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Pseudo-Shear

Pseudo
-Shear Interferometry
Interferometry
Peter
Peter B.
B. Keenan
Spectra-Physics,
Spectra- Physics, Inc.,
Inc., Optics
Optics Division
1250
1250 W.
W. Middlefied
Middlefied Road,
Road, Mountain
Mountain View,
View, California
California 94042
94042
Abstract

Pseudo-Shear
Pseudo
-Shear Interferometry
Interferometry (PSI)
(PSI) is
is aa technique
technique for
for obtaining
obtaining enhanced,
enhanced, absolute
absolute acaccuracy in interferometric
curacy
interferometric measurements.
measurements. Whereas
conventional interferometry yields measureWhereas conventional
measurelimited in
in accuracy
accuracy by
by the
the optical
optical system
system and
and by
by the
the reference
reference surface,
surface, Pseudo
Pseudo-Shear
ments limited
-Shear
Interferometry
accuracy which
which substantially
Interferometry provides
provides the
the capability for measurement accuracy
substantially surpassurpasses it.
it. The technique
technique consists of a regimen
regimen for data taking and aa mathematical procedure
for analyzing the resulting
resulting data.
data.
for
Introduction

digital, phasephase-measuring
A digital,
measuring interferometer
interferometer provides
provides sets of measurements
spaced
measurements on
on equalequal-spaced
array of points.
points. Between measurements,
measurements, aa translation
translation is
is made
made of
of the
the optic
optic being
being measured.
measured.
is adjusted
adjusted to
to correspond
correspond to
to the
the sampling
sampling interval
interval of
of the
The translation is
measuring
the phasephase-measuring
interferometer. Differences between the measurement
measurement sets are
are then
then taken
taken numerically
numerically in
in aa
computer. These differences
differences comprise
comprise aa pseudo
pseudo-shear
Further processing of
interferogram.
Further
of
-shear interferogram.
these
these difference
difference sets
sets is
is then
then required
required to
to separate
separate the
the deterministic
deterministic variation,
variation, the
the systesystematic error,
error, and the random
random error.
error.
The
analysis of the data sets
sets ultimately
ultimately yields
yields the
the following:
following:
The analysis
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.

surface measurements,
measurements,
Absolute surface
interferometer calibration,
calibration, and
Absolute interferometer
of the
the random
random errors.
errors.
An estimate of

The
The accuracy
accuracy requirements
requirements for
for interferometric
testing have
have become
become increasingly
interferometric testing
increasingly severe
severe in
in
few years.
years. There are two primary reasons
reasons for
for this
this trend.
trend. First,
the past few
First, fringe scanning
interferometers
available. These interferometers
interferometers provide
provide impresimpresinterferometers have
have become commercially available.
sive levels
levels of measurement resolution
resolution and
and accuracy.
accuracy. Second,
are increasing
increasing numbers
numbers of
of
sive
Second, there are
complex optical
attempted which
large numbers
of surfaces,
surfaces, systems
systems
complex
optical systems
systems being attempted
which contain
contain large
numbers of
which
wavefront error
error of
of aa fraction
fraction of
of aa wavelength.
wavelength. Thus,
which require a transmitted wavefront
Thus, the
the rerequirement for
surface measuring
accuracy has
of the
the
quirement
for single
single surface
measuring accuracy
has continued
continued to
to pressure the state of
art.
Although digital
digital interferometers
interferometers have provided the
the user with a measurement resolution
resolution on
Although
the order
of 1
1/1000
the
order of
/1000 wave,
wave, there
there remains
remains the
the unavoidable
unavoidable fact
fact that
that all
all interferometric
interferometric meameacomparisons. Each value is
Some method is
is aa path
path difference.
difference. Some
is required
required to
to
surements are comparisons.
separate the
the path
test from the compocomposeparate
the component
component of
of the
path difference
difference due
due to
to the
the optic
optic under
under test
nent of
is due
in other
elements of
of the syssysnent
of the
the path
path difference
difference which
which is
due to
to surface
surface variation
variation in
other elements
tem.
procedure described here has somewhat
somewhat the
the flavor of
of lateral shear interferometry.
interferometry.
The procedure
The
The processing
processing includes
includes obtaining
obtaining the
the differences
differences between
between successive
successive measurements
measurements with
with a
lateral
optic. The
is used
the two
two
The term
term pseudo
pseudo is
used because
because the
the comparison
comparison of
of the
lateral shift
shift of
of the optic.
wavefronts
in a
a computer
themselves.
wavefronts is
is affected
affected in
computer rather
rather than
than between
between the
the wavefronts
wavefronts themselves.
pseudo-shear
the optic
The pseudo
-shear interferogram
interferogram may
may be
be processed
processed to
to yield
yield the
the actual
actual profile
profile of
of the
optic
and the
of the
the instrument.
process does not
instrument. This
This process
not require the use of a
and
the systematic errors of
reference standard of known accuracy.
accuracy. Elimination of the
the requirement
requirement for
for aa reference
reference stanstanreference
dard simplifies
introduced by
reference which
dard
simplifies the
the testing
testing and
and reduces
reduces the
the errors
errors introduced
by a reference
which has
has lost
lost
its
stress.
It
is not
not cercerits figure
figure due
due to
to thermal
thermal or mechanical stress.
It may
may be
be that
that the reference is
tified to
to the
the level
level of accuracy
accuracy required
required for
for the
the test.
test.
tified
Two position PSI
PSI

