The Sustainability of Dam Construction Through Environmental Management

IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT)
ISSN: 2319-2402 Volume 1, Issue 1 (Sep.-Oct. 2012), PP 01-05

www.iosrjournals.org
The Sustainability of Dam Construction through Environmental

Management
Adeniji Olawale Aladelokun (Phd)
Department of Geography, College of Education, Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State. Nigeria.
Abstract: This paper examines dam construction in relation to positive and negative socio-economic impacts.
It is affirmed that Environmental Impact Auditing (EIA) holds the key to lowering negative impacts. It is a well
known fact that dam construction impacts are multi-disciplinary as climatology, geology, biodiversity, etc are
affected, with each having feedback effects. Environmental managers and planners must therefore seek to
combat negative impacts of dam construction with the use of cognate Environmental Management Plans
(EMPs).
I.
Introduction
Water management projects have a long history as their desirability was recognized even in early
civilization especially in regions of insufficient rainfall (Adams, 1975). As observed by Garbrecht (1983) such
great civilizations as those in the valley of the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and Hong-ho were able
to develop on the basic of complex and advanced water management systems. Going by the report of Odihi
(1991), it is possible by such means as Advanced Water Management System for many to ensure adequate
supply of water in time and in space which will result in meaningful improvement of the quality of life for
communities hitherto trapped in poverty and misery brought about by lack of potable water.
All living things on the earth depend on water and the earth is the only confirmed planet where water is
present in liquid form, falling as precipitation and flowing through the landscape (Bruce, 1992). As there is a
long history of water management projects, so also, are there numerous reports and publications of dams and
their impact on the environment and life in general. This paper focuses attention on the various aspects of dams
at global, regional and local levels. The discussion includes the functional aspects or justification for dam
construction, dam impacts on socio-economic activities as well as history of water development projects. Effort
is equally made to highlight the importance of the Environmental Impact Auditing (EIA).
II.
An Overview on Dam Construction
A Dam according to Chorley (1969) is a barrier constructed across a stream or river to impound water
and raise its level. Mcgraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (1960) defines a dam as a structure
that bars or detains the flow of water in an open channel or watercourse. In the same and manner, Encyclopedia
International (1980) describes dam as an artificial barrier across an open channel of water to create a reservoir or
raise water level. It is a barrier built across a river to create a lake (Hornby, 2000). However, Iwena, (2000) sees
a dam as an extensive area occupied by water trapped on a river course. From the foregoing, therefore, a dam
can generally be defined as barrier built across a water course to hold back or control the flow of water for
storage, diversion or detention.
The construction of dams have been going on from early mans period of civilization as evidence are
available in the region of Bacelonia around Euphrates and Tigris in present-day Iraq. The construction of
barrier across streams channels for the purpose of impounding water goes back to about 5,000 years from now
(Sharma and Sharma, 1990).
In most cases, the ideas for which these dams have been constructed have to a great extent been
accomplished at both individual and societal levels. According to Ayoade (1988), large projects in historical
development have been undertaken in Africa not for power but as multipurpose schemes. The first modern dam
scheme was the Gezira project developed from 1913 to 1950. It consists of a system of irrigation canals and
sehar dam, which direct water from the Blue Nile into the main canal.
WCED (1987) observed that in the Republic of Cameroon, in addition to Lagolo Dam, other dams
including Song-Loulon and Edea Dams on the Sanaga River are respectively the third and fourth largest dams in
West Africa after Kanji Dam on the River Niger in Nigeria, and the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in
Ghana.
NEST (1991) documented that, dams have been built in Nigeria since about 1918 notably for domestic
water supply. Hamadou (1997) reported that in Nigeria, right from 1920, hydro-electric power was generated
on the Jos Plateau. In 1964, the first major hydro-electric power project in Nigeria started with the building of a
dam across the Niger River at Kainji. In 1967, the first phase of the project was completed. At present, the
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The sustainability of dam construction through environmental management

Federal Government of Nigeria has spent billions of Naira to construct many dams for potable water supply and
hydro-electric power generation. The Bakolori Dam built in mid 70s on River Sokoto in the North Western part
of the country floods 30,000 hectares of arable land with irrigation water. In a village Bugauda, South of Kano,
the Tiga Dam in Kano State was built. Also, the Shiroro Dam and Kanji Dam in Niger State were constructed in
1993 and 1964 respectively with the purpose to serve industries with electricity.
The number of dams and irrigation projects according to NEST (1991) has been increasing rapidly and
feasibility studies are being carried out for most of larger rivers in Nigeria. Hamadou (1997), however,
observed that besides the Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P) these dams serve in the development of water supply,
irrigation agriculture, control of floods etc.
III.
Types of Dams
Iwena (2000) classifies dam on the basis of structural form and material used. Dams are also often
classified according to their mode of impoundment and the use for which they are built. To this end, dams are
classified into four major types viz: gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dam and earth-filled dams. The Gravity
dams are solid concrete structures with triangular cross sections. The dam is thick at its base and thinner
towards its tops. When view from the top, it is either straight or only curved and the upper stream is nearly
vertical. It is described by Encyclopedia International (1980) and Babalola (2003) as roughly triangular dams in
cross section. The broad based gravity dam holds water by the brute force of its weight. An example of this
type is found on Columbia River in Washington.
Arch Dams are those that employ the same structural principles as the arch bridge. Arch dam is a type
whereby the upper stream curve of the slender dam directs water pressure through the abetment to the retaining
canyon walls. It is normally built in the form of up ended arch with bases on the walls of canyon. Arch dams
are thinner and therefore require less material than any other type of dam. Arch dams are good for sites that are
narrow and have strong abutments. They are usually made of concrete and more often in the shape of a V than U
shape. The gorge is often in the shape of a V, less often it is a U-shape. They use much less of concrete than
gravity dams. The best design is a double-curved arch. Arch dams are generally classified as thin, medium and
thick, depending on the ratio of the width of the base (b) to the height (h). Examples of this type of dam are the
Kariba Dam in Rhodesia; the Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River in Arizona, which is 216m high, and
475m long; the Vallon de Baume in France which is 12m high and 18m long and curved with a radius of about
14m; and the Monte Novo dam in Portugal which is about 5.7m high and 52m long, including the wing walls at
both ends.
Buttress Dams are watertight upstream face and a series of buttresses that support the face and the
water pressure and the weight of the structure to the foundation. (Encyclopedia International,1980). An
example is the Pidima Dam built in 1953 in Greece.
Encyclopedia International (1980) describes Earth-filled Dam as those that utilize natural materials
with minimum of processing and may be built with primitive equipment under addition where any other
construction materials would be impracticable. They are the earliest known dams and seem to be the easiest to
construct. However, numerous failures of many earth-filled dams that are poorly designed make it an apparent
threat. Earth-filled Dams require much more engineering skill in their conception and construction that any
other types of Dam. The highest earth-filled embankment dam in the world is the Oroville Dam in California.
Embankment Dam is the type of dam with earth materials, rock and dirt. It is the oldest form of Dam. It
generally costs less than those concrete dams. It is interesting to note that Ero Dam in Mobal Local Government
Area of Ekiti State falls into this category.
IV.
Environmental Impact Auditing for Sustainable Management of Dams
Environmental Impact Auditing is simply the assessment of the potential impacts of proposed projects
on the environment. It is an environmental management tool used to determine the impacts of a project or
operation on the environment (SPDC, 1994). EIA is a process or study in which the potential physical,
biological, economic and social impacts of a proposed infra-structural development on the immediate and more
distant environment are identified, analyzed and predicted (Canter, 1977 and Odiette, 1993)
Environmental Impact Auditing (EIA) is a process based on current scientific knowledge used to
predict the environmental consequences of a proposed action, project or programme and to provide decision
makers with systematic information presented in such a way that the impacts as well as mitigating needs can be
presented in spatio-temporal perspective (Stromgquist and Tathamn, 1992).
The history of EIAs in developing countries dates back to the late 1970s when the first EIAs mostly
followed the criteria and procedures practised in the donor country (Kakonge and Imevbore, 1993) which might
have hampered the development of EIA in the individual countries by not taking into account the local
environment and associated environmental problems.
Historical legacy of sustainable development dates back to 1972 at the Stockholms environmental
debate and in 1992 at the Environment and development crusade in Rio de Janiero and also in 2002 at Durban
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sustainable development summit. The Durban Summit added poverty alleviation to the theme of the discourse.
This was however based on the premise of the Stockholm Summit which states that the resources of the world
are limited and its ecosystem fragile and vulnerable to change.
Agenda 21, the central document of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janerio in 1992, defined sustainable development as a global partnership for economically
viable socially equitable, ecologically sound development not only for today but also for the future: Among the
major point of discussion of the Rio conference are gradual elimination of ozone depleting substances, Green
House gas reduction, biodiversity conservation and protection of international waters.
Sustainable development requires that environmental resources should be used functionally and
judiciously. It requires adequate planning of developmental activities so as to enhance long term resources use.
From the foregoing, a clear understanding of the concept shows that sustainability does not mean that resources
should not be used at all. In this regard, sustainability borrow support from the concept of preservation which
implies that resources be exploited in such a way that is renewable or regeneration is assured.
Development itself was noted by Brechery (1992) to depend on what social goals are being advocated
by the development agency, Government, analyst or adviser. That is, a list of attributes which society seeks to
achieve or maximize. Drawing from this, therefore, development can be conceived as the utilization of natural
resources. Therefore, the sustainable use of resources means the ability to seize opportunities in managing
environmental problems.
Houghton (1999) noted rightly that sustainable development means the long term survival of the planet
earth and its process of dynamic evolution, including the wide range of species which currently lives on it, not
least the human kind. For human kind, it specifically requires achieving a position which allows for living in
harmony with nature, that both life and resources are managed efficiently for optimum support of man and other
life- forms. From the stand point of Houghton (1999), it can be asserted or inferred that vandalisation and
destruction of cherished biodiversity are environmentally hazardous and deleterious to human habitation as well
as to the environment.
Further, on development and sustainability the World Commission on Environment and Development
(1987) defines sustainable development as a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the
direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, the institutional change are all in
harmony and enhance both current and future potentials to meet human needs and aspiration.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that UNCED (1992) prescribes antidote for wasting resources as a
process for integrated activities and actions aimed at re-cycling value- added resources through use. That is,
such an approach does not only meet the need of the present but will not compromise the needs of future
generations. Sustainability means that the present generation must not rub the coming generations. Rather, we
must leave an ecological footprint of judicious use of environmental resources in such a way that they become
renewable. This could otherwise be regarded as socio- cultural and economic sustainability. From the
environmental point of view, sustainable development means the use of environmental resources in such a way
that the action is not hazardous or deleterious to the environment and the components therein.
Whatever is the nature and type of project in supra-urban space, certain changes are imminent in the
environment as well as in the socio-economic life of the people as a result of these interventions. Hence, the
necessity of the Socio-economic and EIA to be carried out in order to identify, quantify and evaluate the nature
and magnitude of impacts of these changes in the biological, bi-geophysical, economic and political
environments in which such projects are located and more importantly, in which humanity must operates
(Olokesusi, 1994).
Studies on environmental impact of dam construction have demonstrated that dams and reservoirs have
significant impacts on the environment in their drainage basin while providing solution to water and power
deficiency most especially in drought prone areas of Nigeria (Olofin, 1980). This implies that such impacts can
either have adverse or beneficial effects on the quality of the environment or on the sum total of the resources
comprised within it. Aladelokun (2010) working on Ero Dam in Ekiti State asserted that impacts may be
primary or secondary, short-term or long-term, irreversible or quasi-permanent. The primary impacts are caused
generally by project input. These include change in land use, land ownerships, vegetative species
composition, noise of equipment, dust during land clearing, and more importantly, a change in electricity output.
The secondary impacts on the other hand are usually caused by project output. They are indirect or induced
changes and typically these include the associated investments and changed patterns of social and economic
activities that are stimulated or induced by the project.
Short-term impacts are those that have immediate impacts of short-duration such as noise, dust, erosion
and flood, application of herbicides to remove undesirable species, while the long lasting or cumulative effects
of these agents may permanently damage other vegetative growth or result in disruption of ecological balance.
The importance of giving special consideration to both short-term and long-term effects is to enable us to assess
the cumulative impacts of the project, which either significantly reduce or enhance the state of the environment
for future generations.
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The irreversible impacts apply primarily to non-renewable resources. Endangered species, fossil
fuels, minerals or wildlife situation through sub-soil exposure often involve irreversible effects.
Irretrievable effects on the other hands are the adverse effects on some value that will be lost and
cannot be restored. These among others, include an endangered or threatened animal that may become extinct
or destruction of unique habitants for wildlife, increase freshwater flow into water bodies changing the balance
in coastal/marine environment, change of flow of water in river due to impoundment and irrigation scheme
downstream, change in labour and capital investment.
V.
Conclusion
The rate of development has increased since the world entered 21st century. Closely associated with
the trend of development are socio- economic and environmental problems like flooding, bio-diversity loss,
pollutions etc. There are isolated and non-integrated approaches for combating these problems. Each problem
requires its own strategy of reduction or prevention. However, for environmental sustainability to be achieved,
the problems must be combated at the stage when the impact is least felt. Then an integrated holistic approach
must be adopted.
The prevention of adverse consequences of Dam construction requires the application of different
techniques. Specifically, this could be achieved through environmental design to ensure sustainability. A
meaningful strategy therefore should not end in the planning studio or on the drawing board. Sustainable
development requires adequate implementation monitoring. It requires advocacy planning as well as citizen
participation. Naresh and Richard (1996) advocate an integrated strategy to meet the needs of people, the
economy and ecosystem through proper decision making.
There seems to be greater consensus among those advocating sustainable development that greater
emphasis must be place on full and true valuation of the natural, built and cultural environment. With the
foregoing as a background, one can rightly say that the issue of sustainability is very important in combating
negative consequences of Dam construction through environmental design. For it to be achieved, local
communities should have inputs in potential Dam construction consequences and possible reduction measures.
The campaign for the prevention of negative consequences of Dam through environmental design is an
attempt to reduce and eliminate environmental and social-economic destruction and to correct the damages of
the past. It is sustainable and futuristic in its perspective. It is a kind of development that offers a vision of the
need of the present generation without undermining the integrity of the environment, and without equally
jeopardizing the interest of the future generation (Sousan, 1992).
The struggle for environmental sustainability entails the availability of effective and environmental
friendly technologies. Sustainability on this note requires the utilization of economical resources without
changing it, secure adequate resources for sustainable human consumption, and support fairness, cooperating
and well-being in the effort towards human development and social health. Which satisfies the basic needs of
humanity, ensuring survival, healthy human development, and the expression and free pursuit of the full range
of human aspiration ( Naresh and Richard, 1996).
In other development, NERC (2004) posited that environmental cost accounting will help us in
achieving the goals of the much needed environmental sustainability. It is stressed that EIA help us to avoid or
restore the effect we have on the environment. It is equally noted that even though, science and technology is
more needed for the development of sustainable development, the growth of science and technology is equally
posing some environmental footprint. The publication referred to EIA as a management tool that can help us to
improve our performance and plan for dealing with risk and liabilities.
According to the World Bank (2003), the core challenge for sustainable development is to ensure a
better quality of life for all the people while meeting everyones aspiration for social well being. To achieve this,
it is necessary to sustain critical ecosystem services and strengthen the social fabric that underpins
development.
This paper helps to establish the fact that tangible improvement in peoples living condition in the
thematic spheres mention above will no doubt reduce the rate and extent of negative Dam consequences and
tendencies. The challenges ahead therefore have triggered the preparation of the environment strategy that will
better align the management of environment and natural resources with sustainable development.
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ISSN: 2319-2402 Volume 1, Issue 1 (Sep.-Oct. 2012), PP 06-10
Use of Buffers in Spectrophotometric Determination of NPhosphonomethylglycine by the Ninhydrin Colour Reaction

1
Lami A. Nnamonu*, 2Nnadozie N. Nkpa
Centre for Agrochemical Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Makurdi Nigeria.
Abstract: The aim of this work was to develop a spectrophotometric method of glyphosate assay that is
consistent and reproducible over a wide range of concentrations. The use of two buffer systems 4M CH3COOLi
pH 5.2/Hydrindantin/DMSO and 0.2M sodium citrate buffer pH 5.0/Ascorbic acid/DMSO which have not been
used before for ninhydrin quantification of glyphosate is hereby reported. The absorbance of the resulting
purple derivative was measured at 570 nm with molar absorptivity of 5.79910 4 and 1.975104 L mol1 cm1.
Linear relationships between concentration and absorbance were observed over Beers law range from 0.3 to
4.5g/ml. For the citrate system, R2 =0.982, SD = 0.3744, N= 9 and P < 0.0001; while R2 =0.984, SD =
1.0956, N= 8 and P < 0.0001 for the acetate system. The citrate buffer/ascorbic acid system was employed
successfully in adsorption studies of glyphosate unto kaolin and starch. Limits of detection and quantification
were 0.6159 and 0.699 g/ml respectively for citrate buffer and 1.802 and 5.5465 g/ml respectively for the
lithium acetate buffer system. The method was applied to quantification of glyphosate adsorption to kaolin and
starch, where the citrate buffer gave R2 values of 0.803 (Freundlich) and 0.964 (Langmuir) for kaolin.
Keywords: Buffer, Glyphosate, Ninhydrin, Spectrophotometric determination
I.
Introduction
N-Phosphonomethyl glycine (glyphosate or NPMG) is the worlds most popular broad-spectrum, nonselective, systemic herbicide used for post-emergence control of annual and perennial weeds. Its impact on the
environment is becoming more significant by the day [1, 2]. The same properties that make it very effective also
make simple methods for its determination and quantification, especially at residue levels, difficult to establish.
Its polar nature and high water solubility make extraction difficult and restrict the options for using standard
derivation techniques often employed for gas chromatographic (GC) analysis [3]. The absence of a chromophore
or fluorophore in NPMG also necessitates derivation techniques for the determination of glyphosate residues by
liquid chromatography. The use of chromatographic methods and emerging techniques in glyphosate analysis
has been reviewed [4]. These methods involve the use of sophisticated and expensive equipment, requiring
lengthy clean up procedures, giving less than ideal recoveries. In spite of numerous published methods, it has
been noted that the analysis of glyphosate at residue levels has tested the patience of many experienced analysts
[5]. The increasing load of literature on methods of analysis of glyphosate is indicative that a robust, reliable
method is still being sought.
A method of analysis that can be used in simple laboratories, the type in developing countries, is the
spectrophotometric method. The reaction of glyphosate with carbon disulphide to convert the amine group into
dithiocarbamic acid has been used as basis of a spectrophotometric determination of glyphosate [6]. The
dithiocarbamate group was used as chelating group for reaction with transition metal ion, Cu (II). The resultant
yellow complex was measured at 435 nm. Another UV-VIS spectrophotometric method of glyphosate analysis
based on the transformation of amino group of glyphosate in aqueous acetonitrile to the corresponding
dithiocarbamate derivative has been reported [7]. The derivative is reacted with copper (I) perchlorate to form a
yellowish green colored complex with absorbance measured at 392 nm. Spectrophotometric determination of
glyphosate using ninhydrin has been done in neutral aqueous medium in the presence of sodium molybdate at
100oC to give a Ruhemanns purple adduct [2]. However, at the concentrations investigated in this work, the
Ruhemanns purple adduct formed decomposed (as evidenced by fading of the rich purple colour) on standing
for a few minutes at 18oC while measurements were going on, thereby giving inconsistent results. We wanted
therefore, to make the ninhydrin assay reproducible over a wide range of concentrations.
The similarity of NPMG and its principal metabolite, aminomethyl phosphonic acid (AMPA) to
naturally occurring amino acids and amino sugars contributes to the difficulty in determining residues of these
compounds in crops and animal products. In this paper, this similarity is exploited and the buffers used in amino
acid analysis are employed in the spectrophotometric determination of glyphosate. Buffers were utilized because
it was reported that buffers and the presence of reduced ninhydrin are essential for the performance of
reproducible and sensitive assays of amino acids [8, 9] The use of two buffers 4M CH3COOLi pH
5.2/Hydrindantin/DMSO and 0.2M sodium citrate buffer pH 5.0/Ascorbic acid/DMSO in the reaction of
ninhydrin with glyphosate was explored and the Ruhemanns purple product obtained (stabilized by the buffers)
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Use of Buffers in Spectrophotometric Determination of N-Phosphonomethylglycine by the Ninhydrin

