Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003,

ed. S. Huerta, Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, ETSAM, A. E. Benvenuto, COAM, F. Dragados, 2003.

Technicalliterature frorn the Enlightenrnent to the Portland

cernent era: Its contribution to the knowledge of rnasonry
buildings and the History of Construction
Joao Mascarenhas Mateus

Knowledge of the construction of historical masonry

buildings is fundamental to their study and to any
decision making in their conservation and restoration.
Masonry technology is in turn indispensable to any
discussion of the history of construction.
A fundamental source of information about masonry
techniques can be found in the technical literature
published during a particular golden historical
period, from the mid eighteenth century to the close of
the nineteenth century. This period is characterized by
the collection, the classification and the availability of
centuries of knowledge about building practices in
written formo In this period, this knowledge became the
object of widespread
study and of scientific
elaboration,
which led to the theorisation,
the
standardisation,
and the optimisation of traditional
methods and materials. AIso in this period, new
modern standards of materials and processes started to
emerge and to replace traditional ones. The beginning
of this period is established clearly with the publication
of the Encyclopaedia of Diderot and d' Alembert in
1751, the first encyclopaedia
which ret1ected the
modern scientific methodology. The period ends with
the dominance of Portland Cement and Steel at the
beginning of the twentieth century. The industry of
Portland Cement and Steel brought about a revolution
in the control, optimisation and distribution ofbuilding
materials. This shift signifies also the decline of
traditional practices in masonry construction.
In my study of the use of the technicalliterature
in
the construction of traditional masonry buildings, 1

divided my discussion into three key areas. These are:

i) the context of the publication; ii) the content of the
literature; iii) its application in conservation. In this
presentation I will summarise these two first areas
and I will begin to develop some ideas, not only about
building conservation, but also about the relationship
between traditional masonry knowledge
and the
history of construction.

THE CONTEXT

The enormous number of works concerning masonry

construction published during the eighteenth and
nineteenth century are the fruit of a process which
started during the Renaissance with the diffusion of
the printing press, and the creation of the first natural
science and drawing academies. The first books on
architecture
emerged from the context of these
teaching institutions. However, during the seventeenth
century, the teaching of architecture was extended to
the first Engineer' s Corps and the military
academies, the first such academy being the Danish
Holsteenske Fortifikationsetat founded in 1684. By
the end of the eighteenth century, there were military
and mining schools in every european nation, as
shown in Table l.
The establishment of the discipline of military
architecture led to the production of a specific genre
of books. Dominated first by the Italians and the
Spaniards, and later by the French and the Dutch,

TABLA
Dates

Ilaly

France

1700

1706- Soelety Royal des

Scicnccs de Montpellier

1. SCHOOLS

Portugal

1701- Aeademyof

Fortificatan of Elvas and

Almeida

1710 - Aeademy of Selcnces

of the Institute, Bologna

1713- EnginccringCorps.
Gcnoa (Bassignani)
1734 - Military Engineers
Corps. Veniec: 1739 Engineers Corps, Sardinia
1739 - Reali Seuole teoriehe
e pratiche d'artiglcria,
Picmontc
1742 - Military Engineers
Corps ('aples)

750 - Academy 01'Finc

Arts, Venice: 1757
Academy ol' Sciences. Turin
(Lagrange)
1759 -Military SehuoL
V erona
1764 - Engineers Corps.
Parma: 1776 - Academ) of
Finc Arts, IvliJan

1786 - Coufses of
Mathemalcs. Physics &
Architecture, Univ.ol' Pavia
and Academ) of Brera
1787- :>1i1ltary Academy,
Turin ami ~v1odena

1716 - Corps des Ponts et

Chausses

w
'-D
O

AND ACADEMIES7
Spain

1716 - Royal ~1ilitar)

School of Mathematic;,
Barcelona
171O - Cuerpo de Ingenieros
de los Exrcitos, Plazas.
Puertos y Fronteras
(Verboom)
1713 - Royal Spanlsh
Aeademy, Madrid

Grcat-Britain

Germany/Austria
1717 - Genie-Akademie,
Vicnna

1716 - Corps of Engineers

Riehards)

1729 - Ingenieurskorps,
Prussia Walrawe)

1730 - Ingenieur-Corps.