Conceptually,
a fixture
fixture that
that may
Conceptually, the
the method
method requires
requires placing
placing the
the test
test piece
piece on
on a
may be
be trantranlaterally. After
a first
first measurement,
is translated and a second
second
slated laterally.
After taking
taking a
measurement, the
the part
part is
measurement is
is made.
made. An analysis is
is performed on the results of the two
two measurements to
to
moved from
from the
the component
component which
which remained
remained fixed.
fixed.
separate the component which moved
The
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 1.
1. At
At each position,
position, the
the measurement
measurement yields
yields
The measurement
measurement geometry is
the distance between
between the
the surfaces.
surfaces. The
Mi, are
are made
made at
at equalequal-spaced
The measurements,
measurements, Mi,
spaced positions.
positions.
2

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surface
surfaces. The surface
two surfaces.
the two
describing the
for describing
axis for
is aa mathematical axis
in Figure 1 is
Also
Also shown
shown in
distance
the distance
Likewise, the
axis. Likewise,
the axis.
from the
Ti, from
distance, Ti,
its distance,
by its
is described by
of
of the
the test
test optic
optic is
Ri.
by Ri.
given by
is given
surface is
to the reference surface
axis to
from the
the axis
is
it is
Ri. In
Ti -- Ri.
difference, Ti
simply aa difference,
is simply
Each measurement is
In conventional
conventional interferometry it
Ti.
and Ti.
Ri and
of Ri
values of
individual values
the individual
not the
and not
determined and
be determined
can be
only
only this
this difference which can
be
would be
that would
scheme. The
measurement scheme.
two measurement
this two
detail this
in more detail
Consider in
The expected values that
for
values for
hand column are the measurement values
left hand
In the
2. In
Figure 2.
in Figure
shown in
obtained are shown
the left
meaexpected meathe expected
shows the
column shows
right hand column
configuration. The right
initial configuration.
each
each position
position of
of the initial
values,
reference values,
the reference
that the
translated. Note that
been translated.
has been
optic has
test optic
surement values
surement
values after the test
positions.
measurement positions.
the measurement
to the
fixed with respect to
stay fixed
Ri,
Ri, stay
InPseudo-Shear
referredtotoasasa aPseudo
is referred
columns is
two columns
the two
in the
items in
the items
The
The difference between the
-Shear Inset is readily
shown. This
is shown.
result is
that result
equations that
3, the group of equations
In Figure
erogram. In
terf
terferogram.
Figure 3,
This set
the
obtaining the
one. After obtaining
for TT one.
value for
arbitrary value
an arbitrary
choosing an
after choosing
Ti after
the values of Ti
for the
solved for
solved
Ri.
each Ri.
for each
solved for
be solved
may be
Figure 22 may
of Figure
equations of
the equations
Ti, th
for each Ti,
values
values for
Ti,
both Ti,
for both
values for
of values
set of
produces aa set
readily produces
and readily
simple and
is simple
This two
two position
position technique is
This
is there
including additional
for including
is no
However,
However, there
there is
no provision
provision for
additional data
data nor
nor is
there provision
provision
in the
are alleviated
for
for error estimation. These
These deficiencies
deficiencies are
alleviated in
the following
following multiposition
multiposition
analysis.