was isolated and confirmed by 1 H-NMR. This method was used in quantifying glyphosate adsorbed to kaolin
and starch.
II.
Materials and methods
II.1 Materials
N-phosphonomethyl glycine 96%, ninhydrin, lithium hydroxide monohydrate, anhydrous citric acid,
sodium citrate dihydrate, hydrindantin dehydrate, corn starch and kaolin were obtained from Sigma Aldrich, UK
and used as received. All reagents were of analytical grade purity. Absorbance at 570 nm was measured on a
Cary 50 Bio PCB 150 Water Peltier system UV-visible spectrophotometer. Plastic vials were used for the
experiments to obviate the binding of glyphosate to glass. All solutions were prepared in high purity water that
was obtained from a Milli-Q water system (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA). 1H-NMR was taken on a Bruker
400. FTIR was run on Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 spectrophotometer (PIKE Technologies 16077).
II.2 Buffers
II.2.1 Lithium acetate buffer.
M lithium acetate buffer pH 5.2 was prepared with 168 g (4 mol) lithium hydroxide monohydrate and
293 ml glacial acetic acid [10]. The alkali was weighed in the fume hood (to avoid breathing in the dust), poured
into 200 ml high purity water in a 500 ml conical flask and placed on a vortex mixer. When it was about half
dissolved, the acetic acid was added. After vigorous effervescence subsided and the solution cooled to about
25oC, it was poured into a 1000ml volumetric flask, properly rinsed in and water added close to the mark. The
flask was corked, filtered through a sintered glass funnel and the pH taken. When pH was lower than 5.2, it was
adjusted with LiOH.H2O (1g gave a 0.01 rise in pH units). When it was higher than 5.2, pH was adjusted by
adding glacial acetic acid (1 ml acid equal to a 0.01 rise in pH unit). The solution was made to the mark.
II.2.2 Citrate buffer.
0.2 M citrate buffer pH 5.5 was prepared by sonicating 3.412g (17.76 mmol) anhydrous citric acid and
0.6588 g (2.24 mmol) sodium citrate dihydrate, C6H5O7Na3 .2H2O, in 60 ml high purity milli-Q water in a
100ml volumetric flask. 2.0 cm3 of 12.5 M NaOH was added and the solution made up to the mark [11].
II.3 Ninhydrin reagents
II.3.1 Ninhydrin Reagent I.
This reagent solution was prepared by adding 1.6 g (8.99 mmol) ninhydrin with vigorous stirring to 60
ml DMSO in a 250 ml round bottom flask. 0.24 g (0.745 mmol) hydrindantin was added into the deep vortex
created by the stirrer (for fast dissolution) and stirring continued for 5 minutes till it was completely dissolved.
20 ml lithium acetate buffer pH 5.2 was then added and stirred for another 3 minutes [9, 10]. The golden-yellow
mixture was poured into an amber-coloured bottle and stored under nitrogen in the refrigerator.
II.3.2 Ninhydrin Reagent II.
This reagent was prepared by a modification of the method of Yokoyama and Hiramatsu [12] that used
ascorbic acid/ninhydrin/methyl cellosolve in the determination of glutamic acid. In this work, methyl cellosolve
was replaced by DMSO as advocated by Moore [10]. Into 30 ml of DMSO in a 100 ml conical flask was added
0.25 g (1.4 mmol) ninhydrin with stirring. 7.5 mg (0.043 mmol) ascorbic acid was then added and stirring
continued for another 3 minutes to ensure complete dissolution. The lightyellow reagent was corked and stored
in an amber-coloured bottle under nitrogen in the refrigerator.
II.4 Stock solutions
20 mg N-phosphonomethyl glycine was weighed and sonicated in 20 ml water to give a 1000 g/ml
(5.917x10-3M) stock solution. 1ml of this solution was diluted to volume in a 100ml volumetric flask, to give a
10 g/ml solution of glyphosate. Working calibration solutions of 4.5, 4.0, 3.5, 3.0, 2.5, 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.3
g/ml were made by serially diluting this solution. The concentration of glyphosate in these solutions was
determined using ninhydrin in the proposed buffer systems and calibration curves plotted.
II.5 Derivatization with ninhydrin reagents
Into 2 ml glyphosate sample solution in plastic screw cap bottles was added 1ml of the ninhydrin
reagent I. To use ninhydrin reagent II, 2ml of the reagent was added to 1ml of glyphosate sample and 2 ml
citrate buffer pH 5.5. The vials were immersed to a depth of about 2 inches in a boiling water bath for 30 mins.
The rate of heat applied to the bath was sufficient to bring the bath back up to 99 - 100oC within two minutes
after insertion of a full rack of 20 vials. The vials containing the Ruhemanns purple derivative were then
cooled rapidly under running water and the absorbance measured at 570 nm.
II.6 Adsorption to starch and kaolin
7 | Page

Adsorption experiments were done using the batch equilibration method [13]. 2 ml water was added
into 250 mg sorbent (i.e. starch or kaolin) samples in capped plastic vials. 5 ml of standard herbicide solutions
with concentrations ranging from 0.05 mmol to 0.7 mmol were added. These were equilibrated by shaking on a
mechanical shaker (250 rpm, shaking amplitude 12.5 mm, orbital) for 24 hrs at room temperature (18 oC). After
equilibration, the suspensions were centrifuged (4500 rpm for 10 mins) and 3ml of the supernatant was drawn
for analysis of glyphosate, using the proposed buffers.
III.
Results and discussion
III.1 Mechanism
The reaction of ninhydrin with glyphosate is likely similar to that of the alpha-amino acids [14], where
nucleophilic type displacement of an OH group of ninhydrin by the amine group of glyphosate takes place. This
is followed by decarboxylation, hydrolysis (to eliminate phosphoric acid) and the addition of a second ninhydrin
molecule to form the Ruhemanns purple adduct (2). The proposed mechanism is shown in Scheme 1:
O
O
OH
OH
OH
H2N
OH
R=C H2 PO2 H
O
O
O
R
H
N
OH
NH2
CO2
O
HO
NH 3
RCHO
O-
O-
NH
N
-
OH
OH
O
O
N
O- O
Scheme 1 Mechanism of reaction of Ninhydrin and N-Phosphonomethylglycine

1
H-NMR of the isolated ninhydrin-glyphosate adduct showed one peak at 7.65. Structure 2 as written
should give two peaks (7.65 and 8.00) of equal intensity due to the aromatic protons of the two nonequivalent indanetrione rings. However, resonance stabilization of the negative charge of (2) renders the two
benzene rings equivalent, thereby resulting in the absence of the second peak expected at 8.0, similar to
previously reported observation [15]. IR (cm-1): 3445, 3094, 1702, 1150-1180.
III.2. Analysis
Using the buffers at optimum conditions, a linear dependence of absorbance on concentration was
observed over Beers law range from 0.3 to 4.5 g/ml with a molar absorptivity of 5.799104 L mol1 cm1 for
the citrate and 1.975104 L mol1 cm1 for the acetate buffer system. The calibration curves are presented in
Figs. 1 and 2.
5
Absorbance /a.u
Parameter
Value Error
-----------------------------------------------------------B
1.97533
0.09293
------------------------------------------------------------
R
SD
N
P
-----------------------------------------------------------0.98236
0.37435
9
<0.0001
------------------------------------------------------------
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
-5
Concentration x10 M
Fig 1 Acetate Buffer Calibration Curve

14
12
Absorbance /a.u
10
8
Parameter
Value
Error
-----------------------------------------------------------B
5.35419
0.28969
------------------------------------------------------------
6
4
R
SD
N
P
-----------------------------------------------------------0.98402
1.09556
8
<0.0001
------------------------------------------------------------
2
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
-5
Concentration x10 M
Fig 2 Citrate Buffer Calibration Curve

8 | Page

The limit of detection (LOD) was estimated by dividing the relative standard deviation (RSD) of the
blank with respect to water by the slope of the calibration curve (m) and multiplying by a factor of 3.0. The limit
of quantification (LOQ) was calculated by dividing the standard deviation (RSD) of the blank with respect to
water by the slope of the calibration curve (m) and multiplying by 10. The limit of detection, limit of
quantification, correlation coefficient (R), RSD and slope were calculated and summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Quantification Parameters
Values
CH3COOLi
buffer system
Molar absorptivity () L mol1 cm1
1.975104
RSD
0.3744
Correlation Coefficient (R)
0.982
Slope
1.9753
Limit of Detection (g/ml)
1.802
Limit of Quantification (g/ml)
5.5465
Parameter
Citrate buffer system

5.799104
1.0956
0.984
5.799
0.6159
0.699
It is noteworthy that the citrate buffer /ascorbic acid system gave higher R2 values in addition to the fact
that it is economically more viable, similar to earlier reported results [12]. The cost of hydrindantin is about 100
times higher than that of ascorbic acid. Also, about 10 20 times more hydrindantin than ascorbic acid is
required to prepare the same volume of ninhydrin reagent.
II.3. Application
The method of buffers was applied in quantification of glyphosate in adsorption studies of glyphosate
unto corn starch and kaolin. Aliquots of the extract were analysed by the proposed method giving stable
Ruhemanns purple adduct at the ambient temperature.
Glyphosate adsorption isotherm data have been obtained using the batch technique, where various
concentrations of herbicide solution were added directly to aqueous suspensions of the adsorbent. After
equilibration, the concentration of pesticide remaining in solution was determined in the centrifuged
supernatant.
The amount of NPMG adsorbed, qe (mg/g) was calculated on the basis of a mass balance principle
according to Eq.1:
qe = (Co - Ce) * V /w
...1
where Co and Ce are initial and equilibrium concentrations (mg/L) of herbicide in the aqueous phase, V is the
aliquot volume (L) of aqueous solution taken and w is the mass of adsorbent (g).
The Langmuir isotherm is mathematically expressed as follows:
1/qe = 1/ KL.b (1/Ce) + 1/KL
...2
Where KL is the maximum adsorption at the monolayer (mg g -1), Ce is the equilibrium amount of
glyphosate (mg/L) in the aqueous phase, qe is the amount of herbicide adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent , b is
the Langmuir constant related to the affinity of binding sites (mg g-1) for the sorbate molecules, and is a measure
of the energy of adsorption.
A plot of 1/qe against 1/Ce was used to calculate the Langmuir constants KL and b.
The widely used empirical Freundlich equation based on sorption on a heterogeneous surface is given
by:
log qe = log KF + (1/n)log Ce
...3
where KF and n are Freundlich constants indicating sorption capacity (mg g-1) and intensity respectively. KF is a
measure of the amount of pesticide sorbed for an equilibrium concentration of 1 mg/L. The constant, n, is a
measure of the intensity of adsorption and reflects the degree to which adsorption is a function of the
concentration. KF and nF were determined (using the least squares method) from a linear plot of log q e against
log Ce.
The nF value can be considered as an index of site energy distribution (i.e., the higher the nF values, the
less heterogeneous the sorption sites) [16]. Also 1 nF 10 has been interpreted as indicative of favourable
adsorption [17].
The regression coefficient, the calculated Langmuir constants KL and b, and the Freundlich constants
KF and nF, are shown in Table 2.
9 | Page
Adsorbent
Kaolin
Starch
Table 2 Derived Langmuir and Freundlich Isotherm Constants

Langmuir
Freundlich
KL
b
R2
KF
n
6.711
0.160
0.964
2.355
2.132
0.837
2.609
0.722
1.905
2.882
IV.
R2
0.803
0.591
Conclusion
A spectrophotometric method of determination of N-phosphonomethyl glycine using ninhydrin, where

the Ruhemann purple adduct is stable enough to allow measurements over a wide range of concentrations has
been developed. The method, which uses two buffer systems (lithium acetate and sodium citrate) was applied to
quantifiaction of the herbicide adsorbed unto kaolin and starch giving good results. It could be extended to
detection and quantification of glyphosate in environmental samples.
V. Acknowledgement
Analytical Services Chemistry Department, Durham University, United Kingdom is acknowledged. We
are grateful to the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) for sponsorship for L.A. Nnamonu.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
T. V. Nedelkoska, G. K. C. Low, High-Performance Liquid Chromatographic determination of glyphosate in water and plant
material after pre-column derivatization with 9-fluorenylmethyl chloroformate, Anal. Chim. Acta., 511, 2004, 145153.
B. L. Bhaskara, P. Nagaraja, Direct sensitive spectrophotometric determination of glyphosate by using ninhydrin as a chromogenic
reagent in formulations and environmental water samples, Helvetica Chimica Acta, 8(11), 2006, 2686269.
P. L. Alferness, Y. Iwata, Determination of glyphosate and aminomethyl phosphonic acid in soil, plant and animal matrices and
water by Capillary Glass Chromatography with mass-selective detection J. Agric. Food Chem. 42, 1994, 2751-2759.
C. D. Stalikas, C. N. Konidari, Analytical methods to determine phosphonic and amino acid group-containing pesticides, J.
Chromatography, 907, 2001, 1-19.
FAO/WHO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (FAO Plant
Production and Protection Paper 78). Pesticide residues in food 1986, Evaluations 1986, Part I Residues. 1986, Rome.
M. R. Jan, J. Shah, M. Mohammed and B. Ara, Glyphosate herbicide residue determination in samples of environmental
importance using spectrophotometric method, Journal of Hazardous Materials 169, 2009, 742745.
D. K. Sharma, R. Kashyap and N. Kumar, Spectroscopic method for determination of glyphosate in relation to its environmental
and toxicological, Arch. Environ. Sc. 6, 2012, 42-49.
A. C. Beckwith, J. W. Paulis and S. Wall, Direct estimation of lysine in corn meals by the ninhydrin color reaction, J. Agric. Food
Chem., 23 (2), 1975, 194-196.
S. Moore and W. H. Stein, A modified ninhydrin reagent for photometric determination of amino acids and related compounds, J.
Biol. Chem., 211, 1954, 907.
S. Moore, Amino acid analysis: aqueous dimethyl sulfoxide as solvent for the ninhydrin reaction. J. Biol. Chem., 243, 1968, 62816283.
S. Moore and W. H. Stein, Photometric ninhydrin method for use in chromatography of amino acids, J. Biol. Chem., 176, 1948,
367-388.
S. Yokohama, J-I, Hiramatsu, A modified ninhydrin reagent using ascorbic acid instead of KCN, J. of Bioscience & Engineering,
95(2), 2003, 204-205.
M. Cruz-Guzmn, R. Celis, M. C. Hermosin, W. C. Koskinen and J. Cornejo Adsorption of pesticides from water by functionalized
organobentonites, J. Agric. Food Chem., 53 (19), 2005, 7502.
] M. Friedman, Applications of the ninhydrin reaction for analysis of amino acids, peptides, and proteins to agricultural and
biomedical sciences, J. Agric. Food Chem., 52 (3), 2004, 385-406.
D. C. Wigfield, G. W. Buchanan and S. Croteau, On Ruhemanns purple, 58(3), 1980, 201-205.
B. Xing, B. Sorption of naphthalene and phenanthrene by non-amended soils and humic acids J. Environ. Qual. 26:12641270
Environ. Pollut. 111, 2001, 303309.
F. E. Okieimen, F. I. Ojokoh and R. A. Wuana, Preparation and evaluation of activated carbon from rice husk and rubber seed shell
ChemClass J., 2004, 191-196.
10 | Page