1740- eoledesArts, Paris

Saxony

(Blandeli

1744 - Bureau des

Dessinatcurs de Pars
1747 - eole des Ponts et
Pars (PerrO/u)!)
1748 du Gnie de
Mzieres

1762 - Classe of i'iaulcaL

Sketching and Orawing.
Porto

1778 - eole Nationale

Suprieure de Mines, Pari,

1765-1772 - College of the

Nobles. Lishon Courses ol'
Drawing, Civil and Military
Architecture
1772 - Faeulty of
Mathematics. Univ. di
Coimbra
1779 - Aeademy of the
Seiences of Lishon: 178 1 School al' Lil'e Drawing and
Civil Architecture , Lisbon

Engineers (Lippe)

1763 - Ruyal Aeademy of

Sciences and Arts,
Barcelona
1777 - Schuol of Mining
Engineers. Almadn

1768 - Royal Academy of

Arts

Austria
1763 - Accademia
elec!oralis ,I'{'ientiorum
Theodoro Palatino.
Heidelberg
1767 - Sehool of Mining
Engineering ol' Freiburg
Saxony)

Fortifieation, Artillery and

Drawing

792 - Royal Engineering

Corps

3:
~
r.
e;
(p
;:;
::r
~

3:
00

"~

1771 - Society of Civil

Engineers, London

1779 - Accademia de las

Nohles Artes de S.Carlos de
la Nueva Espagna (Mcxico)
1780 - American Academy
01'Arts and Sciencc,.
Camhridge. ELA

1790- Roya! Academyof

1794 - cole Centrale des

Travaux Publles / co!e
Polytechnique. Paris
Sgllnzill)

;::<
~!
:)

1747 - <dngenieur-Corps\),

1763- Royal Corpsof

1793 Suppression 01'the

Academies

o"the Ten;o
and Class of the Artillery
RegimenL Rio de Janeiro
(A/paim)

1738 - Class

1731 - Ingenieur-Corps,
Braunschwcig

1744 -Real Academia de las

Tres Noblcs Artes de San
Fernando. Madrid

1765 - Corp, des Ingnieurs

de la Marine

In8 - cole d'Arts et

Mtiers. Paris

Amcricas

1787 - Engineers Corps.

Brazil

e. 1790- Classof

Enginccring al the
Univcrsity ol' Cambridge

1792 - Ruyal Aeademy of

Artillery. Fortil'ication and
Drawing. Rio de Janero
799 - {(Bauakademie.
Berlin

1800
1803 ~Schoolof
Engineering, Pavia

1803 ~Acadmledes
Beaux-Arts, Paris

1810~1812 ~Academic
Schools o' Romc.
,<Carhedra in Architecwre

18m ~Royal ~avaland

Commercc Acadcmy,
Opono
1807 ~Polytechnic
Academy of Oporto

1838 ~Technical Schools.

Milan and Ven ice

1851 - Admission of
engin~ers not public officcrs
al Eco!e Polytechniquc

1859 ~Seuola
d'Applicazione degli
Ingcgneri, Turin
1860 - Regio lstituto
Tecnico Superiore, Milan:
1861 ~Collegeof Builders.
Milan
1865 ~SpecialSehool for
Civil Architccts, Brera
1876 ~Sehoolfor Engineers.
Padua

1818 ~Instilution of Civil

Engineers (Thomas Teljrd)
1827 ~Courseof Civil
Enginecring at he London
University Collcge

1819 ~coiedes Beau.x~

Arts. Pars
1829~ co1c Central e des
Ponts et Chausses. Pars

1836 ~RoyalAeademy al
Fine Arts, Lisbon and
Oporto
1837 ~Polyleehnic
Academy of Oporto, (Passos
Manuel and S da Bandeira)
1837 ~School01 the Army,
Lisbon
1852 ~,dndustrial and
C01111llercialInstitule of
Lisbon and Industrial
School of Oparto Fonlcs
Pereira de Melo
1864~1868 ~Civil
Engineers Corps 01'the
Minislry of Public Works.
Commerce and Industry
1869 - Portugucsc
Association of Civil
Enginccrs (lOr10 CrisrJstomo
d'Abreu e SOl/sa)

1878 ~Polytechnic School

of Lisbon
1885 ~Sehool01'the Army.
Lisbon Courses01'Civil and
Mining Engineering

1845 ~EscuelaEspecial de
Bellas Artes, Madrid
1850 ~Royallndastrial
Inslitute. Madrid

1802 ~MilltalY Acadcl11Y of

V,.'cst Poiot

c. 1800 ~Title01 Enginccr

al the University of
Edinburgh

1809 ~Conservalory ollhc

Arls. Madrid

1811 ~School01'
Engineering. Naples
1817 ~Schoolof
Engineering. Rome

1802 ~Escuelade
Ingenieros de Caminos,
Canales y Puertos. Madrid

1813 - (KbniglichTcchnischcn Hochschule>,.

