The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory

Trustees of Princeton University
The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory

National Interests in International Society by Martha Finnemore; The Culture of National
Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics by Peter Katzenstein; Norms in International
Relations: The Struggle against Apartheid by Audie Klotz
Review by: Jeffrey T. Checkel
World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 2 (Jan., 1998), pp. 324-348
Published by: Cambridge University Press
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Review Article
IN
THE CONSTRUCTIVISTTURN
INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS THEORY
By JEFFREYT.CHECKEL*
Interests in International
Finnemore. National
Society. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cornell University
Press, 1996,149
pages.
ed. The Culture ofNational
Peter Katzenstein,
Security: Norms and Identity in
World Politics. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1996, 562 pages.
Audie Klotz. Norms in International Relations: The Struggle against Apartheid.
Press, 1995,183
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
pages.
Martha
a central locus of contention

the past decade
>nal relations has been the neorealist-neoliberal
within
debate.
interna
This
ex
change has been fruitful and cumulative, allowing proponents of the

two
research
to
programs
sharpen
arguments
while
simultaneously
shedding light on key issues of world politics, for example, the condi
tions under which
relative
or absolute
the constructivists
and
By
large,
such a characterization.
concerns
not what
content
and sources
behavior
occurs.1
gains-seeking
concur with
review would
under
and neoliberals
of neorealists
critique
do and say but what
they ignore: the
interests and the social fabric of world pol
Their
these
scholars
of state
itics. Reaching back to earlier theoretical traditions (the English school,

*
Po
Earlier versions of this essay were presented at the 1996 annual convention of the American
in International Politics," spon
and at the workship on "Structural Change
litical Science Association,
I thank Andrew
Political Science Association,
sored by the German
February 1997. For comments,
The financial
Risse, and Alex Wendt.
Cortell, Aaron Hoffman,
Jeff Legro, Thomas
support of the
von
and German Marshall
Fund is gratefully acknowledged.
Alexander
Humboldt-Stiftung
1
and Discord
in the World Political Economy
See Robert Keohane, After Hegemony:
Cooperation
andNeoliberalism:
The
(Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1984); David Baldwin,
ed., Neorealism
(New York: Columbia University
Press, 1993); Robert Powell, "Anarchy in In
Contemporary Debate
ternational
ganization
Relations
48 (Spring
Theory: The Neorealist-Neoliberal

1994); and "Promises, Promises:
20 (Summer1995).
World Politics 50 (January
(Review Article)," International Or

Institutions Deliver?" International Security
Debate
Can
1998), 324-48

CONSTRUCTIVE TURN IN IRTHEORY
325
out to new
of liberalism)
and
foun
disciplinary
reaching
to
dations
constructivists
seek
discourse.
(sociology),
expand theoretical
more
review and constructivism
both
the
books
under
Regarding
some versions
this essay
generally,
three claims.
advances
First,
that construc
I argue
tivism has succeeded in broadening the theoretical contours of IR.By

exploring issues of identity and interest bracketed by neoliberalism and
constructivists
neorealism,
demonstrated
politics. Moreover,
tity from postmodernists.
that
their
sociological
of international
interpretations
rescued the exploration
of iden
and meaningful
constructivists
have
leads
approach
have
to new
for its importance
By arguing
using methods
accepted by the majority of scholars, they have been able to challenge

on their own
Second
and more critically, I
analysts
ground.
lacks a theory of agency. As a result, it over
show that constructivism
structures and norms at the expense of the
of
social
the
role
emphasizes
create
and change them in the first place.
agents who help
mainstream
more
I argue that constructivism
remains a method
than any
Third,
is
for
these
scholars
else.
The
central
theory develop
challenge
thing
must
ment.
that social construction
demonstrated
matters,
they
Having
now address when,
the actors
how, and why it occurs, clearly specifying
the scope conditions
about change,
under
bringing
across
countries.
To
and
how
they vary
they operate,
accomplish
must
this task, constructivists
integrate their insights and assumptions
the empirical
ad hocism
that
with middle-range
theory. Otherwise,
and mechanisms
which
plagues
The
their current work

essay
is organized
will
remain.
as follows.
It begins
construc
by defining
tivism and its approach to the study of global politics. Next,

ers the
of constructivists,
contribution
empirical
the review explores
books under review. Finally,
tivists must
competitors
The
The
if they are to mount

IR.
in contemporary
address
Social
constructivist
Construction
critique
focusing
several issues construc
a sustained
challenge
of International
of neorealism
it consid
on the three
to their
Politics
reaches well
and neoliberalism
or
beyond the level-of-analysis argument of either Image I (individual)
not
is
concerned
Image II (domestic politics) theorists. Constructivism
with levels per se but with underlying conceptions of how the social
and political world works. It is not a theory but an approach to social
inquiry based on two assumptions: (1) the environment in which
as
asmaterial; and (2) this setting
agents/states take action is social well
can
provide
agents/states
with
understandings
of their
interests

(it can
326
WORLD POLITICS
"constitute"
Put
them).
these
differendy,
scholars
the materi
question
alism and methodological individualism upon which much contempo

rary IR scholarship has been built.
first assumption
reflects a view that material
structures, beyond
are
con
certain
necessities,
given meaning
only by the social
biological
are
text
which
Consider
nuclear
weapons?
through
they
interpreted.
the ultimate material
it
is not such
Constructivists
that
argue
capability.
The
that matter.
themselves
weapons
After
all, the United
States
worries
very little about the large quantity of nuclear weapons held by the
British; however, the possibility that North Korea might come into
of even one or two generates
tremendous
concern.2
possession
The
second assumption
addresses
the basic nature of human
agents
to broader
environ
and states, in particular,
their relation
structural
a process
ments.
of interaction
Constructivists
between
emphasize
is one of mutual
where
constitution,
agents and structures; the ontology
or structures?is
to the other
neither unit of analysis?agents
reduced
most
and made "ontologically
theo
primitive." This opens up what for
rists
is the black
box of
interest
and are endogenous

emerge
thus question
Constructivists
from
state interests
identity formation;
to interaction with
structures.3
and
the methodological
individualism
that
This
both neoliberalism
and neorealism.
agent-centered
underpins
are
in ways
view asserts that all social phenomena
that in
explicable
volve
only
individual
agents
and
their goals
and actions;
the
starting
point of the analysis is actors (states) with given properties. Ontologi

the result
cally,
is to reduce
one
unit
of analysis?structures?to
the
other?agents.4
in many
implicit
state behavior where
Also
constructivist
accounts
is a model
of human
action and logics of appropri

rule-governed
involve
reasoning by analogy and metaphor
prevail.
logics
and are not about ends and means. Under
them, agents ask "What kind
norms
is this?" and "What should I do now?"?with
of situation
help
answers.
to
constitute
Norms
therefore
the
states/agents,
ing
supply
of their interests.5
them with understandings
providing
and
ateness
Such
2
Alexander Wendt,
"Constructing International Politics," International Security 20 (Summer 1995), 73.
3
and neorealists written by a theorist
of this black box for neoliberals
For an excellent discussion
to their enterprise, see Powell (fn. 1), 317-24.
sympathetic
4
see Volker Rittberger, Andreas Hasenclever,
and
On neoliberalism's methodological
individualism,
Peter Mayer,
"Interests, Power, Knowledge: The Study of International Regimes," Mershon Interna
see Alexander Wendt,
"The
tional Studies Review 40 (October 1996), 183-87. For that of neorealism,
Agent-Structure
Problem
in International
Relations
Theory,"
International
Organization
41 (Summer
1987),34(M4.
5
On
see James March

and Johan Olsen,
logics of appropriateness,
Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989).
Rediscovering
Organizational

Institutions:
The
turn
constructivist
in ir theory
327
Scholars of rational choice, by contrast, use a behavioral model based

on
with
various
options,
and interests. Much
its
agent picks
objectives
rational
choice
research
also makes
("thick" rationalism)
assumptions
are material
that
about the content
of these interests,
they
typically
when
maximization:
utility
the one
that best
confronted
an
serves
such as power or wealth.