ISSN: 21019-2402X Volume 1, Issue 1 (Sep.-Oct. 2012), PP 11-18
Effect of Thermal Processing on Shelf Stable Canned Salted Beef

with Tomato Gravy
Ankur Singh1, T. R. Genitha2, Rongen Singh3, B. R. Shakya4
1
M.Tech Student, 2,3Assistant Professor, 4Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Process and Food
Engineering.
Allahabad Agricultural Institute- Deemed University, Allahabad-211 007 U.P. India
Abstract: Studies were conducted to analyze the characteristics of shelf stable canned salted beef with tomato
gravy involving the effect of thermal processing. Product standardization was done by traditional method
utilizing tomato gravy along with salted beef for making shelf stable canned meat. After that the optimized
preservative concentration and thermal treatments were given to it at different temperature time combinations
viz., 1100C 1150C and 1210C for 20,30 and 40 minutes respectively in order to interpret the effect of thermal
processing and salt as a preservative. Samples were evaluated initially and after that at the intervals of 0, 15,
30, 45, 60, days for sensory analysis. Microbiological, chemical and sensory studies were conducted after each
15 day interval up to other 60 days in order to depict the increase in shelf life stability due to application of
curd as an emulsifier (i.e. effect of preservative and thermal processing). It was found that the thermal
processing of shelf stable canned salted beef with tomato gravy done at 121 0C for 40 minutes had significantly
superior acceptability and the adequate protein, fat, moisture content was found significantly superior in 1100C
for 40 min.
Keywords: Product Standardization, Thermal processing, Canning, Sterilization, Shelf life study.
.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Indian meat industry has emerged as the most dynamic and rapidly expanding segment of livestock
economy as in evident from the production level of 4.9 million tonnes with recent export of 0.27 millions tones
fetching worth about Rs.1400 crores of foreign exchange. Meat is recognized as highly nutritious food being an
excellent source of high quality protein. Containing a good balance of the essential amino acids and having high
biological value. (Rastogi et al.1978). Buffaloes are exported for slaughter from India and Pakistan to the
Middle East and from Thailand and Australia to Hong Kong. Demand for meat is so great that Thailand's
buffalo population has dropped from 7 million to 5.7 million head in the last 20 years, a period in which the
human population has more than doubled. (Charles and Johnson1972).
Ready-to-eat foods have also been defined as the status of the food being ready for immediate
consumption at the point of sale. It could be raw, cooked, hot or chilled and can be consumed without further
processing. Ready- to-heat foods are fully cooked with long shelf life, up to 2-3 years and beyond depending
upon the storage condition. Most commonly RTE foods have been defined as those foods which are ready for
consumption, only to be reheated and consumed. For example Indian curries, deserts, frozen heat and eat
products like chicken and mutton curry, canned beef meat etc. which are generally retorted and are shelf stable.
(Mann and Breashers 2007). Unlike pasteurized cooked meat products where the survival of heat resistant
microorganisms is accepted the aim of sterilization of meat products is the destruction of all contaminating
bacteria including their spores. Heat treatment of such products must be intensive enough to inactivate/kill the
most heat resistant bacterial microorganisms, which are the spores of Bacillus and Clostridium. Temperatures
above 100C, usually ranging from 110-121C (Han et al.2004).
II.
Materials And Methods
The experiment was conducted in self fabricated A 2 size can in the laboratory at the Department of
Agricultural Process & Food Engineering, AAI-DU. Product development & thermal Processing of ready to eat
Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy was conducted in a tin can.
2.1. Materials used: Meat, vegetables, refined oil, common salt, curd, meat masala, dry spices, lemon.
2.2. Method for the preparation of Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy
2.2.1. Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy Preparation
Meat brisket (meat cut from the chest of the animal/buffalo) was washed properly with tap water; the
raw meat was placed in the pan of (5 liters) capacity, cover with cold water and brings gently to the boil. After
the cooking was done properly to get the soft tendering texture in the product, the surface of the beef loaf was
covered with salt, lemon and sugar, and leave for several hours. Meat was turned regularly during the next six
11 | P a g e
Effect of Thermal Processing on Shelf Stable Canned Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy
days salt was rubbed into the beef loaf each time and spoon the brine over the beef. Then, after six days, the
beef was ready to be cooked.
2.2.2. Preparation for the gravy
All vegetables and spices were grinded properly onion, tomato, garlic, green chilly, salt, cloves, cumin
seeds, black cardamom, green cardamom, bay leaves, black pepper corn and meat masala. The above mentioned
grinded ingredients and the putted into the gently boiled refined (sunflower) oil and cook it until the required
taste was developed.
2.3. Final preparation of the Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy

The chopped meat loaves were deeply fried in the refined oil. These fried pieces were filled into the
empty cans with the prepared tomato gravy.
Product standardization
(By traditional method)
Filling
Exhausting
Liding
Thermal processing
(Autoclaving at 110, 115 & 121 oC for 20, 30 & 40 min)
Cooling (tap water)
Storage
2.3.1.
Process flowchart for the thermal processing of Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy in cans.
Flatten can unit
Cylindrical formation by can reformer
Flange end preparation by flanger
Can lid fixed with double seamer
Can examination with water
Can ready for processing

2.3.2. Can fabrication flow chart
Sterilization of can
Filling the contents in the can

Exhausting of filled can in water bath done at 800C for 10 minutes
12 | P a g e
Can lid is fixed with double seaming machine (2 revolution)
Sterilization
Cooling
Storage in a cool and dry place

2.3.3. Schematic flow chart for the canning process.
2.4.1. Microbiological analysis
PDA and NA media was prepared and standard plate count, yeast and mould count was taken at the
intervals of 15 days (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 days).
2.4.2. Chemical analysis
Fat, protein, moisture content, and pH was determined according to (A.O.A.C) method at the intervals
of 15 days (0, 15, 30, 45, 60 days).
III.
Results And Discussion
3.1. Product standardization
The product standardization of salted beef with tomato gravy was done by using finishing technique,
by maintaining low vacuum in the can inspite of the filling temperature and by maintaining head space (1.10) of
the salted beef with tomato gravy because all the cans were filled to constant weight for maintaining the
consistency of the tomato gravy depends on the emulsification. Proper filling resists the breaking of emulsion.
No significant variation in the consistency was achieved, because proper emulsification was achieved by using
proper composition during finishing. The product standardization was done by maintaining adequacy of thermal
processing at temperatures and time treatments (1100C, 1150C, 1210C) for 20, 30, and 40 minutes. The product
standardization of the salted beef with tomato gravy was done by organoleptic evaluation of the product
consisted of offering the curry prepared using the concentrated gravy to a panel of judges drawn from the staff
indicate that there was a definite maturation and improvement during storage of salted beef with tomato gravy.
The product stored at room temperature 25-300C and 370C and thermally processed at 1210C for 40 min, up to
60 days was acceptable.
Similar results were interpreted during the acceptance of sensory, microbial, and chemical analysis of canned
meat based on mutton curry and beef curry (Madhwaraj et al. 1979.)In this canned meat also sensory
evaluation was carried out on 9 point hedonic scale and all analysis were conducted similarly.(Pflugg and
Esselen, 1963).
The salted beef with tomato gravy was standardized by traditional recipe. The nutritional and other
compositions of the product are given below:
3.1.1. Composition
Beef muscle pH (5.4), fat (3.4%), moisture (76.6%), protein (19%), and ash (1%).
Meat cuts considered for each can weighs: 250 g
Tomato gravy with all essential ingredients for each can weighs: 250 g
Weight of empty can : 100 g
Weight of each packed can : 600 g
(500 g : Salted beef with tomato gravy, 100 g : can weight)
3.2. Chemical characteristics of salted beef with tomato gravy
3.2.1. Effect of thermal processing on protein percentage of salted beef with tomato gravy.
Protein
Statistical analysis of protein percentage at 0 days storage was shown that the mean value at temperature
TE1, i.e., 17.51 was significantly superior to the mean value at temperature TE2, i.e., 17.36 which again was
significantly higher than TE3 i.e., 17.23.
Similar trend was observed by the statistical analysis of protein percentage at 0 days storage, was shored that
the mean value at time T1, i.e., 17.64 was significantly superior to the mean value at time T2, i.e., 17.30 which
again was significantly higher than T3, i.e., 17.16.
The same table shows the results during interaction analysis of protein percentage at 0 days storage was shored
that the interaction at TE1+T1, i.e., 17.85 was significantly superior to the interaction at TE2+T1, i.e., 17.62
which again was significantly higher than TE3+T1, i.e., 17.45.
13 | P a g e
It was observed significantly by the findings of the analysis that protein was denaturated at higher temperatures
during thermal processing of salted canned meat with tomato gravy and decreases the biological value of
protein and physical properties of protein were affected due to high temperature and time treatments.
Protein is one which is highly digestible and absorbable and which supplies the organism with
adequate amounts of the amino acids which it needs. Roasting and canning may affect the physical properties of
meat protein adversely by changing the linkages so that they are not as susceptible to enzymatic digestion
(Howker et al., 1976).(Morgan and Kern 1934) found that during canning of meat the biological value
decreased in proportion to increase in severity of the heat treatment .
3.2.2. Effect of thermal processing on fat percentage of salted beef with tomato gravy.
Fat
Statistical analysis of fat percentage at 0 days storage was shored that mean the value at temperature
significantly similar to TE3, i.e., 4.37 (table 4.2).
Whether at time treatments it was observed by the statistical analysis of fat percentage at 0 days storage was
shown that the mean value at time T3, i.e., 4.42 was significantly superior to the mean value at time T1, i.e.,
4.37 which again was significantly similar to T2, i.e., 4.39 (table 4.2).
The same table shows the results during interaction analysis of fat percentage at 0 days storage. It was observed
which again was significantly superior to TE1+T1, i.e., 4.24 (table 4.2).
High temperature cooking of the meat in a vessel or sealed jars and cans, where the meat is roasted, sliced and
sealed in jars. The layer of fat not only protects the meat from contamination but also excludes oxygen. This
separation of fats results in fat embedding. As temperature increases it affects the physical properties of meat
fat. (Reiser and shorland, 1990).
Similar findings were depicted during the fat estimation of canned meat (Madhwaraj et al.1979).
3.2.3. Effect of thermal processing on pH of salted beef with tomato gravy.
pH
Statistical analysis of pH was shored that at temperature TE3, i.e., 5.59 and TE2, i.e., 5.58 was
significantly superior to the mean value at temperature TE3, i.e., 5.55.
Whether at time treatments it was observed by the statistical analysis of mean value of pH at time T3 i.e., 7.67
was significantly superior to the mean value at time T2, i.e., 6.47 and T1, i.e., 6.07.
It was shown that the results during interaction analysis of pH at TE3+T3, i.e., 5.61, TE2+T3, i.e., 5.61, and
TE1+T3, i.e., 5.57 were insignificant.
The pH of meat never reaches such high acid values, but the high temperature reached during the heat treatment
about 112to 113C might favor the reaction. (Morgan and Kern, 1934)), studied that during canning or roasting
if the pH of canned meat lies between 5.4-5.8, the canned meat will be under edible conditions.
These conditions apply to foods of low acidity (pH above a value of 5.5) and medium acidity (pH - 5); with
more acid foods the spores of micro-organisms are less heatresistant. Meat products are mostly low-acid, while
meat and vegetable mixtures are medium -acid. In practice once the F-value (thermal treatment at 1210C) has
been determined for a batch of food according to the size of the container the heat treatment required to treat
subsequent batches is the same (Bender and Zia, 1976).
3.2.4. Effect of thermal processing on moisture percentage of salted beef with tomato gravy.
Moisture content
Statistical analysis of moisture percentage at 0 days storage was shown that mean value at temperature
significantly superior to TE1, i.e., 74.02.
Whether at time treatments it was observed by the statistical analysis of moisture percentage at 0 days storage
was shored that mean value at time T3, i.e., 73.61 was significantly superior to the mean value at time T2, i.e.,
73.86 which again was significantly superior to T1, i.e., 74.04.
The same table shows the results during interaction analysis of moisture percentage at 0 days storage was
shown that interaction at TE3+T3, i.e., 73.38 was significantly superior to the interaction at TE2+T3, i.e., 73.58
which again was significantly superior to TE1+T3, i.e., 73.87.
It was observed by the findings of the statistical analysis that moisture content of meat was decreased
during canning, roasting as the temperature increases the moisture content was decreased during high thermal
time and temperature treatments. High moisture content results in growth of microorganism during meat
canning by using different gravys moisture content decreases as the temperature increases. (Reiser and
shorland, 1990).
14 | P a g e
3.3. Microbiological characteristics during storage period

Standard plate count of canned salted beef with tomato gravy after thermal processing at 121 0C for
similar time combinations showed significant and prominent reduction in the microbial population of canned
salted beef with tomato gravy. The microbial load was reduced to optimum level which clearly depicts the shelf
stability of salted beef with tomato gravy. But the maximum decrease in the microbial population of the canned
salted beef with tomato gravy thermally processed at 121 0C for 40 minutes.
Statistical analysis of microbial count at 0 days storage was shown that the mean value at temperature
Whether at time treatments it was observed by the statistical analysis of microbial count at 0 days storage was
shored that mean value at time T3, i.e., 24.78 was significantly superior to the mean value at time T2, i.e., 41.78
which was significantly superior to T1, i.e., 57.78.
The same table shows the results during interaction analysis of microbial count at 0 days storage. It was shown
which again was significantly superior to TE1+T3, i.e., 32.00.
15 | P a g e
At high temperatures thermal treatments thermally processed cans of meat under gravy preparation have lowest
decline at microbial load and a longer shelf life than other types of food packets such as sachets, pouches, glass
jars. (Madhwaraj et al, 1979).
3.4. Sensory characteristics
The sensory characteristics of the canned salted beef with tomato gravy were analyzed after 0, 15, 30,
45, and 60 days were done and tabulated in table.
After comparing the mean sensory score it was found that the significant mean sensory score was
observed in salted beef with tomato gravy thermally processed at 1210C for 40 minutes after comparing with the
mean sensory score of control. Hence clearly depicts the shelf stability of the canned salted beef with tomato
gravy and its maximum acceptability.
3.4.1. Effect of different temperatures and time of thermal processing on overall acceptability
characteristics of salted beef with tomato gravy.
Same trend as above was observed in mean sensory scores of overall acceptability at temperature TE3,
i.e., 6.87 was significantly superior to the mean value at temperature TE2, i.e., 6.53 which again was
Whether at time treatments it was observed by the statistical analysis of mean sensory scores of overall
acceptability at time T3, i.e., 7.53 was significantly superior to the mean value at time T2, i.e., 6.60 which again
was significantly superior to T1, i.e., 5.67.
The same table shows the results during interaction analysis of mean sensory scores of overall acceptability at
TE3+T3, i.e., 8.00 was significantly superior to the interaction at TE2+T3 i.e., 7.40 which was significantly
superior to TE1+T3, i.e., 7.20.
Results in consonance with the acceptability and nutritional quality of gravy based canned meat on
beef curry and mutton curry (Madhwaraj et al 1979). Results are in confirmation with the the development of
instant ready to eat mutton curry was organoleptically acceptable (Das and Radhakrishna 2001).
Similar results were interpreted during statistical analysis of colour, taste, aroma, flavour,
sensory
characteristics.
16 | P a g e
IV.
Summary And Conclusions
The results summarized and drawn after the present research entitled effect of thermal processing on
shelf stable canned salted beef with tomato gravy are given below
1. Beef meat chunks and tomato gravy was used for development salted meat with tomato gravy. Meat chunks
considered for each can weighs, 250g weight of each chunk, 25g.
2. The product standardization of salted beef with tomato gravy was done by using finishing technique, by
maintaining the filling temperature, at 800C and by maintaining head space (1.10cm) of the salted beef with
tomato gravy. Curd was used as an emulsifier to maintain the consistency of the gravy.
3. The product standardization of salted beef with tomato gravy was done by maintaining the consistency of the
tomato gravy depends on the weight with all essential ingredients for each can, 250g. Proper filling resists the
breaking of emulsion. Proper emulsification was achieved by using curd (50ml for each can) as an emulsifier.
4. Microbiological analysis was carried out to depict the shelf stability of canned Salted Beef with Tomato
Gravy and was carried out after every 15-day time interval up to 60 days. It was observed by the statistical
analysis of microbial count that the canned meat at 1210C for 40 min having mean values at temperature TE3,
i.e., 15.67, at time T3, i.e., 14.00 and the interaction at TE3+T3, i.e., 4.00 were significantly superior to other
samples.
5. Similarly the chemical analysis was done. After the chemical analysis it was observed in the protein, fat, pH
and moisture content percentage at 1100C for 40 min had the significant mean values at temperature TE1, i.e.,
17.51, at time T1, i.e., 17.64 and the interaction at TE1+T1, i.e., 17.85 was significantly superior than other
samples.
6. Thermal processing was done at three different temperature time combinations. From the mean sensory score
it was predicted that canned meat which was thermally processed at 121 0C for 40 minutes had significantly the
superior acceptability.
4.1. Conclusion
The present study also revealed that application of thermal treatments, emulsifier, proper filling
technique and the microbial stability as well as the sensory, and the nutritive characteristics of the canned Salted
Beef with Tomato Gravy were retained. Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy which was thermally processed at
121oC for 40 minutes had significantly superior acceptability and the adequate protein, fat, moisture content
was found significantly superior in 1100C for 40 min. Similarly the maximum decline in the microbial load was
depicted after the canned Salted Beef with Tomato Gravy was thermally processed at 121 oC for 40 minutes.
V.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
References
Association of Official Analytical chemists, 1975 Official methods of analysis, Washington

Bender, AK. and Zia, M. 1976 Meat quality and protein quality. 1. Fd. Technol. 11. 495498
Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R., 1972, Carcass composition of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Australian Journal of
Agriculture Research 23:905-911.
Das, Himanish and K., Radhakrishna, 2001, Preservation of mutton as ready-to-eat curry by hurdle technology, defence food
research laboratory, Siddarthanagar, Mysore, India.
El-Koussy, H. A., Afifi, Y. A., Dessouki, T. A., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977, Some chemical
and physical changes of buffalo meat after slaughter. Agriculture Research Review 55:1-7.
17 | P a g e
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
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[12]
[13]
Han. Jun, Ma and Ledward, D. A. 2004, High pressure/thermal treatment effects on the beef muscle, Meat Science 68 (3): 347355
Howker, John J. ; Shults, Gary W. Wierbicki, Eugen, 1976, Effect of Combined Irradiation and Thermal Processing on Canned
Beef. Army Natick Research And Development Command Mass Food Engineering Lab, . Agriculture Research Review 30 (1):
44-48
Madhwaraj, M. S., S. B. Kadkol, Nair, P. R., Dhanraj, S., Govindarajan, V. S., Baliga, B. R., 1979, Central Food Technological
Research Institute, Mysore, India, manuscript.
Mann, J. E. and Brashears, M. M. 2004, Contribution of Humidity to the Lethality of Surface-Attached Heat-Resistant Salmonella
during the Thermal Processing of Cooked Ready-to-Eat Roast Beef, Research Note, Journal of Food Protection, 70(30):762-765
Morgan, A. F., Andg. E. Kern. 1934, The effect of heat upon the biological value of meat protein. J. Nutrition, 7: 367.
Pflugg, J., Esselen, W. B., 1963 in food processing operations, the AVI publishing co.,
Inc. 410.
Rastogi, R., Youssef, F. G., and Gonzalez, F. D. 1978, Beef type water buffalo of Trinidad-Beefalypso. World Review of Animal
Production 14(2):49 -56.
Reiser, R. and Shorland, F.B. (1990), Meat Fats and Fatty Acids , journal of food science and technology, (2)5: 21 -62
18 | P a g e

Taxonomic Redescription of Messor Himalayanus Forel

(Hymenoptera: Formicidae), New Report from South India
Presty John 1 & K A Karmaly 2
1
s.H College, Thevara, Cochin, India

St.Xaviers College For Women Aluva. India
Abstract: Ants are dominant insects and highly developed social animal. They are widely distributed
throughout the world. Currently there are 28 subfamilies and 408 genera. (Bolton et.al, 2007) The species
Messor himalayanus Forel belongs to the subfamily Myrmicinae of family Formicidae. The present study was
carried out in three places of Kollam district viz. Kuriottumala, Punalur and Yeroor. The ecology of this species
ie; nesting pattern, habit, habitat, food preferences, active involvement in day timings and colonial behavior are
observed. The species Messor himalayanus Forel resdescribed, compared with other species of Messor and
similarities and dissimilarities are also provided. Currently there are only two species of Messor reported from
India and only one from South India and the species Messor himalayanus Forel adds a new report to South
India.
Keywords: Messor himalayanus, Myrmicinae, New report, Resdescription, South India.
I.
Introduction
The genus Messor was established by Forel in 1890 as subgenus of Aphaenogaster . In 1892d Emery
synonimised as Cratomyrmex based on the type-species Cratomyrmex regalis by monotypy, 1895 as subgenus
of Stenamma . In 1903 Bingham raised Messor as genus based on the type species Formica Barbara, , in 1917
Veromessor by Forel as subgenus of Novomessor. The genus Veromessor was recently synonymised with
Messor (Bolton, 1982). Currently there are 112 species, 49 subspecies in world (Bolton, 2012) . In India there
are only two species of Messor. (Himender Bharti,2011)
The genus Messor is commonly known as Harvester ants. Harvester ants are species that regularly store
collected seeds in underground granaries (Hlldobler and Wilson, 1990), thus shaping the physical, chemical
and hydrological properties of the soil (Cammeraat et al., 2002). The colonies can be often seen in grassy areas
where seeds are available. This kind of land forms a suitable place for Messor himalayanus Forel for nest
construction. Most of them construct the nest behind the roots of grass.
II.
2.1 Study site