Berln
1821 - Gcv.'erbeakadernie>i,
Bcrlin
1825 ~Polytechnic Sehool
of Karlsruhe

1838 ~Sehoolof
Enginecring, King 's
Col!ege, London
1834 ~Royallnstitute al
British Architects. R.I.BA

1827 ~Polytechnic Sehool

of Munieh

1840 ~Schoolof
Engineering, Glasgo\\'

1840 ~Polytechnic Sehool

01 Stuttgart

1804 ~University olOhio.

USA
1810 ~Milltary Acudemy ,,1'
Ro de Janeiro
1816 ~RoyalSehool 01
Sciem:es.Ans and Cfafts.
Ro de Janciro
1817 ~NewYork Aeademy
of Scicnces
1820 ~Royul Academy al
Painting, Sculpture and
Civil Architecturc. Rio de
7Janeiro

..,
(p
r.
::"
::
'
"'-

~
'"fi(p
::ro
3
(p
StT1

"oo'
g(p
1849 ~Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institutc, Tmy,
New York

::
3(p
g
5'
(p
S-

1852 ~American Society of

Civil Engincers. Reston,
Virginia

1857 ~CentralSchool al
Industrial Engineers, Madrid

1856 ~Verein Deutschcr

Ingenicure, Dusseldorf

1866 ~Royallnstitulc of
British Architects
1882 ~ThePolytcehnie.
Regent Street. London
1890 ~Woolwieh
Polytechnie (Univ.of
GreenlA'ich)

J856 - American Institull'

of Architects, Washington

d'
;:

pO

p..
'"r.(p
3(p
;:',
(p
@

1863 ~National Academy

01'Scienccs, Washington

1898 ~Amcrican Society

for Testing and Materials,
US

'..-J
'

TABLA 2.
Italy

Spain

Dates

'vJ
-D
IV

(1700-1800)

Portugal

France

Germany

Great-Britain

[700
1707-94 - To>ca,
Compendio Mathematico

1693-1798

POllO,

piclOrum

Pmpectiva

17I2-Bluteau,
V()C{/!JlIlario
Portu[?ue:..

Arc/iletfonico

1716- Pomcy.lndicu!o

711 - GaJIi di Bibiena. L 'archirefluf({

universal

cirife

1691-1756 - Aviler, Cour.' d'Archilectllre:

1691-1 B26, Bu!let. L 'architecture
pratique:
J694-1732 - CornciJIe. DictiOl/llare
1706-14 Cordemoy, A'ollt'eau {mir; 1712 - La
Hire, Sur la conslruc. des 1'00tes: 1713 Parcnt, t-,\"sais.
el
Phnique:

1728-29 - Fortes, O
F.ngenheiro Portugus

1714-Leclerc,
- Gautier.

17!6-65

Architecture

La Rue, Trait

The ar/uf
1725 - Halfpcuy,
......un..,u..,""
1727-56 LangJcy. The bui!der'sjeorvel

des pOllt.\' ,

Arte de Construccin:

1734

-1 R4! - Montn, Secretos de

Artes Liberales (E) (P)

(ivile:
1737 - Guarini, Architeltura
Zabaglia, Cas/elli e pOI1/i:
1743-1824
[748 Borra, Trallato... delle

1739 - Oliveira,
Adretlncias
(lOS modemo.\

moderne;

1728-jBS8

de coupc des pierrcs

1737-1 g58 -Bclidor. Areh. hwlmuliqlli'

(F)(D)(P)(I)(E):
1737-63 - Frelicr. La tha. el
prat, (oupe pierres: 1742-43 -Le

resisfenze;

