inversely with compression pressure ratio f.

B for gas turbine

efficiency of combustion chamber

,with B# fuel flow rate 0 masic1 and

1.+ts value shows the intensity of the heat e%change.

The coefficient _ e%presses the property of bodies to transmit thermal

The heat variation on three directions is :

in which a is thermal difusivity