State
goods
and exogenously.
Norms
and social
and behavior
of self-interested
choices
interests are given a priori

(agent)
at most
structures
the
constrain
states, which
operate according
of
calculations).6
(means-ends
consequences
logic
to note that constructivists
It is important
do not reject science or
is ontologi
theories
causal explanation;
their quarrel with mainstream
not
it
for
that con
last
is
The
cal,
suggests
key,
point
epistemological.
to a
structivism has the potential to bridge the still vast divide separating
With
from postmodernists.
the latter, con
concerns
substantive
share many
(role of identity and dis
a
with
similar
the former, they share
and
course, say)
stance;
ontological
a
common
Constructivists
thus occupy a middle
largely
epistemology.
of IR theorists
the majority
structivists
ground between
To illuminate
schools,
Consider
it is
rational
choice
these
differences
to
theorists
and postmodern
constructivists
between
their understanding
explore
helpful
a
that has gained much
"norms,"
concept
scholars.7
and other
of central
terms.
in IR schol
currency
see norms as
realists
the
decade.
While
past
lacking causal
arship
an
that
influential
rule
neoliberal
force,
they play
regime theory argues
even for neoliberals,
norms are still a
in certain
issue-areas. However,
base: they serve a regulative
built on a material
function,
superstructure
over
actors with
utility. Agents
helping
given interests maximize
ate structures
For constructivists,
(norms and institutions).8
norms
are collective
that make
behavioral
understandings
(states)
cre
by contrast,
claims on
6
On
on the Role of Ideas:

"A Rational
the last point, see Barry Weingast,
Choice
Perspective
Belief Systems and State Sovereignty
in International
Politics and Society 23
Cooperation,"
"Rational Choice Theory's Mysterious
Rivals," in Jeffrey Fried
(December
1995); and Dennis Chong,
man, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models
of Politics Reconsidered (New Haven: Yale
to rational choice are Jon Elster, "The Market
and the
introductions
Press, 1996). Useful
University
Press,
Forum," in Elster, ed., Foundations
University
of Social Choice Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge
Shared
Press, 1994),
1986); James Morrow, Game Theory for Political Scientists (Princeton: Princeton University
chap. 2; and Donald Green and Ian Shapiro, Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique ofAppli
cations in Political Science (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1994), chap. 2.
7
Social Theory of International Politics (New York: Cambridge
See, among others, Alexander Wendt,
is a good bit of confusion
Press, forthcoming),
regarding these central
University
chaps. 1-2. There
tenets of constructivism;
"The False Promise of International
In
see, for example, John Mearsheimer,
37-47.
stitutions," International Security 19 (Winter 1994-95),
8
For example, Stephen Krasner, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Press,
here are limited to mainstream
IR, since it has been vasdy more influential than
1983). My comWisons
postmodern work in shaping the field.

WORLD POLITICS
328
actor identities
and
they constitute
interests and do not simply regulate behavior. As explanatory
variables,
to
their status moves from intervening
(Finnemore,
chaps.
independent
a
are no
3,4; Klotz,
superstructure
longer
chap. 6, for example). Norms
on a material
that base. For
base; rather, they help to create and define
are inter
constructivists,
(states) and structures
agents
(global norms)
are
constituted.9
mutually
acting; they
actors. Their
Taken
reach
effects
these moves
of
questioning
by constructivists?their
a continu
and materialism,
individualism
along with
a breath of
to the scientific
brought
enterprise?have
together,
methodological
ing commitment
to
in ways
accessible
nearly
politics,
new
is whether
such
issue, however,
perspectives
to
international
researchers
puzzles
explain
important
air to thinking
all scholars. A key
fresh
allow
these
deeper:
and
and phenomena
about world
thereby
demonstrate
the empirical
value
of their
approach.
inWorld
Politics:
Contribution
Puzzles and Anomalies

The Constructivist
seek to make
in three
contributions
empirical
and organizations
institutions
(Finne
and the effects of
international
volume);
(Katzenstein
more);
security
norms
to
their
To
evaluate
international
success, it is necessary
(Klotz).
a baseline
for comparison.
establish
school for well over a
the dominant
On
international
institutions,
The
books
areas:
review
under
the role of
international
of
Since
the publication
institutionalism.
neoliberal
s
shown
these scholars have
Keoh&ne
increasing
sophis
After Hegemony,
are created
institutions
under which
tication in exploring
the conditions
decade
has been
in the first place and the various roles they play inworld politics.10
Pardy
tionalists
out of a concern
institu
neoliberal
parsimony,
the sources
several issues, including
scholars also
These
by assumption.
for theoretical
bracketed
have purposely
are
which
interests,
given
a limited role to institutions,
grant only
considering
states that at most
constrain
ation of self-interested
of state
them
choices
to be the cre
and strate
9
norms as intervening or independent variables is not correct, as
Strictly speaking, my discussion of
constitutive effects (A enables or makes possible B) are not captured by standard causal terminology
(A
use the terms inter
causes B). See Wendt
(fn. 2), 72. In practice, however, empirical constructivists
"American Identity and Neutral Rights: From Inde
see, for example, Miada Bukovansky,
changeably,
to theWar of 1812," International
51 (Spring 1997).
Organization
pendence
10
Coercive Cooperation: Explaining Multilateral
(fn. 1); Lisa Martin,
See, among others, Keohane
Economic Sanctions (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1992); and Beth A. Simmons,
"Why Inno
vate? Founding
the Bank for International
Settlements," World Politics 45 (April 1993).

329
CONSTRUCTIVISTTURN IN IRTHEORY
gies. Virtually ignored is the possibility that the effects of institutions

reach deeper, to the level of interests and identity.
The baseline
for the second
issue-area?international
security?is
difficult to establish with precision, given the turbulence stirred up

within this subfield by the end of the cold war. Certainly realism and
have been
rationalism
and remain
here, but
dominant
scholars
have
re
fined their analyses by paying more attention to domestic politics.

studies
Important
have
enriched
our
understanding
of
security
by
exploring the role of ideology and threat perception, coalition politics,

some accuse these scholars
and perceptions. While
variables,
cognitive
em
into their analyses
of smuggling
and cultural variables
sociological
are nonetheless
in a com
still united
by constructivists,
they
phasized
mon
to rationalism
commitment
On the former, key

the state) make cost/ben
to maximize
certain in
strategies designed
are
and cultural
factors
terests; on the latter, perceptual,
ideational,
on a material
base.11
ultimately
parasitic
on international
the third area addressed
Research
norms,
by the
influenced
books under
review, has been heavily
by regime analysis.
actors
(elite decision makers

efit calculations
and choose
scholars
These
and materialism.
or groups within
con
that regime norms
demonstrated
typically
variable that inter
of states; they are an explanatory
and outcomes.12
power distributions
underlying
have
strain
the behavior
venes
between
on transna
communities
and, more
recently,
on international
has
research
regimes
policy
brought
It does so by suggesting
closer to the insights offered by constructivists.
effects. Studies of this sort are
that regime norms have deeper cognitive
are also beset
current within
still a minor
regime theory; they
arguably
a number
those
these
of
scholars,
especially
by
problems. Moreover,
a
on
embrace
communities,
largely agent-centered
epistemic
working
to a
state decision makers
and reason in response
calculate
view, where
Work
tional
changing
on
epistemic
networks
material
environment.13
11
See, among others, Stephen Walt, The Origins ofAlliances (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,
Politics andInternationalAmbition
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
1987); Jack Snyder, Myths ofEmpire:Domestic
"Realism and the End of the Cold War," Interna
Press, 1991); andWilliam Wohlforth,
University
tional Security 19 (Winter 1994-95).
12
Mark Zacher, Governing Global Networks: International Regimes for Transportation and Communi
cations (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1996), for example. An excellent, synthetic review of
the regime literature
13
See Peter Haas,
is Rittberger, Hasenclever,
and Mayer
(fh. 4).
The Politics of International Environmental
Cooperation
Saving theMediterranean:
Sikkink, "Human Rights, Principled
Press, 1990); and Kathryn
(New York: Columbia
University
47 (Summer 1993).
International Organization
in Latin America,"
and Sovereignty
Issue-Networks
For critiques, see Checkel, Ideas and International Political Change: Soviet/Russian Behavior and theEnd
War (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1997),
of the Cold
of Cooperation:
tional Theories
Strengths andWeaknesses,"
chaps. 1, 7;. and Helen Milner,

World Politics 44 (April 1992).