1748 i.\"foriche...cllpola

Poleni,

Memorie

Scur Jacquier,Boskovic,

1751-1878 - Didcrot. d'Alembert,

Macqucr, lemellts
fncyc1opMie:
1751-56
]

dlimie:
-

1747 - Garcia Berruguilla,

Verdadera prctica de las

Pare re.. S.Pietro

vaticano

1738-1805 - Briguz y Bru,

Escuela de Arquitectura

752-54- Lacombe, Dictionnare;

Laugier,

(UK)

Essai sur /'(lrchitecture

- Pl Y Camin,
El arquilecf{) pralico

1767-1856

1767-71 - Gallaccin!.
Traff{/fO sopra gli errori
(I)(UK)

1776-1 g05 - Bails,

FJcmentos de MalclI1uricus.
Din17mim

1761-83

de

1753
(O)

[773

1775- Lamberti, Voltimetria:

Griselini, Dbonario
delle arte e

de 'mestiai:

1777 - Amonini,
di rari of"l/amenti

;1,1(/11110/('

Anon.. Selldoa mi
(P) (L:K)

1761 - Duhamcl
L'ar{ du fuilier

du Monceau.

Loriot,

Coulomb,

Essai../Iwximis..lllinimis:

- Waltn, Can d/ll'eilllre:1774-76 Mmoire

sur l/lIe dco/lrerle

(D)(E)(i)

'-<
POI
e"
3::
~
o
E;
(1)
::>
:T
B;

3::
Po
;'
;;

body of Arclfecfure: 1757

The lIlodem
a.\"Sistant
1758-93 - Pain. The bUllda"
companion:
1759-1862 -

Chambers. A lrealise mi 01'[/

Archilecture

- Roland de Virloys. DIionna[rc:

1771-77 - Blande!. CO/lrs: 1771 - Gauthe),
M!/Joire ...mcal1iqw:
1772 Bossut.
Trait...mcal1i1jue
sWjlle

177)

Londiensis:

1766
7h7 -

1770~7I

1771-

(DJ(I)

LOIldol1...hricklll\'ers
Warc, A eamplele
-

du btimenl:

Jars. L 'art dUluilier...hrique

770

Dell'ar/e

1756-68

Fourcroy de Ramccourt. L 'arl du

1764 - Jomhcrl. L'arehitecture

moderne:
Duhamel du rvlonceau. Arr du COllrreur:

ci1'ile

- Ginet- Tois gnerol

-

chaufurnier;

degli architetti

1772-80- Carktti.lstitll;)oni
d'architeltura

76]

Viscntin!.

e ESWlico

Terreros y Dando,
Diccionario
casfellano con
{as 1'oces de ciencia.\' e artes

1776-98

Vittone, Istrllzioni
1765 - Sanviata!c. Elementi
di architettura
civile

1760-77
elementari:

Palladio

Archifectllre
Langley, The
huilder's as,\.istant; 1748-56
Langley. The

{'apparei/
]
763-65 - Rieger, ElementOs
de toda la Architectura
Civil

i ff/atfoni

I73g-50

diclioll/w[rc;]
756 - rvfcnalld, L 'rr de

resol. de la Geometria

Eiselen,

The
1734 - Hawksmoor,
]
734-59
bui/der's dictionnary:
Morris, ,ecfUres 011
I1rehilectllrc;
[742-1807Langley and Langley, Ancienl

MIj.
! 754 - Espie, \1aniere.rendre
iocombllslibles
iF)(l!K)(E)(Ii:
1755 -Belidor.

1757 - Alberti, Tralla/o della misllra

delle fabbriebe

di cuocere

1727-70 - Salmon, The

COtlnlJY's hui/da es/imator;
]
728 - Chambers.
Crelopaedia:
1734 -73 -

1721-52
1728 -

Salmon,

1734 - 92 - Masustcgui,

1717-99

ralle a areoueerure

Traifs

- Bion. Trait d'archirecture,

Courtonne,

(F) (GK)

775 - Columban. A nflr hook

of ornamenl.\

1773 -84 liZo,

A/!fngsgrunde da
lmrgulichen

Baukul1sl

- Bolognmi,

1778-1806

11 muralore

ilaliano: 1780 - Prcti, Element di

archifettura: 1781 - Lambcrti. Staliea

1777 - E~a, Pmblema

archilellura
ciri!

de

1778-80

Faujas de S. Fond, Rechercbes

pOlcolane;
1783-91- Lacombc,
Enc.-vclopdie...arts

sur la

1780 -Higgins,
Expe riments. cemems.quick

et mtiers

lime

degli edifici
1785 - Diez. Arle de hacer
el estuco

1781-1853-Milizia,Principi
Mascheroni,

1788- Rejnde Silva.

de las Nobles

1786 -Lodoli,

d'architeffllra;

1781-87-Pain,
The huilders
go{den rule

1788-99 - Von Cancrin.