The study was performed in a typical grassland area ie; Kuriottumala (Kollam). The soil is mainly
sandy. The typical vegetation is composed of herbaceous plants, mostly dominate by grasses.
Specimens were collected by all out search method on the ground. Collected specimens were mounted
on rectangular cards and pinned with Asta insect pins of size 38 mm x 0.53 of 3 (made by Newy Goodman Ltd
U K). Ants up to the genus level by using Stereoscopic binocular microscope (Getner 40x) and species level
identification is carried out using Leica MZ6 stereo zoom microscope (Germany), based on taxonomic keys of
(Bingham, 1903, Hlldobler & Wilson, 1990; Bolton, 1994). The unmounted specimens were stored in 70%
alcohol in eppend off tubes and kept in refrigerator for further studies.
III.
Measurements
AL: Alitrunk length .the diagonal length of the Alitrunk in profile from the point at which the pronotum meets
the cervical shield tho the posterior base of the metapleuron
ED Eye diameter: maximum diameter of compound eye measured in oblique lateral view.
F1-F12: Funicular segments, Length of the antennal segments (funnicles) except scape
HL: Head length: maximum distance from the mid-point of the anterior clypeal margin to the mid-point of the
posterior margin of the head, measured in full-face view;.
HW: Head width: measured at widest point of the head, in full-face view behind eye-level.
PW: Pronotal width: maximum width of pronotum measured in dorsal view.
SL: Scape length: maximum scape length, excluding basal condyle and neck..
19 | Page
Taxonomic Redescription Of Messor Himalayanus Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), New Report

IV.
Indices
CI: Cephalic index (HWx100)/HL
SI: Scape index (SLX100) /HW
V.
Results
5.1 Worker measurements & indices

5.2 Worker minor
TL= 6.5 mm; HL= 2 mm; HW= 2 mm; CI= 100 mm; SL= 1.5 mm; SI=75 mm; ED= 0.25 mm; PW= 1 mm;
AL= 2 mm
5.3 Colour
Head, thorax and abdomen black; antennae, legs reddish brown.
5.4 Sculpture and hair pattern
Yellowish white, abundant, appressed hairs are present all over the body.
Head anteriorly, pronotum above, abdomen, smooth, polished and shining; mesonotum above in profile and
laterally, very densely transversely striated; pronotum laterally, head posteriorly, nodes of pedicel rugulose;
mandibles longitudinally striated.
5.5 Head
Excluding mandibles head square; posterior region of head distinct, emarginated , vertex anteriorly
little truncated; antennae 12 segmented with indistinct club, antennal groove distinct, scape of the antennae
short, slender, cylindrical, reach upto 3/4th from its insertion to the top of the head; eyes small, round, midlaterally located; ocelli absent; frontal carinae short, distinct, widely divergent; clypeus triangle, slightly
emarginated posteriorly, transverse anteriorly; mandibles curved inwards, strong, massive, dentition obsolete.
5.6 Thorax
Pronotum and mesonotum forming a single convexity, pronotum forming a shield above, promesonotal
groove distinct; mesometanotal groove deep; mesopleuron with single impression in the middle; metanotal
spiracle, metapleural gland bulla distinct, metanotum unarmed; coxa of legs rectangular; trochanter thickened in
middle, narrowed posteriorly; femur slender not dichromatic.
5.7 Abdomen
Two nodes of pedicel distinct, first node anteriorly attenuated, emarginated above, conical; helicium
present; second node of pedicel rounded above, as long as broad. Gaster opaque, broadly oval.
5.8 Plesiotype:
Worker major N 8 29' 18.2872" E 76 55' 7.7743", INDIA: Kerala, Trivandrum (Veli) Presty: 20.IV.
2011 [DZSXCA).
5.9 Other materials examined:
2 W: INDIA: Kerala, Kollam (Kuriottumla) Presty John 07. X. 2011,. 2W: INDIA: Kerala, Kasargod (Bekkel)
Presty John, 20.I.2011, 2 W: INDIA: Kerala, Kollam (Yeroor) Presty John 26.I.20121W: INDIA: Kerala,
Kollam (Punalur) Presty John 19.IV.2012.
5.10 Distribution: INDIA [Kerala: Kollam; Trivandrum; Kasargod);
5.11 Biology: Unknown.
5.12 Habit: Granivorous.
5.13Habitat: Collected from grassy plains.
VI.
Discussion
Messor himalayanus Forel closely resembles with Messor barbarous Linnaeus in having 1. Sides of
thorax transversely striate. 2. Abdomen highly polished, smooth and shining.3. Mandibles longitudinally
striated. However Messor himalayanus Forel differs from Messor barbarous Linnaeus in having 1. Meatnotum
unarmed (in Messor barbarous Linnaeus metanotum is dentate). 2. Pilosity wanting ((in Messor barbarous
Linnaeus Pilosity abundant). 3. Head with scattered punctures ((in Messor barbarous Linnaeus head is without
punctures).
20 | Page
Taxonomic Redescription Of Messor Himalayanus Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), New Report

VII.
Acknowledgement
We also wish to thank KSCSTE Trivandrum, Kerala for providing the fund for carrying out the work.
Also thankful to the Principals of S.H College Thevara and St. Xaviers College for Women, Aluva for
providing necessary facilities for carrying out the work.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
Bingham, C. T. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma.Hymenoptera, Vol.II. Ants and Cuckoo-wasps.. Taylor
and Francis, London (1903) 506 pp
Bolton, B. Afrotropical species of the myrmicine ant genera Cardiocondyla, Leptothorax, Melissotarsus, Messor and Cataulacus
(Formicidae). . Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Ent.), 45, . (1982) 307-370 pp.
Bolton, B. Identification Guide to the Ant Genera of the World:. Cambridge, Mass (1994) 222 pp.
Bolton, B. Catalogue and Synopsis, in http://gap.entclub.org/ (2012)
Bolton, B., Alpert, G., Ward, P. S. and NeskereckiI, P. BOLTONS CATALOGUE OF ANTS OF THE WORLD, 1758 2005.
Compact Disc Edition, Harvard University Press.
Cammeraat L.H., Willott S.J., Compton S.G. and Incoll L .D. 2002. The effects of ants nests on the physical, chemical and
hydrological properties of a rangeland soil in semi-arid Spain. Geoderma (2007).105: 120
Emery, C. d. Voyage de M. Ch. Alluaud dans le territoire d'Assinie (Afrique occidentale) en juillet et aot 1886. Formicides.
Annales de la Socit Entomologique de France 60 (1891): (1892) 553-574 pp.
Emery, C.. Beitrge zur Kenntniss der nordamerikanischen Ameisenfauna. (Schluss). Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Geogr. Biol. Tiere,
(1895) 8: 257-360 pp.
Forel, A. Fourmis de Tunisie et de l'Algrie orientale rcoltes et dcrites par Auguste Forel. Annales de la Socit
Entomologique de Belgique. Comptes-rendus (1890) 34: lxi-lxxvi
Forel, A.. Cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis. Bulletin de la Socit Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles
(1917) 51: 229-253.
Himender Bharti, List of Indian Ants (Hymenoptera:Formicidae), Halters, (2011) Vol 3 79- 87pp.
Hlldobler B. and Wilson E.O The Ants. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. (1990). 732
pp.
21 | Page

Effects of Sublethal Concentrations of Diazinon on Total Protein

in Tilapia Fish (Oreochromis Niloticus)
A.A. Soyingbe1, O.O. Ogunyanwo1, T.B. Hammed2, and A.O. Adesope3
1
Dept. of Environmental Health Sciences, Ogun State College of Health Technology, Ilese-Ijebu, Nigeria.
Alesinloye Market Environmental Health Project, Alesinloye Market, Jericho Road, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
3
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Ogun State College of Health Technology, Ilese-Ijebu, Nigeria
2
Abstract: This study assessed the influence of organo-phosphorus (OP) Diazinon pesticide on adult tilapia fish
(Oreochromis niloticus) in a semi static renewal bioassay for 30 days. Adult fish were acclimatized to
laboratory conditions for 7days and then exposed to varying sub-lethal concentrations of diazinon (1.0, 2.5, 5.0,
7.5 and 10.0 mg/l) for 30 days and compared with control (untreated). Total protein was determined in plasma,
muscle, gills, liver and kidney. The water quality used for the study showed pH 7.05, dissolved oxygen 6.7 mg/l,
temperature 26.0 0C, alkalinity 16.25 mg/l, conductivity 106.12ps/cm and turbidity 0.46 NTU. The 96h LC50 of
diazinon was 7.65mg/l. At various concentration of diazinon, fish showed uncoordinated behaviour such as
somersaulting, convulsion and erratic swimming. The levels of total protein in plasma was significantly lower
(P<0.05) in all test concentrations in comparison with the control; but no concentration-dependent among the
various concentration of diazinon was observed. Conversely, protein concentrations in muscle, liver, gills and
kidney decreased with increased concentration of diazinon (P<0.05). It is concluded that protein concentrations
in muscle, gill, liver and kidney are useful biomarkers of sub-lethal effects of diazinon in Oreochromis niloticus.
Key words: Biomarkers, Diazinon, Oreochromis niloticus, Renewal bioassay, Sub-lethal effects, Total protein
I.
Introduction
With advancement in technology, agrochemicals such as pesticides especially chlorinated
hydrocarbons are considered as part of the integrated farming practice to protect crops and animals from insects,
weeds and diseases [1]; wide spread use of pesticide in agriculture is now a worldwide phenomenon [2]. Also,
the use of pesticides for effective pests control has generated a lot of concerns relating to public health and
environmental pollution. [3]. This is because organophorus pesticides have fully replaced the persistent
chlorinated pesticides in the 1970s and on the beginning of 1980s. The main advantage of the
organophosphorus pesticides was their low cumulative ability and short-term persistence in the environment.
Although the organophosphorous pesticides have been replaced by pyrethroid base pesticides during the last 1015 years, there is still a very intensive utilization of organophosphates.
Apart from their regular use for crop production, organophosphorus pesticides are also utilized in fish
culture (mainly those based on dichlovos and trichlorfon) to suppress some parasitary diseases such as
monogeneoses and arthropodoses [4, 5]. Nevertheless, the pesticide preparations are considered harmful for fish
in most cases [6]. The aquatic ecosystem as a greater part of the natural environment is also faced with the threat
of a shrinking genetic base and biodiversity due to indiscriminate use of pesticides. There are four major routes
through which pesticides reach the water; it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may
percolate or leach through the soil, it may be carried to the water bodies as run off, it may also be spilled
through accidental discharge or neglect [7].
According to Mellandy [8], pesticides become readily available in the food chain through
bioaccumulation in both aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna that usually result into unquantifiable disastrous
consequences on the ecosystem [9]. Due to the residual effects of pesticides, important organs like kidney, liver,
gills, stomach, brain, muscles and genital organs are damaged in fish [7]. Diazinon is a common active
substance of organophosphrous pesticides [10] and is an anticholinesterase which causes loss of functional
coordination that result in immobilization of organisms [11].
II.
Materials and methods
Fish samples used for this study were sourced from Agriking Farm Nig. Ltd, Abeokuta, Nigeria. They
were transported to the Laboratory of Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Ogun State College of
Health Technology, Ilese-Ijebu, Nigeira, where the study was carried out (Plate 1). The sample of Diazion was
obtained from International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. Fifty-eight Oreochromis
niloticus (mean weight 40.12 0.12g; mean length 10.24 + 0.4 cm) were acclimatized individually in
rectangular aquaria for seven days during which they were fed twice a day with 40% crude protein.
22 | P a g e
Effects of Sublethal Concentrations of Diazinon on Total Protein in Tilapia Fish (Oreochromis

Unconsumed feed and feacal waste were removed and water was regularly replenished as recommended by
Oyelese and Faturoti [12]. Sub-lethal concentrations of diazinon for assay (1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0mg/l) were
determined based on the range finding test [13]. These were prepared by transferring 0.02; 0.13, 0.25, 0.37 and
0.5 ml, respectively of the original concentration of diazinon and making it up to 30L with distilled borehole
water in the test aquaria. Also, 30L of the diluents water was used as control. Four replicates of each treatment
level (concentration) and control were set up and fishes were introduced individually into each aquarium.
The exposure period lasted for 30days during which the exposure media were renewed daily. The water
quality parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, alkalinity; conductivity and turbidity of the test
media were determined and recorded following the standard method on water quality assessment, [14]. After the
30 day exposure period, blood samples for biochemical analysis were collected from each fish with 23G size
needle and syringe. Fish were not fed prior to blood sample collection. Samples were preserved in heparinsed
bottles. Fishes were sacrificed after blood collection and dissected for the collection of their gills, liver, kidney
and muscle. Thereafter, 0.5g of each organ was macerated (grounded) with pestle and mortar. Physiological
saline was used for preservations and stabilization. Samples were centrifuged at the rate of 300 rpm for 10
minutes. The supernatants were then removed and stored in plain bottles at 200C for analysis of the total
protein levels (Lowery et al; 1951). The results obtained were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA),
where difference exist, Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) were used to test for pair wise significant
differences (P<0.005) between treatments [15].
Plate 1: The researchers (led by Soyingbe A.A.) acclimatizing the fish samples in the Laboratory
III.
Results
The results obtained from water quality analysis in this experiment showed the following: pH (7.05),
Dissolved Oxygen (6.7mg/l), temperature (26.00C), alkalinity (16.25mg/l), conductivity (106.12us/cm) and
turbidity (0.46NTU). Total Protein in concentrations (mean) in plasma and organs of O. niloticus exposed to
sub-lethal concentrations of diazinon for 30days were shown in the Table 1. The total protein in the analyzed
samples, including plasma, muscle, liver, gill and kidney in the treatments were significantly higher than the
values obtained for the control (P < 0.05). Also, the treatments did not have significant impact on the level of
protein in plasma and muscle of O. niloticus. That is, no concentration dependent pattern was observed in the
plasma protein levels. However, a concentrations dependent effect was found in the protein profile in muscle,
liver, gills and kidney with a progressive decrease in the concentration of proteins in these organs as diazinon
concentrations increases.
Table 1: Total Protein Concentrations (mean) in Plasma and Organs of O. niloticus
Treatments mg/l
Plasma
Muscle
Liver
Gill
Kidney
O(Control)
500a
210.12a
240a
280a
250a
b
b
b
b
1.0
360
160.01
190
210
160ab
2.5
300b
140.03b
150bc
180bc
140b
b
b
cd
cd
5.0
320
120.02
100
150
120b
b
b
d
de
7.5
330
100.21
50
140
100b
b
b
d
e
10.0
350
90.12
50
130
90b
Mean followed by the same letter do not differ significantly, (P<0.05) using DMRT.
The LC50 and LC5 values of Diazion on tilapia at the respective intervals are given in Fig.1. The 96h LC50
is basic value in the acute toxicity test. In the study, for adult tilapia (Orechromis niloticus), the 96hLC50 value
was 7.65mg/l.
23 | P a g e

12
10
8
LC5
6
LC50
4
2
0
24h
48hr
72hr
96hr
Fig 1: Acute toxicity test of diazinon in tilapia (Range means 95% confidence interval)
Sudden changes in the frequency of movement of the fish subjected to different concentrations of
diazinon were physically observed. Behavioral changes like somersaulting, convulsion, excess secretion of
mucus, erratic swimming, sudden quick movement and darkening of fish were observed during the exposure of
fish to diazinon.
IV.
Discussion
The results of the media quality used in this study were within the optimal range reported in the
previous studies [16, 13] as optimal requirement for most aquatic organisms. Thus, this suggested that the
parameters did not seem to alter the toxicity of the insecticide to the test fishes. However, temperature, hardness,
pH, alkalinity, sex, age and other physiological status of the test animals were reported to have profound effects
on the toxicity of agro-chemical [17, 18]. Toxicity of diazinon to O. niloticus is relatively lower when compared
with other species of fishes. The 96hL50 value (7.65 mg/l) obtained in this work was lower than the values
reported in literature for other species of fish. For instance, Vittozzi and De-Angellis [19] summarized the
96hLC50 values of other organophosphate pesticides like parathion (0.056 1.99mg/l), methyl parathion (1.95
8.91 mg/l) and malathion (0.091 22.9mg/l) for different species of fishes. These values indicated that these
compounds were more toxic to fish than diazinon.
There are differences in the acute toxicity of diazinon for various fish species. The 96hLC50 values
range in tenths to several tens of mg/l [20]. In European eel (Anguilla anguilla) the 96hLC50 values range even
in hundredths of mg/l [20]. In their study, Oh et al. [21] presented three factors causing the selective toxicity of
diazinon for various fish species. They were: different inhibition of actylcholine-sterase, different detoxification
and absorption. This result agrees with the findings of Eisler [22] who reported the 96hLC50 of diazinon in
Carassius auratus to be 9.0mg/l. It is also in consonance with 8.0mg/l diazinon 96hLC50 value reported for
Brachydanio rerio [23]. In contrary, the 96hLC50 (0.8mg/l diazinon) for Cyprinodontid, (Poecilia reticulate)
discovered by Keizer [23] was lower compared to what obtained in this result. Increase in physical activity,
convulsion, excess secretions of mucus, erratic swimming sudden quick movement and darkening of fish was as
a result of diazinon toxicity. This agrees with the findings of Alkahem [24] on Oreochromis niloticus exposed to
trichloroform. Fafioye [25] reported similar observation in fish exposed to Parka bioglobosa and Raffia vinifera.
Omitoyin et al. [26] also reported similar changes in Clarias gariepinus fingerlings exposed to lindane.
Rate of gill ventilation and oxygen consumption increases in fishes treated with sub-lethal
concentrations of insecticides. Plasma proteins which include globulins, fiberinogens and albumins, serve a vital
function in carrying materials from one part of the fish to another via circulation. They have nutritive,
transporting, protective buffering and energetic functions. Comparing the plasma protein of fish in control
treatment and other diazinon concentrations, a significant lower plasma protein levels were observed, indicating
that at sub-lethal levels, the synthesis of protein was inhibited. Similar observation had been reported for
diazinon in Clarias gariepinus [13]; DDT and malathion in Sarotherodon melanotheron [27]; and Cypermethrin
in the Koren Rockfish, Sebasted schlegeli [28]. According to Das and Mukherjee [28], exposure of fish to most
toxicants including pesticides for a longtime interferes with protein metabolism. This result is in agreement with
the result of Inyang [13] who reported higher amount of plasma protein in control compared to other treatment
concentrations of diazions. In this study concentration dependent effect was found in the protein profile in
muscle, liver, gills and kidney with a progressive decrease in the concentration of proteins in these organs with
increase in the concentration of diazinon. This is also in conformity with the findings of Inyang [13]. After 96h
of exposure, diazion produced a significant decrease (P<0.05) in protein conceration in the blood plasma of
experimental carp fish, as compared with the control group [29].
24 | P a g e

V.
Conclusion
The results of this study indicate that diazinon exacts toxic effects on Tilapia fish (Oreochromis
niloticus). The 96hLC50 (7.65mg/l) for adult Oreochromis nitoticus suggests that the fish show a quick response
to the toxicant compared to other fishes. Even though aquatic organs can survive in small levels of pollutants
their biochemical functions would be damaged regardless of how small these concentrations are. Protein levels
in plasma of Oreochromis nitoticus could be a diagnostic tool but not necessarily good biomarker of
xenobiotics. However, protein levels in muscle, liver, gills and kidney could serve as useful biomarkers of sublethal effects of diazinon.
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and Barbodes gonionotus Naga. The ICLARM Quarterly, 25, 2002, 8-12.
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(Heyden, London, 1976) 3-60.
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J. Trop. For. Resources, 11, 1995, 71-81.
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Eaton, L.S Clesceri., E.W Rice, A.E Greenberg, M.A.H. Franson, (APHA, Washington, USA, 2005) 1976.
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25 | P a g e

Aquatic and Semi-Aquatic Flora (Monocotyledons) Of Lalitpur

District (U.P.), India.
1
Vijay Kumar, 2P.K. Singh
Department of Botany, Singhania University, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), India.