"Interna
WORLD POLITICS
330
National
Constructing
Interests
this background,
the task is to assess the contribution
of the con
two
She
with
book
Finnemore.
the
structivists,
beginning
by
questions
on
most
and
institutions
which
work
international
upon
assumptions
With
IRmore
rests:
generally
means-ends
calculations
In ontological
(p. x).
as the dominant
mode
to move
interests
of human
and
rational
interaction
away from
more
for example)
(neoliberalism,
by paying
side of the agent-structure
debate
(p. 7).
a
construc
that
Finnemore
argues
chapter,
she seeks
terms,
agent-oriented
approaches
to the structure
attention
In an excellent
of state
the definition
opening
scholarship
tivist logic of appropriateness is just as plausible a predictor of human

and state behavior
makes
one
When
logic of consequences.
as
the dependent
she
such
variable,
does,
can be
their content. From
key in determining
as the rationalists'
actor and state
interests
logics of appropriateness
where
do such logics come? Systemic
are one
tional organizations
possible
and goals for action.
direction
The
core of the book
tutions
is three case
in one
(and,
were
able
tion)
norms
propagated
answer;
they provide
of how
studies
by interna
states with
international
insti
an international
case,
to reconstitute
state
organiza
nongovernmental
not
interests. These
only make for
fascinating reading, but they also offer fresh insights into how institu
are also
carefully argued, typically
politics. They
two streams of evidence:
between
correlations
the emergence
(1)
using
in state interests and practice; and
of new systemic norms and changes
to see if actions are
in ways consistent
(2) analysis of discourse
justified
norms.
in the
These
the values and rules embedded
with
data, along
to build a
to alternative
allow
Finnemore
attention
with
explanations,
case.
plausible
tions matter
in world
Her study of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul

tural Organization
(UNESCO) is representative.
so many
countries?developing
explain why
science policy bureaucracies
stuctured
similarly
Finnemore's
puzzle
is to
and developed?created
in a relatively brief pe
of alternative
explana
a
consideration
riod. She begins with
rigorous
at the
that they were
established
for example,
tions for their creation,
domestic
After
these
constituencies.
behest of powerful
testing
quanti
advances her own norms
them lacking, Finnemore
tatively and finding
based argument.
how a norm pre
She starts at the international
level, documenting
scribing the creation of national science units initially took hold at UN

later
and was
is a careful
evidence
ESCO
consolidated
study
there.
of the changing
latter, part of the

UNESCO
within
discourse
On
the

states.
and among
its member
the notion
that such units were
came
331
In
she notes how,
particular,
needed
took on a prescriptive
over
time,
status and
to be taken
for granted.14
then turns to the state
be
correlations
level, establishing
UNESCO and the creation of science bu
by
promoted
a number
reaucracies
of states. To move
correlations,
by
beyond
she considers
several cases (Lebanon,
in more
East Africa)
however,
the
and
detail,
analyzing
personal
organizational
pathways
through
Finnemore
the norms
tween
the UNESCOnorms diffused to these states.While
which
here
is a bit weaker
(Finnemore
it is nonetheless
tive countries),
sible case that
the norms
the evidence
no fieldwork
in the respec
a
plau
for the change
in
conducted
to allow her
sufficient
were
to make
causally
important
norms
certain logics of ap
differently,
embodying
states with a new
of their in
had provided
propriateness
understanding
terests
(chap. 2).
one
of this sort moves
the understanding
of insti
Analysis
beyond
science
policy.
Put
in at least two ways.

institutionalists
by neoliberal
interest
Finnemore
sheds much
First, by endogenizing
formation,
on a crucial issue
states come
needed
how
neoliberals:
light
ignored by
to define their interests
can
in certain ways.
International
organizations
tutions
teach
provided
states
to value
certain goals: national

science bureaucracies
in the
as a
case
in
the
and poverty alleviation
policy objective
new
of theWorld
Bank. Finnemore
that
these
interests
carefiilly argues
arose in the absence of domestic
or
constituencies
countries
powerful
case of UNESCO
to states
them. Instead, they were diffused
by systemic norms,
favoring
as it were. Materialist
from the outside,
and rationalist
explanations
cannot account for such value and behavioral
change.
are
the book demonstrates
that international
Second,
organizations
not
empty
neoliberals.
vessels
that
are
simply
reduce
entities
transaction
costs, as portrayed
by
that are able, in some cases, to
Finnemores
rich source material
purposive
They
trump states and their power. Indeed,
at the international
level gives her cases
tory
in the making
that
is typically
a sense of
and his
dynamism
accounts of
from neoliberal
absent
institutions. She has thus provided a theoretically informed and empir

ically substantiated
but also constitute
other
not
for how
institutions
argument
only constrain
states and their interests,
is a puzzle for
what
solving
theorists.15
14
The documentation
and data come chiefly from archives at UNESCO's Paris headquarters.
15
For a similar argument, see David Strang and Patricia Mei Yin Chang, "The International Labor
and theWelfare
State: Institutional Effects on National Welfare
1960-80,"
Organization
Spending,
International Organization
47 (Spring 1993).

332
WORLD POLITICS
The book also fills a gap in constructivism: failure to tell us why cer
tain norms
exploring
an answer
arise at particular
times. Finnemore
provides
by
the role of moral
committed
individuals
who
entrepreneurs:
happen to be in the right place at the right time to instill their beliefs in
larger global social structures (pp. 24-28, chap. 4, pp. 137-39).16
it is not
portant,
is not without
account
Finnemore's
im
however. Most
weaknesses,
one does with her
so much
with
argument,
and idiosyncratic
variables. While
Finnemore
clear what
on
resting
contingencies
has demonstrated
is causally important,
she has
occurs.
and
this
To be
when,
how,
specify systematically
why
fair, one book cannot do everything. All the same, the critical next step
should be the development
of a specifically
constructivist
theory of in
one
ternational
that
would
elaborate
such
institutions,
scope conditions.
to which Finnemore's
A second weakness
con
is the
degree
analysis is
failed
to
sistent with
constructivism's
how
Now,
exacdy
for all empirical
strategy, where
mutual
one
constitution
mutual
operationalizes
constructivists.
Finnemore's
she first brackets
agency
and structures.
of agents
constitution
solution
and then,
is a dilemma
is a
bracketing
structures; her case
studies are broadly faithful to this approach (pp. 24-25, chaps. 2-4).
The
is the wrong
choice of agents: the entrepreneurs
who
norms
for
the
creation
in
of
the
first
To
responsible
place.
analyze
the process of mutual
constitution
that led to a change of national
in
terests within
states (her
she
the
variable),
particular
agents
dependent
on
norms as
should be exploring,
especially
given her emphasis
global
are groups
the structures,
same
and individuals
states.
in those
If
on these
ex
Finnemore
had focused
to
it
would
have
her
led
agents,
the feedback
effects of state
issues, for example,
plore several important
on the norms themselves.
behavior
(agent)
problem
are
A final
temic
on sys
given Finnemore's
emphasis
of domestic
A
that
politics.
question
norms
her
when
is
reading
analysis
why
is unavoidable
difficulty
social structures: the neglect
immediately
comes
to mind
diffuse differentially, that is,why they have somuch greater impact in

some
countries
norms
work
than
in others.
their effects
Through
what
mechanisms
Finnemore
alludes
do global
to these is
domestically?
sues at several
no clear answers
This
points but provides
(pp. 125,137).
is odd, since it is the constructivists,
to
with
their attention
practice and
who
be
should
and
mechanisms.17
interaction,
keying upon process
16
On moral entrepreneurs
and the development
of norms, see also Ann Florini,
International Norms," International Studies
40 (September 1996).
Quarterly
17
himself stresses the importance of mechanisms
and process
Indeed, Wendt
tivist theorizing. Wendt
(fn. 7), chap. 2,91-96.

"The Evolution
in causal construc
of
333
and Security
Culture
In a curious
the Katzenstein
volume
is both very ambitious
and
a
to
in
its
from
very
willingness
question,
the very microeconomic
founda
sociological
perspective,
disciplinary
tions of IR, and to do so on
issues
that
realists
will
empirical
recognize
as their own. At the same time, Katzenstein
and his contributors
do not
cautious.
way,
The
former
is seen
an alternative
to many
in contrast
theory of national
security;
this one does not even provide a common
of the better edited volumes,
theoretical
framework
used by all contributors.18
advance
It does
offer
extraordinarily
fresh
thinking
about
along with richly detailed case studies. Among
security,
however,
the familiar security
in a new way are the

of conventional
explored
proliferation
the role of deterrence
in the nonuse of nuclear and chemical
the sources of military
the Soviet cold war endgame,
doctrine,
questions
weaponry,
weapons,
and alliance dynamics in both theNorth Atlantic and theMiddle East.