Klein Technologische \Verk

cirile

delle mire

Memmo,

E/emeali

1786-93

1787 - Salimbeni, Degli

1788- Masi,Teora e praliea

dell'architettura

-Sguin, Manuel

d'architecrure:

1787

Chaptal, Obserrations..pouzzolanes

de

1797 - Milizia, Dizionario

arti

179/ - Portugal, Sobre a

ulilidade da
Chymica..edijicios

civile

1792 - Valzania,

1788 -1821 - Quatrcmcre

de Quincy,
1788-1832
- Quatremere
Dictiol1naire historique

Encvclopdie;
Quincy,

civi/e

nel
1789 - Ruffo, Saggio raggionalo
origine ed esssenza dell'architettura

Arquitectura

slalique

archi e delle volte

Arte.I'

Instituciones

lemeal.de

~onroy, Teail d'lIrchileclure

NI/ove ricerche

sull'equilibrio
Diccionario

1786-185 1-Monge,Trail

(F)(UK) ; 1785
-

d'architeffura civile (1)(0); 1785-

delle belle

1798-1825 - Viterbo,
Elucidario

-3

1792 95 - Simonin, Trait..coupe des pierre~'

(F)(E); 1793 Lagardette, L 'arl du plombier;
1797 - Rondelet,

Mmoire

sur le dme du

Pantho!l
1798 - Gauthey, Di.D'CTtatioJ1.. dbme..
Panlhon;
1798 Girard, Teail
analytique..rsistance; 1798 Prony,Rsultats..
-

expriences.

Panthon

"

de
179] -93 SmealOn, A
narralive of Ihe building

1791-92
Einzelne

- Von Cancrin,
Bauschr(ften

::r
::>
(S.
e:..

2@
"'
::.
o

a
se
m
"

"rO'
::r

"::>
a
g
"
s
se
""oO
::
S"
::>

oo

"ag

g"
"'

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VJ
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1394

] oao Mascarenhas

these military treatises presented not only the latest

and most advanced defensive and offensive systems,
but also a wealth of practical information concerning
the rules of masonry construction. These rules were
fundamental to the fast and efficient construction of
temporary and permanent military posts within war
campaigns.
Table 2, which refers to the works
published in the eighteenth century, gives the sense of
the enormous potential for cultural exchange via this
literature at an international level with regard to
military and civil architecture.
If this cultural
exchange
of information,
concerning
military architecture,
was determined
mainly by geo-political goals, in the field of civil
architecture in contrast, the production of books
reflects above all the diffusion
of the French
pedagogical model of the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts
and the cole d' Architecture. This context produced
a new genre of books -text books used directly in
the courses of education in these new institutions.
While they were addressed to very different readers
and distinctively motivated, both civil and military
architecture books offered very much the same level
of information
regarding
building
techniques,
together with the rudiments of geometry, perspective,
measuring and estimation.
The search towards a never absolute truth which
characterised the Enlightenment, brought with it the
clarification of the distinctions between the different
sciences:
chemistry,
physics,
mathematics,
mechanics.
This rationalist impulse inspired the
publication of new books dedicated not only to pure
sciences but eventually also to their application in
field
of construction.
This
distinction
and
classification of different scientific fields and the
different institUtiona]isation of the figures of engineer
and architect, were at the origin of an increasing
volume of new books. Those dedicated to geometry
and stereotomy, were con cerned with the theory of
stone cutting. See Tosca (1707), La Rue (1728),
Frzier (1737) and Simonin (1792). New texts
explained the chemical aspects of limes and mortars,
others presented the latest improvements in brick
production.
See Macquer (1751), Loriot (1774),
Faujas de S.Fond (1778), Higgins (1787), Cancrin
(1788) and Smeaton (1791).
The mechanical behaviour of arches and vaults
along with the latest mathematical
models were
discussed in specialised books and illustrated with