Ri.
and Ri.

Multiposition PSI
PSI

Combining
Combining the
the results
results of
of three
three or
or more
more measurements
measurements with
with lateral
lateral shifts
shifts makes
makes it
it possible
possible
reduction.
error reduction.
least-squares
include a aleastsimultaneously include
and simultaneously
analysis and
previous analysis
to extend the previous
squares error
This provides
This
provides aa means
means to
to estimate
estimate the
the measurement
measurement error
error as
as well
well as
as the
the best
best estimate
estimate of
of the
the
the
for the
be for
will be
surface. The
reference surface.
the reference
and the
test optic and
the test
of the
profile of
profile
The analysis presented will
4.
Figure 4.
in Figure
represented in
equal-spaced
with equalmade with
case
case of
of three
three measurements made
spaced translations
translations as represented
Each
Each column
column corresponds
corresponds to
to one
one of
of the
the measurement
measurement sets;
sets; each
each being
being aa translation
translation of
of one
one
is assumed
It is
E. It
term, E.
error term,
an error
is an
equations is
these equations
in these
next. Also
unit from
Also appearing in
the next.
from the
unit
value.
each value.
with each
associated with
error associated
independent, random error
that
that there
there is
is an
an independent,
There are
are two
two independent
independent sets
sets of
of differences
differences which
which may
may be
be obtained
obtained from
from these;
these; they
they are
are
There
comand comthe same quantity and
estimates of
are both
D23 are
D12 and D23
that D12
5. Note that
in Figure 5.
shown in
shown
both estimates
of the
easily
be easily
can be
they can
made, they
lists. If
the lists.
If additional
additional measurements
measurements are made,
comprise the
parable pairs comprise
point.
at this point.
included at

Because
Because the
the number
number of
of unknowns,
unknowns, including
including the
the error
error terms,
terms, exceeds
exceeds the
the number
number of
of equaequathe
of the
derivation of
6 shows the derivation
sense. Figure
square sense.
least square
the least
in the
solved in
is solved
set is
this set
Figure 6
tions, this
tions,
errors.
the errors.
of the
squares of
the squares
of the
sum of
the sum
for minimizing the
normal
normal equations
equations from the conditions for
The nornor-equations. The
normal equations.
the normal
gives the
derivatives gives
Substitution and
and evaluation of the partial derivatives
Substitution
matrices. Addiof matrices.
use of
the use
by the
form by
compact form
more compact
somewhat more
in somewhat
displayed in
mal
mal equations may be displayed
tionally,
tionally, display
display of
of the
the matrix
matrix for
for aa specific
specific size
size array
array shows
shows the
the starting
starting and
and ending
ending
five positions
of five
case of
the case
for the
equation for
values
positions on
on the
the
values explicitly. Figure 7 shows the matrix equation
optic.
test
test optic.
except
four except
are four
diagonal elements are
matrix. All
band matrix.
symetric band
All diagonal
is aa symetric
left is
on the left
The
The matrix
matrix on
vector
column vector
two. The column
than two.
greater than
size greater
matrix size
any matrix
for any
prevails for
form prevails
This same form
last. This
the last.
size.
any size.
of any
arrays of
for arrays
shown for
pattern shown
the pattern
on
right maintains the
the right
on the
Ti. Oboptic, Ti.
test optic,
the test
of the
profile of
the profile
for the
solve for
to solve
inverted to
readily inverted
be readily
This matrix may be
acmost acfor most
However, for
problem. However,
the problem.
of the
end of
the end
considered the
be considered
Ti might be
for Ti
the values for
taining the
taining
measurements.
the measurements.
for the
estimate for
error estimate
an error
determine an
to determine
curate work,
curate
work, we are required to
arranged to
the differences might
will be noted the
it will
4 for a moment,
to Figure 4
Returning to
moment, it
might be arranged
Figure
in Figure
shown in
Ri. The resulting differences are shown
determine Ri.
to determine
eliminate Ti
eliminate
Ti and thus be used to
of
interferometer. Application of
the interferometer.
for the
data for
PSI data
yield PSI
and yield
differences and
These are shifted differences
8. These
8.
the
the least-square
least- squaremethodology
methodology to
to this
this set
set of
of equations
equations produces
produces the
the matrix
matrix equation
equation for
for dede9.
Figure 9.
in Figure
shown in
termination
termination of
of the
the reference as shown
five by
Again,
Again, the
the patterns
patterns of
of the
the components
components of
of this
this equation
equation is
is shown
shown for
for dimension
dimension five
by
the
for the
accomplished. The solution for
readily accomplished.
is readily
sizes is
other sizes
of other
Extension
Extension to matrices of
forward.
is straight forward.
Ri is
values
values of
of Ri
five.