Chapter 1 (Katzenstein) and especially chapter 2 (Jepperson,
Wendt, and Katzenstein) should be required reading in any graduate
on
or IRmore
is not because Katzen
security
generally. This
or because
et al. have
mainstream
theorists
decisively
trumped
are
have
the
in
essays
they
everything
extremely
helpful
right. Rather,
con
how
the
theoretical
schools
neoliberalism,
(neorealism,
explaining
seminar
stein
structivism) differ andwhy itmatters (chap. 1) and for making sense of

a
to national
sociological
security
approach
are
in dialogue;
scholars
the goal
interested
but to note their limitations.19
approaches
The
laxing
which
these
(chap. 2). Moreover,
not
to
is
demonize
existing
re
to national
security involves
sociological
approach
core
of
neorealism
and
neoliberalism,
assumptions
are (1) that the environment
of states can be conceived
solely in
volume's
the
two
terms of physical capabilities and (2) that institutions and structures

the behavior
of states with fixed interests. Relaxing
the
only constrain
structures
first assumption
of social
opens the possibility
being causally
in
while
world
important
politics,
relaxing the second suggests that the
to
effects of these structures may reach beyond
behavioral
constraint
In other words,
and interest formation.
identity
just like Finnemore,
a
to the materialism
this is challenge
and methodological
individualism
IR (Katzenstein,
in mainstream
that dominate
the discourse
16-17).
18
In addition to the edited volume, Katzenstein
has published a monograph
that makes many sim
ilar sociological claims. See Peter Katzenstein,
Cultural Norms and National
Security: Police andMilitary
in Postwar Japan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1996).
19
See also ibid., chap. 2.

WORLD POLITICS
334
two
needs to address
stance, the volume
key questions:
and properties
of the social structures having
such pro
(1) the content
Given
this
found effects on agents; and (2) the causalmechanisms

these
structures
their affects. The
have
social
are norms
and, to a lesser extent,

about proper
expectations
planatory work
as collective
are defined
as used
and Klotz
by Finnemore
research program
ers, that a constructivist
itself in IR.20
The
normative
of these
presence
variety of well-established
interview
example,
statistical
more's:
studies.
document
tion between
as further
the ex
doing
culture. The
behavior
former
for a given
and Katzenstein, 54). That this is the same
identity (Jepperson,Wendt,
definition
through which
structures
is one
indicator, among oth

to consolidate
is beginning
structures
is established
and standardmethodological
through
techniques, for
content
data, qualitative
analysis of primary sources,
is
similar to Finne
research
The
strategy
broadly
of the social structures; note a correla
the presence
these
and new
evidence
of these
state
discourse
interests; examine
changing
normative
effects; and, finally, strengthen
alternative
usually drawn from
explanations,
the case by considering

and neoliberal
neorealist
theories.
on the North Adantic

Treaty Organization
Risse-Kappen's
chapter
is to explain
is a good example
of the general
approach. His
puzzle
are
and endurance?events
that
he
NATO's initial formation
anomalous,
more
and
of
both
traditional
from
the
argues,
standpoint
sophisticated
realist theories of alliances.
In the first part of his essay Risse-Kappen
and carefiilly documents
these likely alternative
discusses
explanations
their
shortcomings.
his own liberal constructivist
he develops
Next,
norms that govern the domestic
decision-making
among
systems come to regulate the interactions
national
Power
making
non-use
ways
their
asymmetries
internal
will
be mediated
by
norms
among
persuasion,
equals emphasizing
then
of force or coercive
power." He
such norms
in inter
democracies
such as NATO. Democracies,

argues,
Risse-Kappen
norms when
with
each other.
cooperating
institutions
"externalize
the
approach, where
within
liberal
process
will
influence
the
interaction
of democratic
decision
and the
compromise
four different
deduces
process
among
demo
cratic allies (pp. 268-71).21

20
Definitional
in key concepts of a research program is often seen as a sign of its grow

congruence
Milner
See
(fn.
13).
ing maturity.
21
extension of their
Students of the democratic peace literature will recognize this as a constructivist
"Normative and Structural Causes of
domestic norms argument. See Zeev Maoz
and Bruce Russe?,
the Democratic
1993).
Peace," American Political Science Review 87 (September

335
Risse-Kappen illustrates the argument by showing how the interests

in play, both in the formation of NATO and during several key crises
(Suez 1956, Cuba 1962), were shaped by the democratic normative
context
in which
In other words,
evolved.
they
the
interests
of
states
and alliance decision makers (the agents) were being constituted by

norms
these democratic
from
is
carefully culled
for
the U.S.
sources,
primary
example,
United
States
series
the
and
materials
of
(the structures).
and, especially,
secondary
s
Relations
Foreign
government
His
Security Archive. This allows him to dissect the deci
in the National
norms
process,
sion-making
showing how
interests of various alliance partners.22
The essay by Risse-Kappen

volume,
which
menting
weaker
the
at
evidence
contains
impact
theorizing
affected
the preferences
and
is not at all atypical for the Katzenstein
a number
of norms.
of carefully
studies docu
argued
is much
the volume
Unfortunately,
the causal mechanisms
that give these social struc
to make,
constitutive
effects. This
is a fair criticism
tures such
powerful
as the authors
to a
themselves
clearly commit
largely causal epistemol
and
4-5,
7; Jepperson, Wendt,
52-53,
Katzenstein,
ogy (Katzenstein,
as Katzenstein
himself
admits in the books conclud
65-68). However,
as
which
institutionalism,
ing essay, structural theories such
sociological
a central role in the volume,
is accorded
processes
neglect
important
that translate structural effects (pp. 512-13).23
One result is that the role of agency, while highlighted empirically in

is neglected
The volume
short-cir
many of the chapters,
theoretically.
cuits one loop in the constructivist
method:
the causal arrows flow pri
structures to agents. Mutual
constitution,
however,
marily from
implies
to
structures.
Some
constructivists
also
flow
from
agents
they
might
object
tures)
that
causal
to agents then agents to struc

(structures
sequential
essence of their
misconstrues
the
the
language
ontology:
such
of agents and structures. However,

constitution
of mutual
by these scholars fol
application
here.24
lows precisely
the sequential
outlined
logic
Its com
this is a very important volume.
such shortcomings,
Despite
to causal
to a
mitment
contributes
analysis and standard methodologies
and neoliberals;
for the most part,
dialogue with neorealists
productive
In addition,
the case
these scholars are all talking the same language.
simultaneous,
the empirical
mutual
constitution
22
in a separate monograph;
has elaborated these arguments
Risse-Kappen,
Risse-Kappen
Coopera
tion among Democracies: The European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1995).
23
In his own book, Katzenstein
such processes, although a
pays much greater attention to mapping
lack of explicit theorizing about them is still evident. Katzenstein
(fh. 18), chaps. 3-6.
24
See Finnemore's
(fh. 4), 364-65; and fh. 9 above.
bracketing strategy (p. 25); Wendt

WORLD POLITICS
336
new and
For some au
meaningful
insights.
(chaps. 3-11) offer
can
outcomes
that particular
thors, this means
security
demonstrating
con
are
with
when
realist
be explained
supplemented
analyses
only
on Soviet
structivist
(Herman's
foreign policy under
chapter
approaches
s
on
NATO).
Gorbachev;
essay
Risse-Kappen
Other
however,
contributors,
go a step further and argue that their
accounts.
and materialist
rationalist
constructivist
approach
supplants
shows that
in a
Alastair
For example,
Johnston
superbly argued essay,
over several centuries
can be un
of China's
the persistence
realpolitik
terms of a constructivist
that subsumes
in
derstood
explanation
only
structural realism (Katzenstein,
chap. 7).
rare in any edited volume, Katzenstein
has
in an innovation
Finally,
studies
included an essay (chap. 12 by Kowert and Legro) that reflects critically

on
as a whole.
the book
excellent
This
that
and
cumulation
summary
It achieves
contributions.
various
cause but
by critically
a more coherent
structivist
For developing
precisely what
is needed.
is missing
the sense of
provides
one reads across the
chapter
when
the con
by championing
the volume's
shortcomings.
evaluating
this is
constructivist
research program,
this not
et al. are to be
applauded
Katzenstein
for in
such a chapter.
cluding
The
puzzle
ternational
Apartheid
terests
of Apartheid
and the Demise
Norms
Global
Audie
seeks
Klotz
to
is why
explain
states
adopted
and
organizations
a
in
large number of
the
sanctions
against
regime in South Africa despite strategic and economic in

it in the past. Klotz argues that
strong ties with
is at the heart of the
of a global norm of racial equality
interests even though they had ma
it led states to redefine
that had fostered
the emergence
explanation:
terial incentives
norms,
regulate
The
not
to do
so. This
demonstrates
she argues, where

they affect
behavior
(chaps. 1-2).
case studies on the United
6-8) make
research
empirical
(chaps.
for especially
and attention
state
a constitutive
identity
States,
Britain,
fascinating
to domestic
reading.
politics
role for
and do not
simply
and Zimbabwe
Klotz's
allow
extensive
her
to ex
plore how this global norm first reached the national level and the ef
fects
it then had
on the
interests
In
and individuals.
groups
to the Katzenstein
vol
contributors
of various
to Finnemore
and many
more
offers
much
Klotz
ume,
process-level
state interests.
tually reconstituted
contrast
evidence
on how
norms
ac
The book thus fills in important gaps in both regime theory and
constructivism.
Concerning
the former,
Klotz
demonstrates

in a nicely
argued
norms
section
that neoliberal
regime analysis
is not
politics. This
in international
play
337
the role
shortchanges
to argue that the neo
liberals have it allwrong (Klotz does not say this); rather, their view of
as constraints
on states, as
to
them, is only
constituting
opposed
can ac
the story. Empirically,
she shows how this theoretical move
out
is em
In an important
sense, Klotz
tually be carried
(pp. 13-33).
norms
half
piricizing the abstract critiques of regime theory advanced by Friedrich