2
Department of Botany Pt. J.N.P.G. College, Banda (U. P.), India.
Abstract: The distribution of 73 aquatic and semi-aquatic angiospermic species belonging to 39 genera and 19
families collected from all three tahsils (Lalitpur, Mahroni and Talbahat) of Lalitpur district of Uttar-Pradesh
are enumerated. The members of family Cyperaceae exhibit their dominance followed by Hydrocharitaceae,
Commelinaceae and Aracaceae with 33, 5, 4 and 4 species respectively.
Key Words: Aquatic and semi-aquatic Flora, Monocotyledons, Lalitpur.
I.
Introduction
Aquatic and semi-aquatic plants are those species which normally stands in water and must grow for at
least a part of their life cycle in water, either completely submerged or emersed [1]. Aquatic angiosperms are
very remarkable forms of plant life, mainly on account of the fact that due to aquatic habit [2], in which they
spend most of their lives, they are practically unaffected by climatic and seasonal changes, or atleast much less
affected than lands plants. For this reason it is possible to study such plants more or less through out the year.
Lalitpur District is rich in aquatic and semi-aquatic vagetation due to presence of artificial and natural lakes ,
nullahas , and ponds, such as Matatila, Jamni, Rohini, Govind Sagar, Sajnam dam, hajariya shankerji ka
mansarover, Shahpur pond , Poorakala pond, Shahjad river and dulaawan pond. The District is situated in
South-west of Uttar Pradesh in between 24.11-25.77 N and 78.79 E. This is most backward District of
bundelkhand.
Except for the classical work Subramanyam [3] of there was no serious effort to study the aquatic and
semi-aquatic angiosperms of India. It is against this back drop that the present study was undertaken to explore
the Lalitpur district especially to make an exhaustive inventory of aquatic and semi-aquatic angiosperms of this
area.
The present study was carried out during 2010 - 2012 in deferent seasons of the year. Many selected
water bodies of the District in different Tehsils and places like Talbahat, Lalitpur, Mahroni (AllTehsils),
Hinaota, Bijrautha, Paron, Bansi, Bar, Birdha and Madanpur were regularly surveyd. The plant species were
collected in their flowering, fruiting or at fully mature stage. Attempts have been made to note down plant size,
flower colour, fruit type, flowering period, habit and habitats, medicinal uses, common name and other
characteristics. Plant specimens soon after the collection were labelled and placed in the polythene bags. Every
time 4-5 specimens were collected. These plant specimens were carefully pressed between the news papers.
After pressing, drying and poisoning the specimens were pasted on the herbarium sheets with fevicol. Voucher
herbarium specimens were deposited in the department of Botany, Pt. J. N. P. G. College, Banda (U.P.). The
plants were identified with the help of regional floras [,4,5,6,7] and other important publications mentioned in
references. Ecology and distribution of these plants were described and families are arranged accordingly
Bentham and Hookers classification [8].
II.
The results of the survey are given in Table-1 with ecological distribution common (C) and rare ( R ) in
different tehsils Talbahat ( T ) Lalitpur (L) and Mahroni (M ) .
26 | P a g e
Aquatic And Semi-Aquatic Flora (Monocotyledons) Of Lalitpur District (U.P.), India.

Table-1 Aquatic and Semi-Aquatic plants (Monocotyledons) From Lalitpur District.
Sr.no.
Family / plant name
1.
HYDROCHARITACEAE
1. Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.)
Royle.
2.Hydrocharis dubia (Blume) Backer.
3. Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.)
Thw.
4. Ottelia olismoides (Linn.) Pers.
5. Vallisneria spiralis Linn.
ZINGIBERACEAE
Costus speciosus
( Koenig) Smith.
CANNACEAE
Canna indica Linn.
AMARYLLEDACEAE
Crinum defixum Ker-Gawl.
LILIACEAE
Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.
PONTEDERIACEAE
1.Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms.
2.Monochoria hastate (Linn.) Solms.
3. M. vaginalis (Burm. F.) Presl.
COMMELINACEAE
1.Amischophacelus axillaris (Linn.)
Rolla Rao et Kammathy.
2.Commelina benghalensis Linn.
3. C. diffusa Burm. f.
4. Murdannia nudiflora (Linn.)
Brenan.
JUNCACEAE
Juncus bifonius Linn.
TYPHACEAE
1. Typha domingensis Pers.
2. T. elephantina Roxb.
SPARGANIACEAE
Sparganium ramosus Huds.
ARACACEAE
1.Acorus calamus Linn.
2. Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott.
3. Pistia stratiotes Linn.
4. Typhonium trilobatum (Linn.)
Schott.
LEMNACEAE
1. Lemna perpusilla Terrey.
2.Spirodella polyrrhiza (Linn.)
Schleid.
3. Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.) Horkel ex
Wimm.
ALISMATACEAE
1.Alisma plantagoaquatica Linn.
2.Sagittaria guayanensis H.B. &K.
3.S. sagittifolia Linn.
BUTOMACEAE
1.Butomus umbellatus Linn.
2.Tenagocharis latifolia Hochst.,
APONOGETONACEAE
1. Aponogeton crispus Thumb.
2. A. natans Engl.
POTAMOGETONACEAE
1.Potamogeton crispus Linn.
2.P. nodosus Poir.
3. P. pectinatus Linn.
NAJADACEAE
1.Najas graminea Del.
2. N. minor All .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Distribution
T M
L
Aquatic/SemiAquatic plants
Flowering-Fruiting
Aquatic
July Dec.
C
C
C
R
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
Aug.- Dec.
Aug. Jan.
C
C
C
R
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
sept . Dec.
Jan . April
Semi-aquatic
Aug.- Oct.
Semi-aquatic
March-Sept.
Semi-aquatic
Aug.- Nov.
Semi-aquatic
Nov.-June
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
Aquatic
Aquatic
Aquatic
March-Nov.
July-Oct.
Sep.-Oct.
Semi-aquatic
Aug. Oct.
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
June- Nov.
Aug.-Oct.
Aug.-Nov.
Semi-aquatic
Jan.- March
C
C
C
C
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
July Nov.
March-Aug.
Aquatic
Feb.-June
R
C
C
C
R
C
C
R
C
R
C
C
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Oct.-Feb.
Nov.-March
Aug.-Nov.
July-Nov.
C
C
C
C
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
May-Jan.
Feb.-April
Aquatic
June-Oct.
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Aquatic
Aug.-Jan.
Sep.- Oct.
Oct.-March
C
R
R
C
C
C
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Oct.-Jan.
Sep.-Jan.
C
C
C
C
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
Sep.-Nov.
Aug. Nov.
C
C
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
Aquatic
Dec.March
Nov.March
Dec.March
C
C
C
R
C
C
Aquatic
Aquatic
Sept. - Dec.
Aug. Dec.
27 | P a g e
Aquatic And Semi-Aquatic Flora (Monocotyledons) Of Lalitpur District (U.P.), India.

18.
19.
ERIOCAULACEAE
Eriocaulon guinguangulare Linn.
CYPERACEAE
1.Bulbostylis barbata
(Rottb.) Kunth.
2. Carex fedia Nees.
3. Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb.
4. C. brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk.
5. C. compactus Retz.
6. C. compressus Linn.
7. C. cyperoides (Linn.) O. Kuntze.
8. C. difformis Linn.
9. C. exaltatus Retz.
10. C. iria Linn.
11. C. platystylis R. Br.
12.C. sanguinolentus Vahl,
13. C. squarrosus Linn.
14. C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl.
15. Eliocharis atropurpurea (Retz.)
Kunth.
16. E. congesta D. Don.
17. E. dulcis ( Burm. f. ) Trin.
18. E. palustris (Linn.) R. Br.
19. Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.)
Vahl.
20. F. dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl.
21. F. littoralis Gaudich.
22. F. ovata (Burm. f.) Kern.
23. F. tenera Schult.
24. F. teteragona R. Br.
25. Rhynchospora hookeri Boeck.
26. Scirpus affinis Roth.
27. S. articulatus Linn.
28. S. grossus Linn.
39. S. juncoides ( Schult.) Roxb.
30. S. maritimus Linn.
31. S. mucronatus Linn.
32. S. squarrosus Linn.
33. S. supinus Linn.
III.
Semi-aquatic
Aug. Nov.
Semi-aquatic
July Sep.
C
C
C
C
C
R
C
C
C
C
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
C
R
C
C
C
C
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Feb. April
Aug.- Nov.
March- Nov.
Aug. Nov.
July Oct.
Sep.Oct.
Aug. Jan.
Sept.-Dec.
Aug. Dec
April- Sep.
July-Oct.
April-Dec.
July-Nov.
July Nov.
C
C
C
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
Semi-aquatic
Aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Sep.-Dec.
Sept.-Jan.
Dec.-March
Aug. Dec.
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Aquatic
Aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Aquatic
Semi-aquatic
Semi-aquatic
March Dec.
Sept. Nov.
Aug. -Dec.
Sept. -Nov.
Aug. -Oct.
Aug. -Oct.
Feb. June
Oct.- March
July-Oct.
Aug. Nov.
Feb.-June
Oct. March
Sept. Dec.
July-Nov.
Acknowledgment
Thanks are due to the Principal and head department of Botany, Pt J. N.P.G. College Banda for
providing necessary facilities required for the present work.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
S.K. Srivstava. (2011). Plant Diversity and Conservation strategies of Uttar Pradesh. Phytotaxonomy Vol. 11 : 45-62.
2. R.S. Ambsht. (1990.) Ecology of wetland with particular references to asian- pacific region (Being published in the proceeding
Volume) International Conf.on Asia Pacific Region.
K. Subramanyam. (1962). Aquatic Angiosperms. CSIR. New Delhi.
C.R. Babu. (1977).Herbaceous flora of Dehra Dun, CSIR, New Delhi.
J.F. Duthie. (1963) (Rep. Ed.). Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain and the Adjecent Siwalic and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. 1-3 vols.
Calcutta. India.
M. B. Raizada.( 1976.) Supplement to the Duthies Flora of the Upper Gangetic plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub
Himalyan Tracts, Dehra-Dun.
J. D.Hooker. (1872 1897.) The flora of British India. London 7 vols. Repr. (Ed.)
G.Bentham and J.D.Hooker (1862-1863). Genera plantarum, 3 vols. London.(Repr.Ed.)
28 | P a g e

Screening of Marketed Pork for Ceftiofur residues by HPLC

And UV-Vis Spectrophotometer
D.C. Roy1, R. Gogoi2 and M. Gogoi3
1
Professor, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, C.V.Sc, AAU, Khanapara, Assam, India
PhD Scholar, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, C.V.Sc, AAU, Khanapara, Assam, India
3
MVSc, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, C.V.Sc, AAU, Khanapara, Assam, India
ABSTRACT: In the present study pork samples from markets of Assam, India were collected and analyzed to
detect the presence of Ceftiofur residues using a High Performance liquid Chromatography (HPLC) System and
a UV-Vis Spectrophotometer. 300 nos. of representative pork samples were collected from different pork
markets of Assam. The samples after collection were preserved at -20C. Analyses of the samples using High
Performance Liquid Chromatography with UV-Vis Detector were done as per the method of Oka et al, 1985
while analyses of the same samples using UV-Vis Spectrophotometer were done as per the method of
Annapurna et al. ,2009. Ceftiofur residues were extracted with Mc-IIvaine buffer. Solid phase extraction clean
up was done with Sep-pak C18 cartridge. Recovery ranged from 83-95% (HPLC) and 5780%(Spectrophotometer).Out of the tested samples, 10 nos of the screened samples were detected to be positive
for trace residues of Ceftiofur using Spectrophotometer while 14 nos .of same samples were detected for
ceftiofur residue using HPLC method which were well below the MRL value.
Keywords: Assam, Ceftiofur, High Performance Liquid Chromatography, Pork, Solid Phase Extraction,
Spectrophotometer
I.
Introduction
Ceftiofur, a third-generation cephalosporin is a broad spectrum antibacterial agent used for the
treatment of digestive and respiratory diseases in livestock [1][2]. Residues of Ceftiofur are reported to be found
in animal tissues and milk and their undesirable levels may lead to many health hazards in human [3][4]. For
these reasons, the control of ceftiofur residues in edible animal tissues is mandatory. To protect the health of
consumers, many countries have established Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for different antibiotics
including Ceftiofur in food-producing animals. The MRLs of Ceftiofur in swine tissues established by European
Union (EU) are 0.5g g-1 in muscle, 3.0g g-1 in liver, and 4.0g g-1 in kidney. Pork is regarded as an important
meat in Assam including N.E. States which comprises of about 39% of total meat share in Assam [5]. The
present study was undertaken to detect the presence of Ceftiofur residues in marketed pork of Assam by using
both Spectrophotometric and HPLC method
II.
300 nos. of representative pork samples were collected from different pork markets of Assam as listed
in TABLE 1. Representative tissue samples of muscle, kidney and liver weighing 30 g each belonging to same
carcass were wrapped in polythene bags and transported in thermo-cooled containers jacketed with ice. The
samples were stored at -20C till the time of processing. The samples after collection were preserved at -20C.
10 g of each sample was taken in a blender and to it added 10 ml of distilled water and then blended. 5
ml of the mixture was taken and to it added equal volume of 0.1 M Na2 EDTA - McIIvaine buffer (pH 4.0) and
kept for 10 minutes. The mixture was sonicated and left undisturbed for 15 minutes. The mixture was then
centrifuged at 0C at 10,000 rpm for 30 minutes. The collected supernatant was then filtered using Whatman
No.42 . Solid phase extraction clean up was done with Sep-Pak C18 cartridge. The filtrate was passed through
C18 polymeric cartridge, after which it was micro filtered using 0.22 filter paper and the filtrate was ready for
analysis.
Ceftiofur residues in pork were estimated by using a High Performance liquid Chromatography System
(Waters HPLC) and a UV-Vis Spectrophotometer (Systronics). Analyses of the samples using High
Performance Liquid Chromatography with UV-Vis Detector were done as per the method of Oka et al, 1985 [6]
while analysis of the same samples using UV-Vis Spectrophotometer were done as per the method of
Annapurna et al.2009[7].
29 | P a g e
Screening of Marketed Pork for Ceftiofur residues by HPLC and UV-Vis Spectrophotometer
Table 1: Pork samples collected from different market places of Assam
Place
Kidney
Liver
Muscle
Total
16
18
16
50
Guwahati
12
12
12
36
Jorhat
15
17
15
47
Nalbari
12
12
12
36
Tezpur
15
18
18
51
Nagoan
15
11
12
38
Goalpara
Morigoan
15
12
15
42
TOTAL
100
100
100
300
III.
Over all, 7 number of zones within the state of Assam have been developed and all total 300 number of
samples i.e., 100 numbers of sample each of muscle, liver and kidney were collected.
Out of 300 numbers of total samples, only 10 numbers of samples showed detectable ceftiofur
residues using Spectrophotometer (4 kidney, 3 liver and 3 muscle samples). 8.33 % of the sample collected from
Jorhat were detected to be positive for trace residues of ceftiofur while only 1 sample each from Tezpur,
Goalpara and Morigaon was found to be positive for ceftiofur residue as listed in TABLE 2. Not a single sample
of pork tissues were found to be above the MRL value.
As listed in TABLE 3, only 14 numbers of samples showed detectable ceftiofur residues using HPLC
(5 kidney, 3 liver and 6 muscle samples). All the samples were below the permissible limit.
The detectable levels in kidney were found to be highest as compared to muscle and liver samples.
This finding can be correlated with the study of ceftiofur done by Beconi-Berker et al (1996) [8] where
concentrations were found to be highest in kidney. But in contrast with Payne et al (loc cited) who reported
higher concentration of ceftiofur in liver of cattle, level of residues in liver in the present study were lower than
the kidney samples . Residue level of ceftiofur detected using HPLC in muscle, kidney and liver were 0.0150.410g g-1, 0.020-2.540 g g-1 and 0.018-2.229 g g-1 respectively whereas residue level of Ceftiofur using
Spectrophotometer were 0.085 - 0.450 g g-1 , 1.380-3.120 g g-1, 1.570-2.350 g g-1 respectively in muscle,
kidney and liver samples as listed in TABLE 4.
Recovery ranged from 83-95% for HPLC and 57-80% for Spectrophotometer. Limit of Detection
(LOD) was 0.015 g g-1 for HPLC and 0.085 g g-1 for Spectrophotometer .
Table 2: Tabular representation of location wise distribution of Ceftiofur residues using
Spectrophotometer.
Sl.
Locations
Samples
Residues Detected Detected percentage Residue above
No.
Screened
(%)
MRL
1
Guwahati
50
4(K-2,L-2,M-0)
8.00
ND
2
Jorhat
36
2(K-0,L-1,M-1)
5.56
ND
3
Nalbari
47
ND
0.00
ND
4
Tezpur
36
2(K-1,L-0,M-1)
5.56
ND
5
Nagoan
51
ND
0.00
ND
6
Goalpara
38
2(K-1,L-0,M-1)
5.26
ND
7
Morigoan
42
ND
0.00
ND
TOTAL
300
10(K- 4,L-3 ,M- 3)
3.33
ND
ND- Not detected; K-Kidney; L-Liver; M-Muscle
Table 3: Tabular representation of location wise distribution of Ceftiofur residues using HPLC.
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Locations
Guwahati
Jorhat
Nalbari
Tezpur
Nagoan
Goalpara
Morigoan
TOTAL
Samples
Screened
50
36
47
36
51
38
42
300
Residue detected
4(K-1,L-1,M-2)
3(K-1,L-1,M-1)
2(K-0,L-1,M-1)
1(K-1,L-0,M-0)
2(K-1,L-0,M-1)
1(K-0,L-0,M-1)
1(K-1,L-0,M-0)
14(K-5,L-3,M-6)
Detected
percentage (%)
8.00
8.33
4.26
2.78
3.92
2.63
2.38
4.67
Residue above
MRL
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
30 | P a g e
Screening of Marketed Pork for Ceftiofur residues by HPLC and UV-Vis Spectrophotometer
Kidney
Liver
Muscle
Total
Table 4: Tissue distribution of Ceftiofur residue in pork

