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Soma Biswas
Department of Electrical Engineering
IISc, Bangalore
Office: 215 A (EE)
E-mail: soma.biswas@ee.iisc.ernet.in
Signals
Signal: A physical quantity that varies with time, space, or any other independent
variable or variables.
Mathematically, we describe a signal as a function of one or more independent
variables.
, = + + ,
,
However, there are cases where such functional relationships are unknown or too
complicated to be of any practical use.
Speech Signals
Cannot be described functionally using such expressions.
Generated by forcing air through the vocal cord.
ECG (Electrocardiogram)
ECG provides doctor with information about the condition of the patients heart.
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
ECG provides doctor with information about the activity of the brain.
1D
-Speech, ECG, EEG all are 1D
Signals
- Functions of a single
independent variable - time
Basic Definitions
Amplitude: The value of the signal at a specified value of the independent variable.
Waveform: The variation of the amplitude as a function of the independent variable.
If the independent variable is continuous, it is called continuous-time signal. Typically
for 1-D signal the independent variable is labelled as time. If the independent
variable is discrete, it is known as discrete-time signal.
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Limitations
There are analog signals with large bandwidths for which a digital processing
approach is beyond the state of the art of digital hardware.
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Concept of Frequency
= + , < <
Subscript a denotes x(t) is an analog signal.
This signal is completely characterised by three parameters. is
the amplitude of the sinusoid, is the frequency in radian per
second (rad/s), and is the phase in radians.
Instead of , we often use the frequency in cycles per second or
hertz (Hz), where =
= + ,
< <
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Properties of sinusoid
= + =
+
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Phasor
= + =
14
= + ,
< <
6
1
=
12
=
3
=
15
1
2
1
2
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Properties cont
The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is
1
attained when = or equivalently = .
2
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Properties cont
Negative frequencies for discrete time signals:
= + =
Fundamental range or 0 2 (0 1 or
1
1
)
2
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A/D converter
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D/A converter
In many practical cases (e.g., speech processing) it is desirable to convert the
processed digital signals into analog form.
The process of converting digital signal into an analog signal is called digital-toanalog (D/A) conversion.
D/A converters do some form of interpolation
Zero-order hold/staircase approximation
- Linear interpolation- linearly connect pair of
successive samples
- Quadratic interpolation, etc.
Sampling does not result in a loss of information, nor does it introduces distortion
in the signal if the signal bandwidth is finite.
On the other hand quantization is a noninvertible or irreversible process that
results in signal distortion.
Digital Signal Processing - Lecture 2
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= = /
Digital Signal Processing - Lecture 2
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Sampling
There exists a relationship between the frequency variable (or )
for analog signals and the frequency variable (or ) for discretetime signals.
= = + =
+
=
=
or
= =
1
or
1
2
1
2
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Sampling
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Sampling
Sampling introduces an ambiguity. The highest frequency in a continuous-time
signal that can be uniquely distinguished when such a signal is sampled at a rate
1
= is = 2 , = .
(
2
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Sampling Theorem
Q ) How do we select sampling rate Fs?
Required: information about maximum frequency content of the signal Fmax
Sometimes signal passed through a filter that severely attenuates frequency components
above Fmax
- Highest frequency that can be unambiguously reconstructed is Fs/2
- Any frequency >Fs/2 or <-Fs/2 results in aliases
- To avoid aliasing, Fs is selected so that
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Quantization
The process of converting a discrete-time continuous-amplitude
signal into a digital signal by expressing each sample value as a
finite number of digits is called quantization.
The error introduced in this process is called quantization error or
quantization noise.
= ()
= ()
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28
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Quantization of sinusoid
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D/A conversion
The task of a D/A converter is to interpolate between samples.
The sampling theorem specifies an optimum interpolation,
however, it is too complicated.
Zero-order hold is the simplest D/A converter.
Additional improvements can be done using linear interpolation or
higher order interpolation.
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