Kratochwil and John Ruggie over the past decade.25
The
tion
is also
author
address.
a contested
is then how
an issue that con

for flagging
Klotz puts it: "The crucial ques
... becomes
both
institutionalized,
to be commended
research must
structivist
As
norm
globally and domestically,, (pp. 24-25).
Indeed, after reading enough of
this work, one senses that there are all too many
"out there" that somehow
insinuate
themselves
domestic
norm
arena.
(While
institutionalization
glects the question

Klotz
addresses
Finnemore
in international
works
of domestic
furthers
norms
around
floating
"in here," that is, in the
our
of how
understanding
diffusion
mechanisms
she ne
institutions,
and processes.)
issue by elaborating
three transmission
mecha
nisms that link norms and policy choice: community
and identity; rep
utation
and institutions.
While
and communication;
and discourse
want
to
these are ultimately
would
know
what
(one
underspecified
this
to be at work
in a partic
likely
a foundation
ular national
this is nonetheless
upon which
setting),
other
scholars
should build. By elaborating
causal mechanisms
that
move
cor
constructivists
from
the
diffusion
will
away
specify
pathways,
too often evident
relational
in
their
work;
process
analyses
tracing of
this sort is a method
whose
time has come for constructivism.
mechanisms
under what
conditions
are
Three weaknesses
limit the impact of Klotz's book, however.
First,
one
not
not even in its bracket
the ontology
is
of mutual
constitution,
to the contrary
(Klotz, 168-69,
notwithstanding
ing form?comments
172). Instead, like both Finnemore and many of the Katzenstein case
a
norm of racial
is a study of how social structures,
global
reconstituted
agents.
equality,
the analysis is too often correlational
for exam
Second,
(pp. 158-61,
a
more
to
In
results
this
from
failure
part,
ple).
specify
systematically
studies,
this
at the domestic
level (Klotz, 24-33).
operating
it is also an artifact of the source material, which
is primarily
the causal mechanisms

However,
secondary.
Given
the arguments
that Klotz
wishes
to make
about
the
25
A State of the Art on an Art
Friedrich Kratochwil
and John Ruggie, "International Organization:
40 (Autumn 1986); and Friedrich Kratochwil, Rules, Norms
of the State," International Organization
and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning
in International Relations and Domes
ticAffairs (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1989).

338
WORLD POLITICS
of global norms on various groups within

states, archival, mem
or
seem
interview
data
would
essential.
oir,
to take one
For the congressional
in her U.S.
representatives
study,
effects
for the argument whether

in
their views,
case, it matters
tremendously
the presence
of the global norm, were changing
because
feared
ad
they
verse electoral
(the rationalists' means-ends
calculations)
consequences
or because
new values and beliefs
learned
constructivists'
(the
they
logic
of appropriateness) (Klotz, chap. 6). Klotz's correlations tell us that the

views were
but not why this occurred;

changing
never
out in the substantive
is
fully carried
tracing
Third,
tious
the theory-building
the necessary
process
chapters.
potential inherent in the book's ambi
no
Klotz presents
design goes unrealized.
theory
or
her
results
similar
in
other
predict
explain
dynamics
to extend the
if one wished
is
in the
This
unfortunate:
study.
cross-national
that might
countries,
norms have
end, one is still left wondering
why regimes and
effects in some states but not in others.26
erful constitutive
such pow
Summary
Two
tivists
conclusions
follow
have
from
shown
the above. Most

the empirical
construc
important,
value of their approach,
on a
range of issues of
convincingly
new and
providing
meaningful
interpretations
to students
same time, con
central concern
of world
politics. At the
a state of
structivist
is
in
These
researchers, much
theorizing
disarray.
a
too
like the rational choice
scholars they criticize,
have made
rapid
to
to the
and methods
of theory
leap from ontology
empirics,
neglect
a central architect of con
matters
This
As
development.
tremendously.
as a theoreti
structivism
has recendy put it: "If parsimony
is over-rated
...
virtue
cal
is surely
cumulation
it
And cumulation,
underappreciated."
might be added, if it is to be efficient and productive, requires theory.27

Agency, Theory Building, and the
Enterprise
Constructivist
My purpose in this last section is twofold. I begin by highlighting three

issues
that
should
be easy for constructivists
to fix. Two,
more
difficult
26
which
should be the goal of prob
By "theory" I mean middle-range
theory and its development,
lem-driven
ed., Bringing Transnational
empirical research. See, for example, Thomas Risse-Kappen,
Relations Back In:Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures and International Institutions
(Cambridge: Cam
Press, 1995).
bridge University
27For
the quote, seeWendt
(fn. 7), chap. 1,15. A central message of one recent and influential cri
tique of rational choice is precisely its neglect of theory development,
particularly of the middle-range
sort. See Green and
on Our Crit
Shapiro (fh. 6), 188; and idem, "Pathologies Revisited; Reflections
ics," in Friedman
(fn. 6).

339
are then
the role of agency and the need for theory.
explored:
to agency,
these scholars will find
sustained
attention
to
where
their
themselves
unable
social structures
explain
powerful
questions
Without
more
(norms) come from in the first place and, equally important, why and
how
they change
level, constructivists
social construction
The Three
over
at the domestic
theory, especially
will not be able to explain in a systematic way how
occurs or
it varies cross nationally.
why
actually
Easy Fd
time. Without
to research
need, first, to pay greater attention
design.
or is
examines
of
the
work
noted,
empirical
single countries
sues. Cross-national
or
the
designs would
help reduce
longitudinal
is evident
in many
that
constructivist
of
overdetermination
problem
Constructivists
As
much
social
analyses, where
several causal variables
structures,
usually
with
little or no
are invoked
norms,
as one
of
on how much
of
given
and
114,
4,
8,10;
Klotz,
(Katzenstein,
chaps.
they explain
cases when
the "dog
It would
also be useful to consider
162, passim).
state
in
of a
the presence
doesn't bark," that is,where
identity/interests,
norm, do not change.28
to the bad
these scholars should give equal attention
Second,
things
in the
is a tendency
inworld politics
that are socially constructed. There
as
recent work
to consider
such
those im
only ethically
good norms,
insight
the outcome
posing
stigma
on
the use of nuclear
or chemical
weapons,
those
that
norms that facilitated

helped bring the cold war to an end, or the global
the demise
of Apartheid.
Some
constructivists
are aware of this

prob
lem (Finnemore, 6,31-32; Kowert and Legro, inKatzenstein 485-86),

it. It will not only protect
these scholars
future work must address
as
but it
theoretical
caricatured
from getting
opponents,
by
peaceniks
as
to
issues
such
will also direct their attention
important
unexplored
but
the role of social
construction
in ethnic
conflict
and war.29
28
focus is an important step in this direction. For addi
On the last point, Klotz's cross-national
see Ray Koslowski
and Friedrich
research utilizing
tional constructivist
designs,
single-country/issue
and the
in International
Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise
Kratochwil,
"Understanding
Change
of
48 (Spring 1994); Richard Price, "A Genealogy
International
System," International Organization
49 (Winter 1995); Thomas Biersteker and
the Chemical Weapons
Taboo," International Organization
Press,
eds., State Sovereignty as Social Construct (New York: Cambridge
University
Cynthia Weber,
Basis of Deter
"The Nuclear Taboo: The Normative
(fn. 9); Nina Tannenwald,
1996); Bukovansky
Institute for International
rence" (Manuscript, Watson
Studies, Brown University, April 1996); and
2 (Sep
Interests," European Journal of International Relations
Jutta Weldes,
"Constructing National
tember 1996).
29
to Constructivism:
The Quest
"From Primordialism
On the last point, see Lars-Erik Cederman,
Po
of the American
of Ethnic Conflict"
for Flexible Models
(Paper presented at the annual meeting
San Francisco,
litical Science Association,
1996). A particularly egregious example of the
September
isMearsheimer
(fn. 7).
caricaturing