Using HPLC
Using UV-Vis Spectrophotometer
Total
Residue detected
Residue
Residue detected
Residue
Samples
(concn.,g g-1)
detected
(concn.,g g-1)
detected
collected
above MRL
above MRL
100
5 (0.020-2.540)
ND
4 (1.380-3.120)
ND
100
3 (0.018-2.229)
ND
3 (1.570-2.350)
ND
100
6 (0.015-0.410)
ND
3 (0.085 - 0.450)
ND
300
14
ND
10
ND
IV.
Conclusion
300 nos. of representative pork samples were collected from different pork markets of Assam. Out of
the tested samples, 14 nos. of the screened samples were detected to be positive for trace residues of Ceftiofur
using HPLC while 10 nos. of same samples were detected for Ceftiofur residue using Spectrophotometer which
were well below the MRL value. It can be concluded that HPLC method is more sensitive than
spectrophotometric method in detection of Ceftiofur residues in pork.
V.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the help and assistance received from ICAR and Directorate of Research (Vety),AAU,
Khanapara.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
H. N. Booth,; Mc. Donald, E. L. Johns Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, (5th edition, section 14, Kalyani publishers
,India,1993), 766-67.
R.E Hornish and S. F. Katarski, Cephalosporins in Veterinary Medicine - Ceftiofur Use in Food Animals, Current Topics in
Medicinal Chemistry, 2 (7),2002 , 717- 731
R. L. Althaus, M. P Molina, M. Rodriguez and N. Fernandez, Detection limits of beta-lactam antibiotics in ewe milk by penzym
enzymatic test, Journal of Food Protection ,64(11). 2001,1844-1847.
M. A Payne, B. S Wetzlich, J. R Edward, Brown, Gardner, S. C James and L. C. Arthur . Comparison of the use of regulatory
assays and high-performance liquid chromatography for detection of residues of ceftiofur sodium metabolites in tissue specimens of
culled dairy cattle. American Journal of Veterinary Research. ,65(12),2004 ,1730-1733.
Anonymus, Report on Integrated Sample survey for estimation of production of Milk, Egg and Meat, Directorate of Animal
Husbandry & Veterinary Department, Govt. of Assam, 2008-09.
H. Oka, H. Matsumoto and K. Uno, Improvement of chemical analysis of antibiotics. VIII. Application of prepacked C 18 cartridge
for the analysis of tetracycline residues in animal liver. Journal of Chromatography, 325,1985, 265-274
V. Annapurna, G. Jyothi, C. Rambabu and B.B.V Sailaja, Spectrophotometric determination of ceftiofur hydrochloride using N bromosuccinimide and p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde. E Journal of Chemistry 6(3), 2009,763-769.
M.G Beconi-Barker, R.E Hornish, T.J Vidmar, K.J. Dame and S.A Brown, Ceftiofur hydrochloride: plasma and tissue
distribution in swine following intramuscular administration at various doses. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and
Therapeutics, 19(3),1996 , 192-199.
31 | P a g e

Evaluation of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis, Hook f.)

Waste as Nutrient Amendment in Compost for its Effective
Management and Crop Production.
A.A. Soyingbe1, T. B. Hammed2, C.O. Rosiji1, and J. K. Adeyemi1
1
Department of the Environmental Health Sciences, Ogun State College of Health Technology, Ilese, Ijebu,
Nigeria.
2
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract: The study investigated the Telfairia occidentalis waste (leaves and stalk) potential in supplementing
the naturally low nutrients in compost. Experimental study design was conducted inside windrows to compare
different recipes for aerobic composting of the waste. Total of four windrow chambers (labeled as: AA, BB, CC,
TO) were used. Inside each chamber, compost recipes were varied viz: AA contained mixture of Telfairia
occidentalis waste, Cow Intestinal Waste (CIW) and other organic waste from Mixed Municipal Waste (MMW);
BB contained Telfairia occidentalis waste and CIW; CC contained CIW and MMW; and, TO contained
Telfairia occidentalis waste alone. The ratio of 3:1 was maintained for either Telfairia occidentalis waste or
MMW and cow waste respectively. The materials were allowed to decompose for a period of 12 weeks. At
maturity composts samples were analyzed for their nutrient and heavy metal compositions. BB appeared to be
the best recipe for Telfairia occidentalis waste management through composting. It gave the highest values for
the following nutrients: C (37.3500.212 %), N (3.2050.007 %), P (1.310 0.028 %), Mg (0.5000.057 %),
and Ca (0.7300.028 %) that are of good compost characteristics. The levels of nutrients and heavy metals
were within the ranges of national and international standards. Hence, the management of Telfairia
occidentalis waste through composting serves dual purposes of recovering nutrients locked-up in the stalk and
leaves for plant growth and environmental sanitation.
Keywords - Composting, Environmental sanitation, Fluted pumpkin, Plant growth, Waste management
I.
Introduction
Fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook f.) is widely recognized for its nutritional and medicinal
uses across the six geo-political zones in Nigeria. Previous studies usually focused on how to improve its
cultivation [1-6], increase its yield [7, 8] and use it in controlling pests or nutritional purposes [9-11]. Little
information is available on management of its waste after consumption, perhaps through composting. Once the
pumpkin leaves and seeds are removed for various uses, the remaining recalcitrant stalks and leaves are thrown
into refuse bin, open dumps (Plate 1) or ends up in a flowing stream. This practice can have serious
implications on environment and health. In Nigeria, the rich diversity of the Indigenous Leave Vegetables
(ILVs), including Telfairia occidentalis had earlier been documented by several researchers [12-14]. Twoseason field trials were conducted between 2004 and 2006 [11] to evaluate the effect of intercropping Telfairia
occidentalis cv.EN2000-25 with okra cv. NHAe47-4 and pepper NHV1A on the populations of nematode pests
of these vegetables. This study showed that using resistant/tolerant varieties as component crop in Telfairia
production could be a useful approach in root-knot nematode management. Also, in order to improve fluted
pumpkin production in Nigeria, Asoegwu [1] compared irrigation frequencies of 3, 6 and 9 days intervals with
no irrigation. It was found out that irrigation prolonged the productive life of the crop and enhanced leaf and pod
yields. In a similar study, biochemical composition of fluted pumpkin at different stages of growth was
determined [15]. The study suggested that young leaves be properly cooked in order to remove anti-nutrient
effects before consumption.
In terms of its nutritional potentials, freshly harvested T. occidentalis matured leaves were processed
and analyzed on the basis of supplementing diets in broiler starter [16]. The leaves were remarkably high in
crude protein. In the recent time, fluted pumpkin had gained medicinal recognition. It has been discovered to be
blood purifiers [5]. Also, the leaf had a high nutritional, medicinal and industrial values being rich in protein
(29%), fat (18%), minerals and vitamins (20%) [17]. It has been reportedly used by ethno medicinal
practitioners to treat anaemia [6], convulsion [18], heart diseases, hypertension, hypoglycemia, diabetes and
even in fatal cases of meningitis [19]. Also, the responses of fluted pumpkin seeds to chilling and hydrated
storage at 6, 16, and 25 C, and excised axes to fast flash-drying or slow dehydration were investigated [20].
32 | P a g e
Evaluation of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook f.) Waste as Nutrient Amendment in
The results revealed that fluted pumpkin seeds were recalcitrant; being both desiccation- and chilling-sensitive.
It was concluded that short-term storage in the hydrated state appeared to be unachievable in practice.
Earlier on, discussions were held on biotechnological applications such as meristem culture, in vitro
selection, zygotic embryo culture, somatic embryo genesis, protoplast culture, anther culture and genetic
engineering that could solve production problems associated with some selected ILVs [4]. Akoroda carried out
studies during 19801987 to raise seed production of the fluted pumpkin [7]. Akanbi and others explored the
use of composts in form of foliar spray or liquid fertilizer as nutrient source and botanical insecticide on
Telfairia occidentalis crop [5]. The findings suggested a dual role of this compost extract foliar sprays as source
of nutrients and materials for controlling insect pests. Despite all these research efforts on how to improve the
production of fluted pumpkin and their various uses, the use of fluted pumpkin wastes as source of nutrients to
crop have not been fully exploited in Nigeria. The present study investigated the pumpkin potential in
supplementing the naturally low nutrients of compost or organic fertilizer, with a view of improving its waste
management and food security in the country.
Plate 1. Telfairia occidentalis waste been burnt in an open dump beside a flowing stream in Ibadan
(Picture by Hammed T. B., 2012)
II.
Methodology
Experimental study design was conducted inside windrows to compare different recipes for aerobic
composting of Telfairia occidentalis waste (leaves and stalk). Total of four windrow chambers (labeled as: AA,
BB, CC, TO) were used. Inside each chamber, composting recipes were varied viz:
AA contained mixture of Telfairia occidentalis waste, Cow Intestinal Waste (CIW) and other organic waste
from Mixed Municipal Waste (MMW);
BB contained Telfairia occidentalis waste and CIW;
CC contained CIW and MMW;
TO contained Telfairia occidentalis waste alone.
Hence, CC without Telfairia occidentalis waste served as control. The ratio of 3:1 was maintained for
either Telfairia occidentalis waste or MMW and cow waste respectively. The materials were allowed to
decompose for a period of 12 weeks. Composting was monitored in the windrow chambers through the use of
specified tools and direct observation as described in a previous study [21, 22]. At maturity composts was stored
for a further period of 2 weeks for complete stabilization. After natural drying in the sun and sieving to remove
non-biodegradables such as plastics, metals, gravel, composite samples were taken for chemical analysis.
Organic-carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, calcium, sulphur, iron, lead,
chromium, nickel, zinc, and cadmium contents were analyzed.
Determination of lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) in the compost
samples was done by weighing 1g of ground sample into a conical flask. To this, 5ml of digestion reagent (2:1
conc HNO3: conc H2SO4) were added and heated until brown peroxide and white perchloric acid evaporated.
The resulting residue was dried. The procedure was repeated until a white precipitate remained in the flask. This
was then filtered through a Whatman filter paper No 1 into a 100ml volumetric flask. The filtrate was diluted
with 0.1N HNO3 (p.a) to 100ml. The digested samples were then analyzed for the heavy metals with atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (GBC 902). Standard laboratory techniques were used to determine the organiccarbon by Walkey Black wet oxidation method [23], Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (Macro-Kjeldahl method) [24],
and potassium content (using sodium tetraphenylboron volumetric method as described by Motsara and Roy
[25]. The data collected were subjected to statistical analysis of variance and significant differences among the
treatment means were evaluated using Duncans Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5 % probability level.
III.
Results
Tables 1-4 show the results obtained from the chemical analyses of compost samples from different
recipes. From the Table 1, BB appeared (to be- remove) the best recipe for the following elements: C
(37.3500.212 %), N (3.2050.007 %), P (1.310 0.028 %), Mg (0.5000.057%), and Ca (0.7300.028 %).
33 | P a g e
Addition of MMW to Telfairia occidentalis waste before composting reduced the concentrations of N and P in
the compost produced against when it was mixed with CIW alone. Also, P and C in TO compost with Telfairia
occidentalis alone (0.9000.057and 34.9500.495 %) were more than what found in CC compost with the
mixture of MMW and CIW (0.1950.021 and 33.6500.212 %) respectively. However, K in the TO compost
(1.7850.064 %) was lower than what found in the CC compost (1.8650.021 %) though (remove,) the
difference was not significant (P 0.05). The same condition applied to S which was found lower in BB
(0.3050.035 %) and TO (0.3350.035 %) composts that contained Telfairia occidentalis waste against the CC
(0.4550.021 %) compost which was the control. The results of Duncans Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5 %
probability level showed significant difference of nutrient composition (P < 0.05) in virtually all the compost
samples analysed (Table 3). However, there was exception in the following cases: C (AA Vs BB); N (BB Vs
CC); K (TO Vs CC); and Mg (TO Vs AA and BB Vs CC) where the difference was not significant (P > 0.05).
Table 3 shows the variation in heavy metal contents of the compost samples. The levels of Fe, Pb, Cd,
and Ni in AA (271.5009.192 mg/kg, 23.3500.212 mg/kg, 7.2007.920 mg/kg and 9.3500.212 mg/kg)
respectively were significantly higher than in BB (232.1004.243 mg/kg, 21.75 00.212 mg/kg, 2.4000.141
mg/kg, 9.0500.354 mg/kg) respectively. With exception to Ni that was highest in CC (9.4000.424 mg/kg), all
metals were found highest in AA and the differences were significant (P<0.05) as shown in Table 4. On the
other hand, levels of Zn (694.4500.354 mg/kg) and Cr (26.0000.141 mg/kg) were greater in BB than AA
(687.4001.556 mg/kg and 25.4000.283 mg/kg) respectively. The difference was not significant in case of Cr
(P>0.05). In addition, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, Fe and Cr (626.7502.192 mg/kg, 1.4000.141 mg/kg, 19.3000.283
mg/kg, 8.3000.283 mg/kg, 220.5007.778 mg/kg and 23.4500.354 mg/kg) respectively were lower in TO
compare to CC (681.3500.212 mg/kg, 2.5500.212 mg/kg, 20.6000.141 mg/kg, 9.4000.424 mg/kg,
223.5003.536 mg/kg and 26.4000.141 mg/kg) respectively. The difference was not significant in Fe (P>0.05).
This showed that higher levels of heavy metal were contained in CIW and MMW than Telfairia occidentalis
waste.
Variables Vs Samples
C
Mg
Ca
TO
AA
BB
CC
TO
AA
BB
CC
TO
AA
BB
CC
TO
AA
BB
CC
TO
AA
BB
CC
TO
AA
BB
CC
TO
AA
BB
CC
Mean Standard
Deviation (%, dry
F value
P value
weight)
34.9500.495
36.5500.354
47.464
0.001
37.3500.212
33.6500.212
3.1100.000
2.9650.007
657..222
0.000
3.2050.007
3.1950.007
0.9000.057
1.0700.014
53.115
0.001
1.310 0.028
0.1950.021
1.7850.064
2.1250.035
43.468
0.002
1.6700.028
1.8650.021
0.3750.050
0.3000.028
11..372
0.020
0.5000.057
0.5100.028
0.3350.035
0.4300.113
2.670
0.183
0.3050.035
0.4550.021
0.6000.028
0.6150.078
3..399
0.134
0.7300.028
0.6650.021
Table 1: Nutrient Characteristics of Compost Samples
34 | P a g e
Table 2: Heavy Metal Contents of Compost Samples

Dependent
Mean Difference (I-J) (%)
Variable
I Group J Group
Std. Error
P value
-1.600*
0.339
0.009
TO
AA
C
-2.400*
0.339
0.002
BB
1.300*
0.339
0.019
CC
-0.800
0.339
0.078
AA
BB
2.900*
0.339
0.001
CC
3.700*
0.339
0.000
BB
CC
0.145*
0.006
0.000
TO
AA
N
-0.095*
0.006
0.000
BB
-0.085*
0.006
0.000
CC
-0.240*
0.178
0.000
AA
BB
-0.230*
0.006
0.000
CC
0.010
0.006
0.178
BB
CC
-0.170*
0.034
0.008
TO
AA
P
-0.410*
0.034
0.000
BB
-0.295*
0.034
0.001
CC
-0.240*
0.034
0.002
AA
BB
-0.125*
0.034
0.021
CC
0.115*
0.034
0.028
BB
CC
-0.330*
0.040
0.001
TO
AA
K
0.115*
0.040
0.047
BB
-0.080
0.040
0.119
CC
0.445*
0.040
0.000
AA
BB
0.250*
0.040
0.003
CC
-0.195*
0.040
0.009
BB
CC
0.075
0.043
0.153
TO
AA
Mg
-0.125*
0.043
0.043
BB
-0.135*
0.043
0.034
CC
-0.200*
0.043
0.009
AA
BB
-0.210*
0.043
0.008
CC
-0.010
0.043
0.826
BB
CC
Table 3: Multiple Comparisons for Nutrient Mean Values of Compost Samples
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 significant level (P<0.05).
35 | P a g e
Table 4: Multiple Comparisons for Selected Heavy Metal Mean Values of Compost Samples
Dependent
Variable
Mean Difference (I-J)