Ti. Substituand Ti.


Ri and
for Ri
values for
given values
have given
equations have
matrix equations
two matrix
solutions of these two
The solutions
The
aserrors asthe errors
of the
determination of
permit determination
Figure 44 permit
of Figure
equations of
tion
tion of
of these
these values
values into the equations
in
developed in
be developed
can be
statistics can
error statistics
values, error
value. From the enumerated values,
sociated with each value.
sociated
measurements.
absolute measurements.
the absolute
on the
order
order to
to place
place confidence bounds on
3

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Summary

AA technique
technique for
for processing
processing interferometric
interferometric data
data has
has been
been described
described which
which allows
allows absolute
absolute
measurements to be obtained without reference
reference to
to aa standard.
standard. The Pseudo
Pseudo-Shear
-Shear Interferogram
is obtained
of aa sequence
sequence of
of measurements
measurements with
with lateral
lateral shifts
shifts between
between
is
obtained by digital processing of
them. The
for including
including additional
additional data
data and
and for
for error
error analysis.
analysis.
The algorithm has provision for

Surface
Test optic
Surface profile of Test

Ml
M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

Surface profile of Reference

Figure 1.
1. Measurement geometry.
geometry. At
each position,
position, the
the
At each
yields the
the distance
distance between
between the
the surfaces.
surfaces.
measurement yields
The
Mi, are
are made at
at equally
equally spaced
spaced positions.
positions.
The measurements,
measurements, Mi,

MEASUREMENT 11
(Initial)

MEASUREMENT 22
((Translated)
Translated)

Mll=
Rl
M11= Tl- R1
M12= R2- R2
M13= T3- R3
R3
M14= T4T4- R4

M22= TlT1- R2
M23= T2- R3
M24= T3- R4

Figure 2.
2 . Measurements before and
and after
after
translation of
of test
test optic.
optic.

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M12 - M22
M13 - M23

=
=

Tl
- T1
T2
T2 - T2
T3
T3 -

M14 - M24

- T3
T4
T4 -

M15 - M25

=
=

T5
T5 - T4

differences.
3. Measurement differences.
Figure 3.
Figure
is readily
This set
set of equations is
This
Ti.
of Ti.
values of
the values
for the
solved for

#2
MEASUREMENT #2
(1st
(1st translation)
translation)