WORLD POLITICS
340
must
constructivists
Third,
for example,
institutionalization.
take greater care in

key terms,
defining
in
This word
is invoked
nearly every
analysis of norms (Finnemore, 126; Katzenstein, 56, 96-97,129,143,

161, 472,484; Klotz, 24-26), but the reader is given no explanation of
what
the process
entails.
norms reside?Must
a socialization
In what
institutions?or
individuals?do
norms be internalized first by individuals through
and
If so, constructivists
should pay
process?
to
attention
in
the often
greater
developing
implicit cognitive models
occur at a
their analyses. Or, does institutionalization
of
level
ag
higher
and legal processes
that affect society
gregation,
through bureaucratic
as a whole.
If this is the level under examination,
constructivists
could
learning
benefit from the insights of historical institutionalists and of those in

the
ideas
literature who
The Challenges
studied
such dynamics.30
Ahead
and theory
Ontology
tivists.
have
building
are the central
challenges
for construc
BRINGING AGENCY BACK IN

This move
is necessary
ifmutual
constitution
is to be taken seriously as
a way of
I
about
the
social
world.
the reasoning
of
thinking
appreciate
some that a
as
a
at
to
corrective
present,
neglect of agency is legitimate,
most
IR
the extreme
orientation
mainstream
of
(Finnemore,
agent
to
it has proved very difficult
consti
chap. 1). Moreover,
apply mutual
tution
in
research.
empirical
to avoid the
the same, constructivists
All
should want
charge that
are
one unit of
decision
mak
(states,
they
reducing
analysis?agents
of
is
the
other?structures
One
result
this
reduction
ers)?to
(norms).
a failure to
norms
in
arise
the first place (and the role of
explore how
in
interactions with
and
this
and
how,
agency
power
through
process),
norms
over time.31
agents,
particular
change
war
of the last point. Post-cold
clarifies the importance
example
norms
more
has witnessed
of
inclu
the emergence
Europe
advancing
na
sive conceptions
of
of national membership
laws,
rights
(citizenship
An
30
et al.,
in Comparative Analy
See Frank Longstreth
Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism
sis (New York: Cambridge University
Ideas, Interests and American
Press, 1992); and Judith Goldstein,
Trade Policy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993). Not surprisingly, it is Katzenstein,
the com
account of domestic norm institutionaliza
parativist, who has offered the most careful constructivist
tion. See Katzenstein
(fn. 18), chaps. 1-3,5,7.
31
structure should be especially relevant to con
Dessler's
transformative model of international
structivists as they rethink the role of agency in their analyses. See David Dessler, "What's at Stake in
the Agent-Structure
43 (Summer 1989).
Debate?" International Organization

341
tional minorities). Promoted initially by nongovernmental actors and

more recendy by the
Strasbourg-based Council of Europe, the content
norms
of these
has now
been modified
sia's instrumental
of them
exploitation
states. The
the former Soviet
among
tures are themselves
reshaped
being
as a result of Rus
significandy
in a bid to reassert its dominance
constructivists'
by
the
normative
activities
struc
of purposeful
agents.32
Three reasons explain why agency has fallen through the ontological
cracks
for constructivists.
First,
constructivists
many
rely upon
the
in
sights of sociological institutionalism for their thinking about the so

cial world.
Those
are based upon a

branch
insights, however,
particular
that
excludes
of
agency,
theory
systematically
questions
of organization
interest, and power.33
because
of their
Second,
focus
on
held,
collectively
intersubjective
are less
not
constructivists,
understandings
surprisingly,
in questions
interested
of individual
devel
agency. Yet the evolutionary
norms
some
at
of
in
life
their
histo
that,
opment
suggests
early point
not
in
be
collective
sense; particular
ries, they may
any meaningful
individuals
moral
for
(Finnemore's
entrepreneurs,
example) may play
(norms),
most
at
at the level of agents
social construction
key roles
early stages. Thus,
concern
is?or
should
be?a
for
relevant
these
scholars.34
rather,
who has been so influential
in developing
Finally, Wendt,
bracketed
individual
tivism, has explicidy
agency as a factor
construc
to be ex
a
constitution.
is between
For Wendt,
plained by mutual
key distinction
the corporate
and social identity of states, with
the former deempha
a
sized because
"its roots [are] in domestic
Since he assumes
politics."
unitary
dividual.
state,
The
includes and
corporate
identity
result is that social construction
subsumes
that of the
in
at the level of individual
sev
at any domestic
level is neglected. While
agents or, more generally,
eral theorists
have criticized Wendt
for this stance, no clear under
to
it
of
how
has
standing
rectify
emerged.35
32
and National
Checkel,
"Norms, Institutions
Identity in Contemporary
Europe" (Manuscript, Oc
tober 1997).
33
"Interest and Agency
in Institutional Theory,"
in Lynne Zucker, ed., Institu
See Paul DiMaggio,
tional Patterns and Organizations:
Culture and Environment
1988);
(Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing,
Paul DiMaggio
andWalter
in Organizational Analysis (Chicago:
Powell, eds., The New Institutionalism
of Chicago Press, 1991), chaps. 1,4; Frank Dobbin,
of Organization:
The
"Cultural Models
University
Social Construction
of Rational Organizing
inDiana Crane, ed., The Sociology of Culture:
Principles,"
Theoretical Perspectives (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers,
1994).
Emerging
34
in Florini (fn. 16), 374-75,377-80.
See also the discussion of norm reproduction
35
Alexander Wendt,
and the International
"Collective Identity Formation
State," American Political
Science Review
tional Politics,"
88 (June 1994); and, for the quote,

in Friedrich Kratochwil
and Yosef
in Interna
idem, "Identity and Structural Change
Lapid, eds., The Return of Culture and Identity in

342
WORLD POLITICS
It is ironic that constructivists therefore find themselves in a predica

ment all too familiar to rational choice scholars: their ontology has led
them
to
choice
behavior,
neglect
key issues. The

a clear
perspective
provides
but much
less clarity
agent-centered
approach
on the microfoundations
on how
this connects
with
of rational
of human
the broader
institutional and social context. The dilemma then is how to get from
to outcomes.36
microfoundations
their arguments
about mutually
Constructivists,
despite
a
and
have
advanced
structure-centered
structures,
agents
constituting
in
approach
stance has led to a
their empirical work. Moreover,

Wendt's
theoretical
of
is
domestic
result
that constructivism,
while
The
agency.
neglect
at the macrofoundations
of
behavior
and
social
(norms,
good
identity
on
to
is
weak
microlevel.
the
It
fails
context),
very
systemati
explore
norms connect with
how
cally
agents.37
SOCIALCONSTRUCTION
AND THEORYBUILDING
such connections,
in the
constructivists
will need to engage
At
constructivism
like
rational
is,
choice,
ory development.
present,
more
than a method.
It leads one to ask certain questions
and
nothing
want
certain
make
constructivists
should surely
However,
assumptions.
more.
In fact, in the volumes
under review, there is a persistent
call pre
for
of
constructivism
130-31;
(Finnemore,
greater
cisely
specification
and Legro,
Kowert
in Katzenstein,
469-83;
Klotz, 26-33).38
To
explore
The
missing
would
provide
research
national
is substantive,
middle-range
theory, which
a set (or better,
with
sets) of
competing
cross
and
be
tested
that
could
in
various
hypotheses
element
constructivists
questions
and longitudinal
ident at the domestic
ev
for theory is especially
the constructivist
"norm" is empirical
studies. The
level, where
need
ad hocism with all sorts of implicit models of domestic politics and key
actors
being
invoked.39
IR
1996), 50-51. For critiques, see Sujuta Pasic,
Theory (London: Lynne Rienner,
tional Relations Theory: A Call for Extension,"
in Kratochwil
and Lapid, 87-90;
29), 13-19.
36
Rational choice institutionalism
represents an effort to address this dilemma.
and Political Economy,"
in Friedman
field, "Rational Choice
(fn. 6), 192-93,207-8;
and Rosemary Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New
Institutionalisms,"
"Culturing Interna
and Cederman
(fh.
See Norman
Scho
and Peter Hall
Political Studies 44
(December
1996), 958-62.
37
On the micro versus the macrofoundations
of behavior and identity and the tensions between the two,
see
The Role of Theory
inComparative Politics," World Politics 48 (October 1995), 13-15.
"Symposium:
38
After earlier confusion, Wendt
also now argues that constructivism
is not a theory. Wendt
(fn. 7),
1.
chap.
39
All the books reviewed are strongest, theoretically, at the systems level, in large part because they
draw upon an already well developed
literature that is systemic in orientation.
See Martha
sociological
Interna
Politics: Insights from Sociology's
Finnemore,
"Norms, Culture andWorld
Institutionalism,"
tional Organization
50 (Spring 1996).