J Group (mg/kg)
Std. Error
-51.000*
6.624
AA
Fe
TO
-11.600
6.624
BB
-3.000
6.624
CC
39.400*
6.624
AA
BB
48.000*
6.624
CC
8.600
6.624
BB
CC
-4.050*
0.218
TO
AA
Pb
-2.450*
0.218
BB
-1.300*
0.218
CC
1.600*
0.218
AA
BB
1.150*
0.218
CC
2.750*
0.218
BB
CC
-60.650*
1.360
TO
AA
Zn
-67.700*
1.360
BB
-54.600*
1.360
CC
-7.050*
1.360
AA
BB
6.050*
1.360
CC
13.100*
1.360
BB
CC
-1.950*
0.247
TO
AA
Cr
-2.550*
0.247
BB
-2.950*
0.247
CC
-0.600
0.247
AA
BB
-1.000*
0.247
CC
-0.400
0.247
BB
CC
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 significant level (P<0.05).
I Group
IV.
P value
0.002
0.155
0.674
0.004
0.002
0.264
0.000
0.000
0.004
0.002
0.000
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.007
0.011
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.072
0.016
0.181
Discussions
The nitrogen content of Telfairia occidentalis composts was higher compare to nutrient contents in
California composts with total nitrogen of 1.0-2.0% [26]. Higher nitrogen content corroborated with higher
percentage of crude protein (35.14 0.44%) found in Telfairia occidentalis leaf meal [16]. The values obtained
for N, Ca, K and Mg by these researchers were higher than the values obtained in this study. This was probably
due to different methods involved in processing the meal and compost. However, P value was similar in both
studies. The nutrient values of compost made from Telfairia occidentalis waste and CIW, that is BB recipe, are
in consonance with the standards established by National Special Programme on Food Security [27]. The
standards includes, total organic carbon (At least 20%); nitrogen (1.0 to 4.0%); phosphorus (1.5 to 3.0%); and
potassium (1.0 to 1.5%). They also meet the primary characteristics of organic fertilizer under specification of
the Land Development Department in Thailand [28] which stated the following: organic C, >17.4%; organic N,
> 2.00%; total P, > 0.440%; and, K, > 0.830%. Approximately 20 % of phosphorus in compost react like P in
mineral fertilizers and are immediately available for plant uptake while the remainder is more strongly bound
and will become available later. Virtually all potassium supplied with compost can be used immediately by
plants while 40% of all nitrogen contained in compost at the time of application will become available to plants
[29].
The levels of some heavy metals like Pb, Ni, and Cr in the compost made from BB recipe that was
adjudged the best are in agreement with maximum recommended limit [30]. Its Cd content was lower than
German standard [31]. Zn concentration was higher than the levels specified in both standards but lower than
what obtained in a similar study [16]. Meanwhile, survey had earlier been carried out which aimed at identifying
a technological solution for reducing heavy metal contents in the compost with a particular reference to Zn and
Pb [32]. The study concluded that by eliminating a fraction of compost < 1 mm, both Zn and Pb, could be
removed, without a substantial yield loss. Only 10 % of the final product would be eliminated. Also, Pb and Ni
levels were found lower than the maximum limit of compost in Denmark [33]. The Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment Guidelines for Compost Quality was based on the following four criteria for
product safety and quality: foreign matter, maturity, pathogens, and trace elements [34]. The levels specified for
the trace elements in mg/kg (Pb, 150; Cd, 3; Ni, 62; Zn, 700; and, Cr, 210) were higher than what obtained in
this studies for BB. Surprisingly, the levels of heavy metals analyzed in the leaves of Telfairia occidentalis [35]
were very far below those found in its compost from this study. The reason was that compost has binding site
36 | P a g e
for heavy metals. This mechanism immobilizes these harmful elements in the soil and makes them unavailable
to plants.
V.
Conclusion
The study showed that Telfairia occidentalis waste has potential for improving compost nutrient
quality. Combination of Telfairia occidentalis waste and Cow Intestinal Waste appeared to be the best recipe for
Telfairia occidentalis waste management through composting. It gave higher levels of macro nutrients like
Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, carbon, magnesium and micronutrients that are required by plants. Telfairia
occidentalis waste also contained lower levels of heavy metals, making is suitable for composting. It can be
used as an alternative source of nutrient amendment of compost. Hence, the management of Telfairia
occidentalis waste through composting serves dual purposes of recovering nutrients locked-up in the stalk and
leaves for plant growth and environmental sanitation. It is recommended that more researches should be carried
out to evaluate composting potentials of pumpkin seeds and perhaps fruit kernel that can also pose serious
environmental problem for their poor management.
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Alesinloye Waste Recycling Complex, The international journal of interdisciplinary social sciences, 6 (2), 2011, 67-78.
T.B. Hammed, M.K.C. Sridhar, I.O. Olaseha, E.O. Oloruntoba, and G.R.E.E. Ana, Integrating a State Owned Waste Recycling
Facility and Neighbourhood Participation for Sustainable Management, The international journal of interdisciplinary social
sciences 6 (8), 2012, 11-24.
A. Walkley, and I.A. Black, Method of total organic carbon determination in soil samples, Soil Science, 37, 1934, 29-38.
M. L. Jackson, Soil chemical analysis (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1963).
M. R. Motsara and R. N Roy, Guide to laboratory establishment for plant nutrient analysis. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Bulletin, 19, 2008, 101-103.
California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery (c 1995- 2010), Quality Standards for Finished Compost, (updated:
March 18, 2004). Available at http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/Organics/
National Special Programme on Food Security, National Minimum Quality Standards for Compost, Nigeria, 2007.
The Land Development Department, Plant, Fertilizer, Water and Soil Analysis Manual (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives:
Bangkok, Thailand, 2005) 254.
37 | P a g e
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
B. Johannes, The Use of Recycled Organics Compost in Viticulture: A review of the international literature and experience, in H.
Willer and U. Meier, (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Organic Viticultre, Basel, Switzerland, 2000, 130134.
BodSch, Bundes-Bodenschutzverordnung. (Federal Soil Protection Rule) in Bodenschutz (Soil Protection) (Erich Schmidt Verlag:
Berlin, 1998).
P. Kraus and U. Grammel, Relevant of contaminant discussion for bio-waste composting, Abfallwirtschaft, 9, 1992, 65-85.
Z.Mariachiara, C.Fabrizio, F Daniele, F Franco, and P. Bruno, Heavy metal contamination in compost: a possible solution, Annali
di Chimica, 95 (3-4), 2005, 247 256.
L. Nielsen, and I. Kger, Contents of heavy metals in compost from source separated waste in Denmark - examination of sampling
reliability ISHS Acta Horticulturae. unknown date, 302.
Guidelines for Compost Quality, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. (Winnipeg, Manitoba R3. C 1A3, c2005) 1-26.
A.A. Yusuff, S. Adewuyi and A.A. Lasis, Physic-chemical composition of leaves, meals and oils of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia
occidentalis) and melon (citrillus vulgaris), Agricultural Journal 1 (1), 2006, 32-35.
38 | P a g e

A Case Study on Hematological Parameters in workers exposed

to Cement dust in Areas of Nalagonda District.
Jagadishnaik1. MohanRao2 and Indira.P3
1
Department of Zoology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur Andhra

Pradesh - 522510. India.
2,3
Department of Zoology, Sri KrishnaDevaraya University, Anantapur, Andhrapradesh. India.
Abstract: This study was carried out in the areas of kodad in Nalagonda District, during the time frame 20092010. In this study a group of 50 healthy workers and another group of (100exposed) labours working in cement
factories were randomly selected with ages ranging from 20-35, 35-50, 50-65 years. The blood samples were
taken from them and estimation of hemoglobin (Darkbinsmethod), total Leukocyte count were analysed.The
result shows the% of hemoglobin of exposed labours from different age groups 20-35, 35-50, 50-65 are non
significant (P>0.05) Total leukocyte counts in labours of different age groups 20-35, 35-50, 50-65 are
insignificant (P<0.05) Results were compared in a mean, and on the basis of period exposure. Considering the
hazards of exposure to cement dust, this study incorporated the basic hematological parameters, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate and the total leukocyte count. The idea was to identify a simple, readily available and cost
effective screening test that could help in identifying the presence of disease, its severity, in cement workers
potentially related to their workplace.
Keywords: Cement Workers, hematology, exposure.
I.
Introduction
Respiratory illnesses in workers of Cement industries are a significant problem all over the world. One
million people are dying annually in the world. 1.7 million Area affected in India alone. Billions of rupees are
spent on their treatment annually. Exposure to Cement dusts is even a larger problem in non-industrialized
countries as personal protection equipment is limited (OLERU,1984).A study in Andhra Pradesh stone crushing
workers revealed an increased prevalence of chronic cough due to dust exposure (dust level in the stone dust
depot was 30.81 mg/m3) in Cement crushing units. Cement industries units are situated in the near by villages
of kodad and in some areas of Nalagonda district. These sectors (small and large scale industries) are few with
hundreds of labours.During the different process of operation dust is evolvable and contains high percent of free
silica, which may lead to silicosis and other respiratory disorders. In Cement processing units the occupation is
associated the development of silicosis including quarry mining, sand blasting, and drilling, tunneling and stone
crushing. Silica dust is released during operations in which rocks, sand, concrete and some ores are crushed or
broken. Work in mines, quarries, foundries, and construction sites, in the manufacture of cement, ceramics, and
abrasive powders, and in masonry Workshops are particularly risky (Elems&Gordon, 2000). Stone quartz
grinders who are involved in crushing quartz stone into powder from are exposed to excess risk of silicosis as
the stone contains approximately 100% free silica and the process liberates huge amount of silica dust in the
working environment Cement industries are depositories of various toxicants which include chromium products
of incomplete combustion of silica, lead, fly ash, etc. This contamination on exposes my lead sub clinical and
clinical effects in all exposed group of labour.The principal compounds used in the manufacture of cement are a
combination of calcium, silicon, iron, and aluminum compounds in the form of limestone and clay (Fairhurst et
al., 1997).
We took this study because hundreds of labours are spread around our city, in Kodad, Nalagonda
District, employing thousands of workers. They are frequently seen in the hospital in pulmonology unit and
hematological imbalance of labours. The impact of pulmonary hazards and blood purity is also influenced by
age, smoking history and nutritional statues of the labours. They are reportedly occupying around 60% of
pulmonology ward beds. To get the actual picture we did this field study. By our study, we established that a
number of workers are suffering from respiratory diseases than those of ornamental workers (non- exposed).
II.
Type of study: - cross sectional
Study design: - Field based by questionnaire
Sample size: - A set of 150 workers (50 samples normal, 100 samples exposed) from cement occupational were
studied regarding collection of Blood sample from the different age group of workers (20-35, 35-50, and 50-65)
39 | P a g e
A Case Study on Hematological Parameters in workers exposed to Cement dust in Areas

Clinical method:A. Estimation of Hemoglobin by CyanmethemoglobinDrabkins method) B. Total Leucocytes count
(TLC) haemetocytometer.
Collection
of
blood sample; Five ml of blood was collected from each subject by a venipuncture and a disposable syringe.
Three ml of blood was transferred to a bottle containing ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid, in a concentration of
1.5 mg/ml to be used for TLC count and 1.6 ml of blood was collected in another bottle containing 0.4 ml of
3.8% of sodium citrate for Hb%. Each bottle was labeled with the subject identification code number. Total
leukocyte count was performed on an electronic cell counter (auto-analyzer). Difference in the mean values of
the 2 age groups was regarded statistically significant if the p-value was less than 0.05.
Effects of duration of exposure (Average of 8 hours per day and >8 years) on Hemoglobin Percent and
total leukocyte count. The comparison of Hb% and TLC parameters in cement workers on the basis of duration
of exposure 8 hours per day and >8-years, compared with their matched control.
III.
Results:
Hematological studies: The mean values of hematological (Hb% and TLC) parameters for 100 cases of cement
workers and 50 controls are presented in Table1& 2. According to results, cement workers show a statistically
Non significant increase in the mean values of Hb% (p>0.05) and TLC significant (p<0.05).Considering the
effects of exposure to cement dust, this study incorporated 2 basic hematology parameters, hemoglobin
estimation and the TLC. The idea was to recognize a simple, readily available and cost effective screening test
that could help in identifying the presence of disease or its severity in cement workers, or both. Estimation of the
hemoglobin percentage used in clinical practice and is a useful screening test in routine medical check-up. The
most frequently reported symptoms in cement mill workers were cough and phlegm production, dyspnea, chest
tightness, impairment of lung function, sinusitis, and bronchial asthma Al-Neaimi and Lloyd (2001).
IV.
Discussion:
Hematological parameter studied in the present work to confirm the involvement of cement dust in
changing the blood picture. High TLC count represents a primary disorder of leukocyte production or may
reflect a secondary response to some disease process or toxins. This may indicate an inflammatory change in
the lungs of cement mill workers as described (Oleru 1984; AbouTaleb1995; McDowell 1984). A search
revealed no such study that could describe the effective of dust exposure in cement workers. However, ESR has
been found to be faster in patients with respiratory diseases found that cement dust induces chronic exfoliate
bronchitis, tissue fibrosis and emphysema. In addition, (Oleru1984 and Abou-Taleb et al., 1995) reported that,
the most frequent symptoms in cement mill workers were cough and phlegm production, chronic bronchitis,
impairment of lung function. On the basis of such relation, our results suggest that cement dust effecting
different systems including respiratory systems and thus, involving blood parameters to deviate from their
normal values.
A rise in the mean values of TLC has been demonstrated and it has been suggested that, the rise in the
above hematological parameters is most likely due to ongoing effect of cement dust but the parameters did not
reveal significant difference between three age groups on the basis of period of exposure. It probably reflects the
low degree of severity of disease expressed in terms of hematological changes.
In this study we found a significant increase in the mean values of Hb% (p>0.05, Table1) and in
significant TLC (p<0.05).changes illuminating a significant difference between three age groups on the basis of
duration of exposure in the cement factories. High TLC count represents a primary disorder of leukocyte
production or may reflect a secondary response to some disease process or toxins Coates and
Baehner(1991).The peripheral blood leukocyte count is a marker of inflammatory activity and ongoing tissue
inflammation from whatever underlying cause. It thus might be viewed as a bio-marker of inflammatory
response. Longitudinal studies have linked elevations of the peripheral blood leukocyte count to increased
mortality from decreased pulmonary function, Weiss (1995) ischemic heart disease Friedman (1991) and cancer
Grimm and Neaton 1985.
In the present study TLC was found to be significantly higher in cement workers compared to healthy
controls (Table 2). However, a significant rise was observed on the basis of duration of exposure in three age
groups. Redlich (1996) reported that, various occupational exposures cause lung injury and initiate a chronic
inflammatory process that may either progress to initiate fibrosis or result in repair. Alternatively, it is also
possible that chronic exposure to irritating material might lead to adaptation process, which resists inflammation
and leukocytosis. On the basis of suggestion given by Hauser et al., (1995) the similar adaptation to a certain
extent may be responsible for non-significant rise in TLC with regard to period of exposure in this study.
40 | P a g e
A Case Study on Hematological Parameters in workers exposed to Cement dust in Areas

V.
Conclusion:
We recommended that industries pertaining to cement workers should regularly use appropriate
personal protective equipments at their work site namely apparel, mask, goggles, and should get periodic
medical surveillance including hematological profile. These measures would help to decrease the effects of
occupational hazards of cement dust and detect the disease in initial stage when treatment is achievable to
cement industrial worker.
TABLE: 1
HEMOGLOBIN PERCENTAGE OF CEMENT EXPOSED GROUP
AGE
20-35
36-50
50-65
MEAN
11.8525
12.1523
11.6967
STANDARD DEVIATION
1.9308
1.6891
1.8435
T-TEST VALUE
38.8225
39.4076
34.7496
TABLE VALUE
1.96
1.96
1.96
HEMOGLOBIN PERCENTAGE OF CONTROL GROUP

AGE
20-35
36-50
50-65
MEAN
12.8333
13.625
13.625
STANDARD DEVIATION
1.7321
3.6041
4.174
T-TEST VALUE
22.2226
10.0677
7.0077
TABLE VALUE
1.860
1.943
2.353
P: Level of Significance
Hemoglobin percentage of exposed age group 20-35, 30observations is the mean value Which is
divided by standard error value and is not significant at P>0.05.
Hemoglobin percentage of exposed age group 36-50,25 observations are the mean value which is divided by
standard error value and is not significant at P>0.05.
Hemoglobin percentage of exposed age group 51-65,25 observations are the mean value which is divided by
standard error value and is not significant at P>0.05.
TABLE: 2
TOTAL LEUCOCYTES COUNT CEMENT EXPOSED GROUP
AGE
20-35
36-50
50-65
MEAN
9027.5
9236.6667
9383.3333
STANDARD DEVIATION
2760.5242
3347.3854
3105.488
T-TEST VALUE
20.6826
15.1137
16.5496
TABLE VALUE
1.96
1.96
1.96
TOTAL LEUCOCYTES COUNT CONTROL GROUP

AGE
20-35
36-50
50-65
MEAN
8555.5556
9071.4286
9750
STANDARD DEVIATION
1364.7264
1568.1785
1145.6439
T-TEST VALUE
18.8073
15.3049
17.0210
TABLE VALUE
1.860
1.943
2.353
P: Level of Significance
Total leucocytes count of exposed age group 20-35,40observations are the mean value which is divided by
standard error value and significant at P<0.05.
Total leucocytes count of exposed age group 36-50, 30 observations are the mean value
Total leucocytes count of exposed age group 50-65, 30 observations are the mean value
References
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[2]
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[6]
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Al-Neaimi YL,Gomes JLloyd,OD,(2001).Respiratory illness and ventilator function among workers at a cement factory in a
rapidly developing country. Occup Med 56: 367-373.
Abou Taleb AN, Musaiger AO, Abdelmoneim RB, (1995). Health status of cement workers in the United Arab Emirates. J. R Soc
Health 2: 378-383.
CoatesTD, Baehner,(1991).Leukocytes and leucopenia. In: Hoffman R, Benz EJ, Shattil SJ, Furie B, Cohen HJ, editors.
Hematology Basic principals and practice. 1st Ed. New York (NY): Churchill Livingstone p. 552.
Elems and Gordon (2000). Effects of Occupational dust exposure on the respiratory health of Port Land Cement workers J.
Toxically Environment Health 49: 581-588.
Fairhurst ,E.J Mohanty, G.P, Harrison, CV Negelschmith G (1997) .The action of different form of pure silica on lungs of rats, Br.
J-Ind,med,10,9-17.
Friedman GD, Fireman BH,(1991).The Leukocyte Count and Cancer Mortality.AmJ Epidemiology 133: 376-380.
Grimm RH Neaton JD, Ludwig W,(1985).Prognostic importance of the white blood cell count for coronary cancer and all cause
mortality. 254: 1932-1939.
Hauser R, ElreedyS, Hoppin, JA,Christiani DC,(1995).Upper airway response in workers exposed to fuel oil ash: Nasal lavage
analysis. Occup Environ Med 52: 353-358.
McDowell ME,(1984).A mortality study of cement workers. Br J Ind Med 41: 179-182
Oleru UG,(1984).Pulmonary function and symptoms of Nigerian workers exposed to cement dust. Environ Res 33: 379-385.
Redlich CA,(1996).Pulmonary fibrosis and interstitial lung diseases. In: Harber P, Schenker MB, Balmes JR, editors. Occupational
and environmental respiratory disease. London (UK): Mosby; p. 216-222.
Weiss ST,Segal MR,Sparrow D,(1995).Wager C. Relation of FEV1 and Peripheral Blood Leukocyte Count to Total Mortality.
Animal, J. Epidemiology 142: 493-498.
41 | P a g e

Appraising the Physical Environment of Secondary Schools in

Calabar, Nigeria
Ogaji DS1, Okokon EO2
1
Department of Community Medicine, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Nigeria