#3
MEASUREMENT #3
(2nd translation)
(2nd

Ell
R1+ Ell
Tl- R1+
T1E12
T2- R2+ El2
T2+
R3
T3T3- R3+ E13
E14
T4- R4+ El4

E22
R2+ E22
Tl- R2+
M22= T1E23
R3+ E23
T2- R3+
M23 = T2M23=
M24=
M24= T3T3- R4+ E24

E33
R3 + E33
M33= TiTl- R3+
E34
R4+ E34
M34= T2- R4+

M15= T5- R5+ E15

T4- R5+ E25


M25=
M25= T4-

E35
R5+ F35
M35= T3- R5+

#1
MEASUREMENT #1
(Initial)
Mll=
M11=
M12=
M12=
M13=
M13=
M14=
M14=

translation.
each translation.
after each
Measurements before and after
4.
Figure
Figure 4.
included.
are included.
terms are
Error terms

FIRST
FIRST DIFFERENCES
E112
Tl ++ E112
T2 -- Ti
D12 = M12 -- M22 == T2
E113
T2'+
T3 -- T2
D13 = M13 -- M23 == T3
+ E113
D13
E114
T3 ++ E114
T4 -- T3
D14 = M14 - M24 == T4

SECOND
SECOND DIFFERENCES
223
Tl ++ E223
T2 -- Tl
D23 = M23 - M33 == T2
E224
T2 ++ E224
T3 -- T2
D24 = M24 -- M34 == T3
E225
T3 ++ E225
T4 -- T3
D25 = M25 - M35 =- T4

are
differences. These are
5. Measurement differences.
Figure
Figure 5.
quantities.
repeated estimates of the same quantities.
repeated

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ERRORS
SQUARED ERRORS
MINIMIZE SUM OF SQUARED

=
=

E 2 ijk
E2ijk

S
.76

- D12)
Tl (T2
( T2 - T1
- D13)
+ (T3
( T3 - T2 -

3E
a E
a3T2
T2

+ (T2
- D23)
Tl (T2 -- Ti
+

+ (T3
( T3 - T2 - D24)

aE

3E
aE
3T4
aT4

8T3
aT3

= 0
'

equations for minimiNormal


6.
Figure 6.
Normal equations
errors.
the sum of the squared errors.
zation
zation of
of the

4-2000
4
-2
0
0
0

T2

D22 - D23 + D33 -- D34


D23 - D24 + D34 -- D35

4-200
4
-2
0
0

T3

0-24-20
4 -2
0
-2
0

T4

0
0

0-24-2
4 -2
0 -2

T5

D25 -- D26 + D36 -- D37

00-22
2
0
0 -2

T6

D26 - 00

-2
-2

D24 -- D25 + D35 -- D36


+ D37 -- 0

for the
equation for
Figure 7.
of the
the profile of
Matrix equation
optic.
test optic.

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FIRST DIFFERENCES
E.
Rl ++ E..
511
Sil == Mil
Mil - M22 = R2 -- R1
E.
R2 ++ E..
R3 -- R2
M23 == R3
512 = M12 -- M23
S12
E.
R3 ++ E..
R4 -- R3
M24 == R4
513 = M13 -- M24
S13

SECOND DIFFERENCES
E.
R2 ++ E..
R3 -- R2
522
S22 == M22
M22 - M33 == R3
E.
R3 ++ E..
R4 -- R3
= R4
M23 - M34 =
523
S23 == M23
E.
R4 ++ E..
R5 -- R4
524
S24 == M24 - M35 == R5

Shifted measurement
8.
Figure 8.
differences.

3-2000
0
0
0
3
-2

R2

4-200
0
4
-2
0
0-24-20
4
-2
0
0
-2

R3
R4 =

Sll + S22 -- 0
512
S12 -- S11
513
S13 -- S12 + S23 -- S22
514
S14 -- S13 + S24 -- S23

0-24-2
4
-2
0
-2

R5

515
S15 -- S14 + S25 -- S24

00-22
2
0
0
-2

R6

-2
-2

0
+0
-- S15 +

-- S25

the
of the
profile of
the profile
for the
equation for
9. Matrix equation
Figure 9.
surface.
reference surface.

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