343
If constructivists are to theorize at the domestic level, they will need

one need to go
a
deep within
policy does
an
is
How
such
analysis actually carried
analysis?
as
a
to a
is constructivist
out? Under what conditions
opposed
approach,
to
rationalist one, even necessary
explain the effects of social structures?
on the first issue
of political
actors,
requires
specification
Progress
are all
some
state. There
within
the
that is,
model
of domestic
politics
sorts of domestic
and so
available
frameworks
institutional,
(pluralist,
to address
three
issues. How
a constructivist
with
on), but these arewell known and need not be discussed. Rather, Iwish
to
have
that constructivists
suggest
dence
that the state-level
penetration
varies
cross
nationally.
The
how
deep
already uncovered
of international
evi
abundant
structures
social
clearly matters.40
question
A few examples will clarify the point. Although
is not
Finnemore
that
score, one can infer from her empirical
chapters
are limited to state bureaucrats
(Finnemore,
chaps. 2,
some authors find norms held
In the Katzenstein
volume,
broadly
explicit
normative
on
this
effects
4).
within
a
polity
see their effects
(Berger
confined
on
and Japan), while

others
postwar Germany
on
to
elites
and
academic
(Herman
political
or to state decision makers
the USSR)
Katzenstein,
chaps.
idence of normative
9,8,10).
effects
in her British
(the U.S.);
Klotz's
(Risse-Kappen
cross-national
at the level of
political
such
case, however,
on NATO;
uncovers
design
elites in one
influences
ev
instance
are
partly
blocked by deeper, historically constructed national discourses (Klotz,

chaps. 6, 7).
sense of and
To make
explain
to theorize
the varying processes
curs. The
will
constructivists
such diversity,
construction
which
social
through
move
need
oc
in
gained from Klotz's partial
its importance. Here,
constructivism
would
benefit gready from
dicate
em
IR scholars
to
methods
by
seeking
utilizing
developed
place greater
on
phasis
process.41
occurs at various
levels
established
Having
insights
in this direction
can be addressed:
how does one
the state, the second question
assume three domestic
such an analysis? For present purposes,
Fur
levels: society, state institutions,
and individual
decision makers.
the
due to space limitations,
consider
individual
level.
thermore,
only
to
of individual de
What
does it mean
explore the social construction
within
conduct
cision makers?
Theoretically,
it is to explore
how
social
structures
40
Milner's
inter
IR theorists on how to
domestic politics is
(fn. 13) advice to mainstream
conceptualize
relevant here as well.
41
and Domestic Politics (Berke
Peter Evans, ed., Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining
of California Press, 1993); Haas
(fn. 13); Sikkink (fn. 13); and Risse-Kappen
(fn. 26),
ley: University
among others.

WORLD POLITICS
344
act with and fundamentally affect the identities of these agents, how
certain
this means
constructivists,
and identities
of particular
come
For
ests
being
to govern
able to
their behavior.
explain how the inter

in the presence
of norms,
agents,
over time.
not
do
its
important,
change?or,
equally
change
Despite
this
which
addresses
the
microfoun
issue,
centrality,
directly
cognitive
dations of constructivism,
the attention
it should, es
has not received
a review of this work
in the empirical
literature. However,
three
suggests
possibilities.
is a learning argument
One
drawn from cognitive
Just
psychology.
a
in
such
is
Finnemore's
where
(state
book,
agents
dynamic
implicit
new identities
to norms, are
and inter
elites), through exposure
taught
are
one can infer that this is a con
ests. Because
interests
changing,
structivist
rather than simple,
claim about complex,
(In the
learning.
pecially
latter, new
information
allows
actors
it can be accommodated
fectively;
The problem
to pursue
given
a rationalist
within
for such arguments
is that when
one
interests more
ef
framework.)42
introduces
the re
ality and friction of domestic politics, complex learning typically breaks

down.
Absent
such processes,
one
is back
in the rationalists'
world
of
simple learning.This politics-learning tension iswell established both

theoretically and empirically, with the basic insight being that learning
less likely as the circle of actors grows.43
a second
interactionist
possi
theory in sociology
provides
Symbolic
microfoundations.
individ
ble way to probe these constructivist
Here,
a process of interaction,
ual identities
and interests are formed
through
becomes
with
two mechanisms
and social learning.

Since
being key: imitation
involve interaction
mutual
it
(and, thus,
constitution),
is the social learning dynamic
that plays a more central role in the con
accounts.
structivist
like the cognitive/individual
Social learning, much
imitation
does not
or
can be
complex, but given the constructivist
just discussed,
simple
on
is again on the latter.
the
focus
identity change,
emphasis
Specifically,
occurs
when
identities
and interests are learned
social learning
complex
sort
in response
42
Personal
to how
actors
are treated
by significant
others.44
1996. See also Thomas Risse-Kappen,

Martha Finnemore,
September
A Social Constructivist
of the Liberal Ar
Democracies?
Interpretation
1 (December
1995). On the learning literature
gument," European Journal of International Relations
a
more
see Jack Levy, "Learning and Foreign Policy: Sweeping
(Re
Conceptual Minefield
generally,
48 (Spring 1994).
view Article)," International Organization
43
see Richard Anderson,
Politics
On the learning theory?politics
connection,
"Why Competitive
"Democratic
communication,
Peace?Warlike
in Soviet Foreign Policy," inGeorge Breslauer and Philip Tetlock,

Inhibits Learning
eds., Learning in
US. and Soviet Foreign Policy (Boulder, Colo.: Westview
Press, 1991).
44
States Make of It:The Social Construc
SeeWendt
(fn. 7), chap. 7; and idem, "Anarchy IsWhat
interactionist
46 (Spring 1992). Symbolic
tion of Power Politics," International Organization
theory

345
intriguing, this line of reasoning has not yet been integrated
While
and if this occurs, the same problem

empirical research. When
cussed above will confront constructivists:
how to maintain
complex
with
as dis
learn
ing in settingswhere the static created by domestic politics hinders it.

Social psychology provides a final possible tool for exploring social
at the
individual
level. Here,
the theoretical
foundations
where
the focus is
Turner's
by
theory,
self-categorization
provided
in
interactions.
the key process
For constructivists,
individual-group
construction
are
on
Turner's work is depersonalization, for this is how individual identities

a
interaction with
larger social group.45
change through
so
context
is
this
and unclear
(does
process
dependent
Unfortunately,
occur
it
social
coercion?),
depersonalization
through
learning?
through
is not at all certain how constructivists
its
into
insights
might
integrate
and
interests
their work.
Nor
surprisingly,
when
these
scholars
led to unresolved
it has
self-categorization
theory,
as well as to
sloppy empirical work.46
The criticisms
raised above
and questions
missive.
In addressing
structures
to
have used
theoretical
variants
disputes,
should not be viewed
an issue of central
of
as dis
to connect
importance?how
are
building much-needed
agents?these
to constructivists,
to other literatures.
In
scholars of ra
fairness
bridges
in similar ways for their at
criticized
tional choice have been harshly
social
scholars
their
tempts at the reverse process: connecting
to broader
structures.47
social and normative
last comments
These
tivism
lead directly
to address more
needs
to the
third question
at the domestic
systematically
as
to a rationalist
is such an approach,
opposed
the effects of social structures? Because
explain
tivist work
to date has been method

that the domestic
appreciate
and explained
Klotz's U.S.
so much
effects
sparse microfoundations
construc
level: when
to
one, even necessary
most
of the construc
driven, these scholars have failed to

of norms are at times best captured
by rational choice.48
that global norms were
suggests
study, for example,
of
the
identities
representatives
congressional
transforming
not
as
uncon
at the individual level, which
is why I discuss it here. Wendt,
has been developed
primarily
in my view, argues that it can be applied at the level of (unitary) states as well.
vincingly
45
the Social Group: A Self-Categorization
See John Turner, Rediscovering
Theory (Oxford: Basil Black
well, 1987), chap. 3; and Penelope Oakes et al., eds., Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford: Blackwell,
1994), chaps. 1,4.
46
49
On the former, compare Jonathan Mercer,
"Anarchy and Identity," International Organization
"The Po
(fn. 7), chap 7. For the sloppy empirical work, see Glenn Chafetz,
(Spring 1995); andWendt
of the Nuclear Nonproliferation
litical Psychology
Regime," Journal of Politics 57 (August 1995).
47
in Friedman
For example, Robert Lane, "What Rational Choice Explains,"
(fn. 6).
48
Politics: Bridging
the Rationalist
For details, see Checkel,
"International Norms and Domestic
Constructivist
Divide," European Journal of International Relations 3 (December 1997).