Department of Community Medicine, University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar, Nigeria
Abstract: Background: Environmental challenges and opportunities vary among schools around the world,
across countries and within communities. World Health Organization had reported that the biggest threats to
child health and in fact accounting for more than five million deaths each year in children less than 15 years of
age are linked to the environment in which they live, learn and play -their homes, schools and their
communities. This study assessed the quality of the physical environment of all the secondary schools in
Calabar, Cross River State.
Methods: All existing 42 secondary schools in Calabar South local government council and Calabar
Municipality; stratified by proprietorship, were rated using pretested quantitative schools physical
environment instrument with 4 dimensions; site, structure, classroom and amenities; and various indicators with
assigned scores. Data were analysed using various parametric tests.
Results: Overcrowding was observed in 52.4% of schools. Mean scores of all dimensions was 42.7 11.4 from
a possible maximum of 73. Mission schools with mean of 49.9 9.8 fared better than private (48.8 19.8) and
government 35.5 11 respectively. Government owned schools showed consistently lower scores in all study
dimensions and the classrooms where students spend most of their time while in school had the worst ratings.
The variation between various proprietorship statuses was highest between private and government schools.
Conclusion: Deficiencies observed in the physical environment of the schools, reflects the poor implementation
of relevant standards by the supervising authorities and thus, leaving the attaining of a healthy physical
environment in schools to the prerogative of the various proprietors.
Keywords: Calabar, Nigeria, Physical Environment, School Health Programme, Secondary School.
I.
Introduction
Environmental challenges and opportunities vary among schools around the world, across countries
and within communities.[1] WHO has reported that the biggest threats to childrens health, and in fact accounting
for greater than 5,000,000 deaths/year in children <15years are linked to the environment in which they live,
learn and play (their home, their school and their community). The above was the reason behind the theme of
the 2003 world health day; shape the future of live, healthy environment for children.[2]The school
environment (including social, psychological and physical factors) had been reported to have significant impact
on the health and wellbeing of those who work and study within it, and on their ability to carry out their
mandated tasks.[3] Also, it is difficult to teach a child the value of health if the school environment is not
conducive to healthy behaviour, and if there are no resources with which to practice health skills. [4] Thus,
healthy school environment is an important part of the school health programme in both the three-component
model[5] and the CDC eight-component model.[6] A study done in Nigeria by Egbewunmi, Asuzu and Sridhar,
revealed that introduction of sanitary waste disposal in a rural community of Elesuin Oyo State, Nigeria lowered
the prevalence of helminthiasis among the school children. [7] The six identified groups of environmental hazards
that exacerbate the effects of economic under-development and cause the bulk of environment-related deaths
and diseases among children are: water security, lack of hygiene and poor sanitation, air pollution, vector-borne
diseases, chemical hazards and unintentional injuries or accidents. These should be tackled as priority issues.
Hence, effort should be made by the relevant stakeholders to improve the environmental health conditions of
their schools in line with available national and local standards. These environmental interventions are however,
governed by many factors such as economy, cultural belief and geographic pattern of the community. [8]
The World Health Organization in its global school health initiative seeks to increase the number of
schools that can be called Health-Promoting Schools.[9]For this to be achieved in developing countries,
minimum environmental health standards need to be established and enforced. This study is an appraisal of the
quality of the physical environment of secondary schools in Calabar.
42 | P a g e
Appraising The Physical Environment Of Secondary Schools In Calabar, Nigeria

II.
Methods
2.1 Setting of study
The study was conducted in Calabar, the capital of Cross River State, which is comprised of two Local
Government Areas namely: Calabar Municipality and Calabar South Local Government Areas in February
2006. The two Local Government Areas are similar in socio-cultural and economic activities with political
boundaries as their only distinguishing factor. Calabar located between latitude 4' 58 N and longitude 8' 17 E, is
within the tropical rain forest of Nigeria. It has the highest figures of relative air humidity in Nigeria (84%),
mean annual temperature of 26.1oC and average rainfall of 307.6cm. It is bounded in the North by Odukpani
Local Government Area, in the West by Calabar River with the Great Qua River at the South and East. At the
time of this study, there were 42 secondary schools in both local government areas with 9 and 13 of them being
owned by missionary organizations and private individuals, while the remaining 20 were government owned.
The coordination of the entire school system including school health services rests on the Ministry of Education
and the secondary schools board. The Nursing department within the State Ministry of Health occasionally
posts public health nurses to some of the schoolsto take care of the health needs of the school population.
2.1 Study instrument
The status of the schools physical environment was assessed using a structured quantitative scoring
scheme from a previous scheme[10] that was expanded to accommodate the WHO essential components of a
healthy school environment.[11] Four dimensions were considered; these were: (a) site/location (b) structure (c)
classrooms and (d) available amenities. Each indicator item under these dimensions was assigned scores
appropriate to the Nigerian situation. Overcrowding for instance, was said to exist, with a student population >
40/class and/or per capita space of < 10ft2.
Sub-domains in the school physical environment index
Site indicator accessibility, topography, absence of nuisance, general safety and security measures.
Structure indicator nature of building materials, walls, roofs and floors of schools
Classroom indicator per capita space, furniture design and sitting comfort, ventilation, lighting and heat
control
Amenities indicator source and location of water supply, method of solid and liquid waste disposal,
availability of sporting and recreational facilities.
Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from the Research and Ethics Committee of the
University of Calabar Teaching Hospital. Permission to access the schools used for this study was obtained from
the Commissioner for Education in the State. Following this, the cooperation of the Principal and staff in charge
of health in all these schools were sought after due explanation of the purpose of the research and presentation
of the entry permit from the Commissioner of Education
2.3 Pretest
Pre-testing of the instrument was done at the community secondary school Okoyong, a semi-urban,
Efik speaking community in Odukpani Local government Area of Cross River State. It was used to check the
relevance, content and reliability of the scale that was designed from extensive literature search and expert
reviews.
The reliability of the scale was done by the inter-rater reliability of the scale using the Pearson
correlation coefficient which gave a correlation coefficient of 0.84. Following the pre-testing of the data
collection instruments, the research team met to discuss and review their findings and proceeded with
appropriate revisions and necessary adaptations of the instruments. Thus, final revisions of the instruments were
then prepared for administration in the study area.
2.4 Data Processing and Analysis
Quality of the data collected was assessed by it completeness and appropriateness. Data generated from
the study were analyzed with the aid of EPI-INFO (Version 2002) epidemiological and statistical software
package (CDC/WHO). Data entered into the computer were checked for accuracy by reading them from the
screen, while one of the assistants checked the data source. Data were analyzed and presented in the form of
tables and charts. Where necessary, categorical variables were compared using Chi- Square test while
quantitative data were analyzed using means, standard deviation, and ANOVA. Games-Howell post-hoc test
was used to make multiple comparisons of total scores for different proprietors. The level of significance was
set at p-value 0.05 and confidence level at 95%.
43 | P a g e

III.
Result
Table 1: Physical Overcrowding in the Schools Classroom among the different Owners
School owner
Overcrowding
YES
NO
Total
Frequency (%)
Frequency (%)
GOVERNMENT
18(90.0)
2(10.0)
20
MISSION
2(22.2)
7(77.8)
9
PRIVATE
2(15.4)
11(84.6)
13
TOTAL
22(52.4)
20(47.6)
42
X2 = 21.76
df = 2
p = 0.000018
Table 1 showed that 90% of the classrooms in the government schools studied were overcrowded,
while; only 22.2 % and 15.4% of mission and private schools respectively were overcrowded. Overall,
22(52.4%) of all the schools studied showed overcrowding in the classroom. The relationship between
overcrowding and ownership of schools was statistically significant (p = 0.000018), with more of the
government owned schools being overcrowded.
Table 2: Quantitative Summary Scores of the Physical Environment of the Schools among the different owners
Indicator
Government
Mission
Private
All
Site
6.53.6
8.23.8
8.65.4
7.54.6
6
8
8
8
Structure
8.72.6
8.5
10.21.6
10
10.03.2
11
9.43.0
9
Classroom
7.65.8
6
11.43.8
12
11.95.4
11
9.86.6
10
Amenities
12.86.2
13
20.04.6
20
18.78.8
20
16.29.4
15.5
Total
35.511.4
49.99.8
48.819.8
42.719.8
environment
34
51
50
39.5
Upper values in each cell are the means 2 SD, while the lower values are the median values.
Quantitative assessment of the schools entire physical environment showed a mean score of 42.7
19.8 out a possible maximum of 73. The mission school stratum had the highest mean score of 49.9 9.8
(median = 51), followed by the private schools with a mean of 48.819.8 (median = 50). The government
schools had the lowest quantitative score of 35.511.4 (median = 34). The government owned schools showed
lower scores in all the indicators studied. The level of variations within groups was highest for the private
schools in most of the indicators assessed except for the classrooms, where this was highest in the government
stratum (Table 2).
Figure 1: Boxplot showing the entire score of the physical environment according to the different types of
school owners
44 | P a g e

Legend- The top of the box is at the 75th percentile of the scores, while the bottom of the box is at the 25th
percentile of the scores. Box length represents the interquartile range; and the horizontal line through the box
represents the median score. The ends of the whiskers represent the largest and smallest values that are not
outliers.
The stratum of the private schools had the highest level of variability, and contained the best, and worst
ratings of the physical school environment as observed in this study (fig. 1).
Table 3: Relationships between scores of selected indicators of the schools physical environment and owners
using analysis of variance.
School
Environment F-statistics
p-value
Category
Site
4.82
0.013*
Structure
6.30
0.004*
Classroom
12.70
0.000*
Amenities
18.61
0.000*
Entire
physical 19.45
0.000*
environment
* Significant
Relationships between the selected environmental indicators and proprietorship of the schools were
determined using ANOVA. Scores for the different indicators showed statistically significant differences
between proprietors, as did also the summary score.
Table 4.Multiple comparisons of physical environmental variables between schools owners using GamesHowell Post-Hoc Test.
Variable
Amenity Score
Ownership (I)
Government
Government
Private
Ownership (II)
Private
Mission
Mission
Mean
Difference
-5.892
-7.200
-1.308
p-value
0.001*
0.000*
0.644
Structure
Score
Government
Government
Private
Government
Government
Private
Government
Government
Private
Private
Mission
Mission
Private
Mission
Mission
Private
Mission
Mission
-1.350
-1.572
-0.222
-4.323
-3.844
0.479
-2.165
-1.772
0.393
0.045*
0.002*
0.904
0.000*
0.001*
0.878
0.046*
0.080
0.915
Government
Government
Private
Private
Mission
Mission
-13.319
-14.439
-1.120
0.001*
0.000*
0.935
Classroom Score
Location Score
Total Score
*Significant
Multiple comparisons showed that higher scores were significantly associated with the private and
mission schools in comparison with the government schools for all indicators and dimensions used to assess the
schools physical environment. Apart from the physical siting and location of the schools, all other dimensions
investigated revealed statistically significant difference between government and mission/private schools. The
strength of this difference is however highest in the provision of health amenities in these schools. The result
showed that there is no statistical difference between the scores of the physical environment of the private and
the mission schools (Table 3)
IV.
Discussion
The unhealthy state shown by the dismal ratings of the schools physical environment is a reflection of
the generally poor state of the environment in the study area. This unhealthy state had been likened to the poor
environmental state of our entire planet. [12] This study showed that less than 50% of the schools have access to
45 | P a g e

safe and adequate water supply, sanitation and sewage disposal systems. Poor environmental conditions
comprising unsafe water supply, poor and non-existent sanitation have been recognized as the largest single
cause of childhood illness and death.[13] The World Health Organization had identified safe water supply and
adequate sanitation as part of the core indicators of monitoring health achievements. [14] Although population
growth pattern in most urban cities in developing countries had increased the pressure on available
environmental resources,[15] it is still unacceptable to have the school water source a distance of more than 200
metres from the school as was seen in 26.2% of schools studied.
The mean physical environment score of 42.7 + 19.8 out of a possible maximum of 73 indicates a
generally low level of environmental conditions prevalent among the schools studied. The classroom
environment where the students spend most of their time while in school had the worst rating, due to
overcrowding, poor noise and heat control as well as poor indoor air quality. Poor environmental conditions
within the classroom had been documented to have a wide range of health implications including the spread of
communicable diseases, injuries and mental illnesses [1], [16], [17].
Deducing a statistical association between the environmental score and the proprietorship of schools,
showed a consistent significant disadvantage of the government schools, when compared to the private owned
schools and thus, places the bulk on the government. The noticeable high level of variation between and within
each stratum is suggestive of non-existence or a possibly weak implementation of environmental standards by
the supervising authorities and thus, leaving the application of standards at the prerogative of the individual
proprietors of schools.
High incidence of accidents and injuries to pedestrians and cyclist would be expected as about a third
of these schools are located in busy areas with heavy traffics. Appropriate regulations for the construction of
speed breakers and crosswalks markings can however improve safety and mobility for pedestrians. [18]
V.
Conclusion
This study had examined the state of the schools physical environment in Calabar, and had revealed
the poor implementations of relevant standards especially those related to the physical environment of the
schools. This had left the different proprietors of schools with the prerogative of using their own standards
which the study also showed to be suboptimal in most cases. Improvement in the quality of the school health
programme should be a product of improvement in these ranges of quality measures - structural (work force,
materials and funding, school environment and profile of health instructions), process (service delivery and an
efficient supervision). These would ultimately translate into better health and educational performance for our
school-aged adolescents.
Although associations seen in this study are only suggestive because of the study design, a critical look
at the evidences can make a significant contribution to a better understanding of the current state of the school
health programme to those who need to know. It is hoped that these results will be useful, since they have
exposed the deficiencies in the school health programme and provided backing for drawing up measures aimed
at mitigating these deficiencies. Furthermore, the implications of these results places a demand on the
improvement of existing policies on school health programme as well as the conduct of periodic appraisals.
Reference
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
The Physical School Environment; An Essential Component of a Health-Promoting School. WHO Information series on school
health, 1995; document 2, WHO, Geneva.
World Health Organization. World Health Day 2003: Shape the future of life, WHO, Geneva, 2003.
World Health Organisation. Information series on school health: oral health promotion through school, WHO Geneva, 2003.
Education for health: A manual on health education in primary care. WHO, Geneva, 1988; 134-8.
Allensworth D, Lawson E, Nicholson L, Wyche J. School and Health: our Nations investment. National Academy Press,
Washington DC, 1997:52.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A comprehensive school health program [on-line] Available:
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/cshpdef.htm (Accessed on 6th February 2006)
Egbewunmi OO, Asuzu MC, Sridhar MKC. Evaluation of the effect of waste disposal intervention on the prevalence of intestinal
helminthes among schoolchildren of Elesu Community, Oyo State. Journal of Community Medicine and Primary Health Care.
Vol 7, 1995:69-82.
Ezenwa OA. Comprehensive text on Community Health and Safety in the tropics, safety sciences Lagos; 1995:31-46.
World Health Organisation: Global School Health Initiative; school and youth home page. WHO, Geneva, 2002.
Nwadiuto A, Akani, Nkanginieme K. The school health programme, in :Azubuike JC, Nkanginieme KE - Pediatrics and Child
Health in a Tropical Region. African Educational Services, Owerri, Nig. 1999: 510-21.
Amin R, Sato T. Impact of a school-based comprehensive program for pregnant teens on their contraceptive use, future
contraceptive intention, and desire for more children. J Community Health Nurs. 2004; 21(1):39-47.
Carol B: Healthy environment for children, an editorial report. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2003; 81(3):157.
Brendis C, Kapphahn C, McCarter V, Wolfe AL. The impact of health insurance status on adolescents utilization of school-based
clinic. J Adolec Health. 1995; 16(1):18-25.
Monekosso MD: District Health Management. Planning, implementation and monitoring a minimum health for all package.
WHO-AFRO, 1994.
Mishra CP. Role of education with regard to environmental hygiene and promotional activities. Swasth Hind. 1996; 40(4-5):68-71.
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[16]
[17]
[18]
Lucas AO, Gilles HM- School Health Programme. In: Short Textbook of public health medicine for the tropics, 4 th edition. Arnold
Publishers, London. 2003:332-5.
Krieger J, Higgins DL. Housing and health, 2002; 92(5):758-68.
Leden L, Gerder P, Johansson C. Safe pedestrian crossings for children and elderly. Accid Anal Prev. 2006; 38(2):289-294.
SCORING SCHEME FOR HEALTHFUL PHYSICAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT

SCHOOL
LOCATION/SITE
TOTAL
STRUCTURES
TOTAL
CLASSROOM
DESCRIPTION
Presence of link road
Suitable Topography
Nuisance/health hazards at site
ii. Absence of Industrial Pollution
iii. Absence of Floods/open drainage
iv. Absence of Vectors/pests
v. Absence of Animal grazing/dangerous wild animal
vi. Absence of other unspecified nuisance/hazards
Safety/Security Measure
i. Absence of security threat eg high tension wire, bandits
ii. School perimeter fence
iii. Security/safety team
iv. Fire alarms and training
v. Fire extinguishers
Material
i. Blocks/prefab material
ii. Wood/zinc
Building wall
i. Strong walls, no cracks
ii. Strong walls, not plastered or with minor cracks
iii. Old walls, with major cracks
iv. Dilapidated structures/no walls
Roof
i. Intact, not leaking
ii. Leaking
iii. No roof
Floor finishing
i. Plastered and damp free
ii. Worn off, broken and dusty
iii. Sandy
Not more than 40 students/class
Per capita space not less than 10ft2
Furniture design
i. design to match individual students
ii. Facility for back rest and desk work
Sitting comfort
i.100% seated on desks
<100% seated on desks
none seated
Ventilation
i. Door and window area not less than 25% of floor area
ii. Doors and windows opening on different walls
iii. Controllable ventilation with intact doors and windows
SCORE
2
2
5
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
14
2
2
1
4
4
3
2
1
2
2
1
0
3
3
2
1
11
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
0
4
1
1
1
EMARK
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
47 | P a g e

iv. With supplemental ventilation
Lighting
i. Adequate
ii. Inadequate
iii. with supplemental artificial lighting (add)
Heat control
i. Classroom properly ceiled
ii. Classroom partially ceiled
iii. No ceiling
Facility for hand washing
Drinking fountains, buckets and cups in class
Dustbin/Waste paper basket for refuse collection
TOTAL
AMENITIES
Cleanliness/Aesthetics of the entire environment

Water supply
a) Source i. pipe borne/treated water
ii. Borehole/mono pump
iii. Wells
iv. Surface water
v. Nil
b) Location i. within the school
ii. <200metres outside school
iii. >200metres outside school
Solid waste Disposal Method
i. incinerator
ii. Sanitary landfill
iii. Composting
iv. Open dumping/burning
Sewage Disposal System
a) Toilet type
i. Water closet/septic tank
ii. Pit trench
iii. Bucket
iv. None
b) Toilet-student ratio
i. 1:<30
ii 1:31-45
iii. 1:46-60
iv. 1:61-90
v. 1:>90
vi. None
Availability of Eating room/Canteen
Sports field available
Sporting facilities
Available and adequate
Available but inadequate
Not available
TOTAL
GRAND TOTAL
1
3
2
1
1
2
2
1
0
1
1
1
18
4
MAX
MAX
4
4
3
2
1
0
3
3
2
1
4
4
3
2
1
MAX
3
3
2
1
0
5
5
4
3
2
1
0
2
2
3
3
1
0
30
73
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
MAX
48 | P a g e

The Sustainability of Dam Construction Through Environmental Management

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IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT)

ISSN: 2319-2402 Volume 1, Issue 1 (Sep.-Oct. 2012), PP 01-05