WORLD POLITICS
346
on their behavior
(Klotz, chap. 6). In other words, one
creating constraints
is back in the rationalist's world
calculations
of means-ends
(in this in
survival calculus of how best to secure reelection). Now,
stance, a political
to the Katzenstein
Klotz, as well as many contributors
volume, does rec
can
as
norms
have instrumental
that
effects such
these. Nonethe
ognize
or the other is
one
less, one would want clear indicators of when
dynamic
to
to
is
conditions.49
The
then,
scope
likely
prevail.
develop
challenge,
men
is
One
is
the
This
division-of-labor
argument
briefly
temporal.
tioned in the Katzenstein
and Katzenstein,
volume
(Jepperson, Wendt,
be best at ex
Kowert
and
Constructivism
70;
490-91).
Legro,
might
as
some
but
later time, when
identity and interest formation,
plaining
interests were
stable,
rationalism
might
be the right method.
Such
a so
lution would have the benefit of making everyone happy: there would
be a legitimate
place and time for all approaches.
is in the details. Empirically,
how does one know
the devil
However,
a
a state
priori when
is likely to be in a period of identity formation, where constructivism is
appropriate,
as
opposed
to a time when
identities
and
interests
are al
ready fixed?
A
second
condition
scope
is a density-of-interactions
argument,
which has been applied primarily to international bargaining. At some

conse
actors may
switch from the rationalists'
are
to a situation
in which
their preferences
logic
communi
in genuine
and
flux and open to change
through persuasion
cation. However,
is how one predicts
the key question
such a switch.
in this process,
quential, means-ends
stage
What
needs to happen andwhen? Cognitive uncertainty by individual
negotiators?
The
establishment,
through
communication
and
speech,
of some level of collective trust among them? Lacking this specifica
the division-of-labor
arise as with
tion, the same problems
argument.50
institutions.
A final scope condition
role
of
the
domestic
explores
in this case, refers to the bureaucracies,
and
"Institution,"
organizations,
states.
In
the
that
define
within
and
channel
groups
policy-making
three books
review, one
level. In some
under
at the domestic
sees two very different

normative
effects
and elites are
decision makers
instances,
49
accounts portraying
similar rationalist logics, see Price and Tannenwald,
For other constructivist
and Bukovansky
in Katzenstein,
(fn. 9), 21-51. Very similar questions of scope and do
138,148-50;
main are now being asked by several rational choice analysts. See the discussion of "segmented univer
and Shapiro
Fails," in
(fn. 6), 192-93,
204; Michael
salism," in Green
Taylor, "When Rationality
Friedman
and Powell (fn. 1), 324.
(fn. 6), 230-33;
50
and German Unification"
Thomas Risse, "The Cold War's Endgame
(A Review Essay), Interna
thus extends well
of communication
tional Security 21 (Spring 1997). This constructivist
conception
an excellent discussion,
see James Johnson, "Is Talk Really
beyond the rationalists' "cheap talk." For
and Rational Choice," American Political
between Critical Theory
Conversation
Cheap: Prompting
Science Review %7 (March 1993).

347
essentially taught (Finnemore) or learn (Herman, inKatzenstein, chap.

8) new
in the absence of any obvious domestic

and values
pres
new
come to
is,
(constructivist)
ef
govern their behavior. At other times, norms do not have individual
domestic
that pressure
elites to
fects; instead,
groups
they mobilize
norms
in
with
consistent
the
(for example, Klotz,
ways
change policy
effects are operating
is, normative
(rationalist)
chap. 6). That
through
means-ends
calculations.
sures;
beliefs
that
Perhaps this variation is explained and predicted by differences

across
institutions
political
where
decision
rationalists'
of systemic
states.
In liberal
polities
little autonomy
from
societal
more often
instrumental
the domestic
effect
captures
logic
social structures.
In states with greater autonomy
and insu
makers
have
lation from society (say, the former USSR),

more
often
in
as the U.S.,
the
groups,
such
capture
the unit-level
constructivist logics may
of norms.51
affects
CONCLUSIONS
IBM ad in a recent
An
issue of the Economist
shows
a well-heeled
exec
utive holding his head and shaking it in despair: "Oh no, another para
news
for IR theorists
is they face no
in this essay. However,
reviewed
this attests not to their failures but to the nature of their
goals: dialogue,
a
to causal
of disciplinary
and a commitment
foundations,
widening
are
out not to colonize
IR but
scholars
and deconstruct
analysis. These
digm
such
shift," he laments. The good

threat from the constructivists
to revitalize
its conceptual
and expand
lenses.
one can make
so many
That
critical observations
about this work
its
achievements.
The
of the books
suggests, paradoxically,
publication
the work of scholars such asWendt,
here, along with
Ruggie,
a critical
and Kratochwil,
has for the first time given constructivism
mass of research that is both theoretical
and empirical. This
allows a re
as
as
to
viewer
well
in it.
probe for lacunae and tensions,
synergies
discussed
At
a broader
this point,
instead of summarizing,
issue needs to be
kind of constructivism
do we want?
Some constructivists
raised: what
feel this review "mainstreams"

might
research design, better
specification
them
too much.
of key
terms,
The
criticisms
developing
on
middle
51
see Checkel,
For a full theoretical elaboration,
"Between Norms
and Power: Identity Politics
in
in progress), chap. 2. Recent work on the role of international
the New Europe" (Book manuscript
norms in U.S.
is consistent with the argument made here. See Andrew
and
Cortell
policy-making
"How Do International
Institutions Matter? The Domestic
James Davis,
Impact of International
Rules and Norms," International Studies Quarterly 40 (December
1996).

348
range
sound
WORLD POLITICS
and agency
after all,
domestic
seriously,
politics
a more
research
for
coherent
program.
building
primer
are two reasons for constructivists
to move
in this direction.
theory,
like a
There
taking
First, judging by many comments to this effect, it is the direction in

on
to move. Their
and causal analy
they wish
emphasis
dialogue
a
sis suggests a fairly standard concern with building
and co
rigorous
that speaks to and plays off other
herent body of research
literatures
which
within
IR.
con
in its present
form, it is not clear what one does with
to other inter
How
could Finnemore's
insights be applied
for
do
the
transnational
national
institutions?NATO,
example? Why
no
so
in
Klotz's
norms, which
study, have seemingly
figure
prominently
come
to such
in contemporary
China? Answers
only
impact
puzzles will
more
actors?structures
and
the
constructivists
when
clearly
specify
causal
mechanisms
about
the
condi
scope
bringing
agents?and
change,
Second,
structivism.
tions under which

sent this
theorizing,
cross
nationally. Ab
they operate and how they vary
it" question will remain.
the "what do we do with


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The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory

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a central locus of contention

change has been fruitful and cumulative, allowing proponents of the

itics. Reaching back to earlier theoretical traditions (the English school,

Theory: The Neorealist-Neoliberal

World Politics 50 (January

(Review Article)," International Or

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CONSTRUCTIVE TURN IN IRTHEORY

tivism has succeeded in broadening the theoretical contours of IR.By

for its importance

accepted by the majority of scholars, they have been able to challenge

their current work

tivism and its approach to the study of global politics. Next,

if they are to mount

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alism and methodological individualism upon which much contempo

all, the United

and are endogenous

point of the analysis is actors (states) with given properties. Ontologi

action and logics of appropri

see James March

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Scholars of rational choice, by contrast, use a behavioral model based

such as power or wealth.

interests are given a priori

on the Role of Ideas:

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Puzzles and Anomalies

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gies. Virtually ignored is the possibility that the effects of institutions

difficult to establish with precision, given the turbulence stirred up

fined their analyses by paying more attention to domestic politics.

exploring the role of ideology and threat perception, coalition politics,

On the former, key

(elite decision makers

chaps. 1, 7;. and Helen Milner,

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tivist logic of appropriateness is just as plausible a predictor of human

actor and state

core of the book

Her study of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul

scribing the creation of national science units initially took hold at UN

latter, part of the

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the UNESCOnorms diffused to these states.While

in at least two ways.

certain goals: national

institutions. She has thus provided a theoretically informed and empir

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she first brackets

diffuse differentially, that is,why they have somuch greater impact in

This content downloaded from 103.231.241.233 on Thu, 23 Oct 2014 21:28:56 PM

along with richly detailed case studies. Among

the familiar security

in a new way are the

and alliance dynamics in both theNorth Atlantic and theMiddle East.

structivism) differ andwhy itmatters (chap. 1) and for making sense of

terms of physical capabilities and (2) that institutions and structures

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found effects on agents; and (2) the causalmechanisms

their affects. The