Mateus

key examples. A particular issue of discussion was

the stability of important domes, such as that of S.
Pietro of the Vatican, and that of the Cathedral of
Milan, or that of the Church of S. Genevieve (later the
Pantheon) in Paris. Practical aspects of ornamentation
were described in manuals specialising in coatings,
renderings and paintings. Besides the creation of new
classes of books, general treatises of architecture
were expanded
to include a larger number of
chapters, which reflected the new categorisation and
theorisation of the minor crafts. The craft of the
fountain builder, for example,
was granted an
independent chapter for the first time and applied to
the design of more rational sewerage systems.
Moreover,
new technical
encyclopaedias
and
specialised
dictionaries
in Architecture
and
Engineering helped the establishment
of common
procedures and terminologies.
Following the scientific bases established in the
Enlightenment,
the nineteenth
century gradually
retlected the application and adoption of the new
polytechnic engineering teaching system, organized
around the practical and systematic application of the
pure sciences. In the field of the construction there
was a marked improvement
in the mathematical
mode]s, based on collapse mechanisms, used in the
graphical calculation of thrusts of arches and vaults.
These models were applied not only to building s but
also to masonry bridge s with ever wider spans. These
publications with the latest achievements in the field
of applied mathematics to arches and vaults informed
also the new discipline of Resistance of (Elastic)
Materials.
See Girard (1798),
Navier (1821),
Redtenbacher (1852), Rankine (1858) and Curioni
(1864). Similarly, the new discipline of Materials of
Construction relied upon the application of theories
of physics and chemistry
to the production
of
traditional
materials (limes, mortars, bricks and
stone). Parallel to this development, the theories of
hydraulic hardening were emphasised, as were the
production technologies of hydraulic limes, cements
and metallic profiles.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the
invention
of the disciplines
of the history of
architecture and archaeology worked gradually to
demystify the understanding of the architecture of
antiquity and the middle-ages.
Schematic models
proposed since the Renaissance in every architectural
treatise, were replaced by more accurate and realistic

Technicalliterature

fram the Enlightenment

ones, based on actual surveys and detailed scientific

evaluation. See, for example, Quatremere de Quincy
(1788), Uggeri (1802), Hittorf (1835), Lassaulx
(1840), Choisy (1873), Vollet-Ie-Duc (1875), Durm
(1881), Ungewitter (1890) and Blmner (1897).
At the close of what I consider to be this golden
period of the culture of traditional masonry, at the end
of the nineteenth century, we have a picture of a
complex and complete science for this important
aspect of construction. To give a synthesis ofthe most
important
titles on genera] treatises,
courses,
stereotomy,
mechanics
and materials published
during the nineteenth century, I have created the
Tables 3 and 4. On each table, in order to indicate the
period in which a publication achieved its maximum
circulation and influence, the dates of the first and last
edition can be found preceding the author's name.
When texts were translated and published in foreign
languages, these languages are indicated in brackets.

1395

to the Portland cement era

uncoursed
rubble, rubble filling etc.) and
assembling them with mortar. In the case of
vaulted structures, for example, the choice of
the best designs in the plan and the sections, was
made in direct relation to the preferred typology
of masonry. Each one of these typologies
corresponds to a limited number of ways of
directing mass weight from the top of the
building to its foundations. The distribution of
weight was fundamental to the definition of the
openings in the facade and to the positioning of
vertical elements such as pillars and load
bearing walls. At the same time these vertical
elements were placed to correspond to both the
arch and vault imposts and to the positioning of
the mass foundations. These main technical
aspects of the project were directly related to

-:
,

,
i

.:

THE CONTENT

Once one recognises the production context of a

particular text, it is possible to better understand its
content. Technical literature must be understood
within its historical
context which includes
a
recognition
of the intellectual
and scientific
development of the periodo With an awareness of
historical complexity, the content of the technical
literature
can be read, critically
analysed
and
translated
into
a contemporary
terminology
scientifically accepted today.
Masonry building construction
can be studied
following the four main steps of a complete process:
1) the design of the architectural project and the
definition
of the dimensions
of each structural
element;
2) the phase of the production
and
manipulation of the materials (blocks and mortars); 3)
the phase of assemblage, and 4) the phase of the
protection, the maintenance and the reinforcement of
the building in order to guarantee its durability.

..

i !"

'"
iiir8<

Oglve

'
.

'
.
-

\ ..
\

.B
I
I
i
rib (AIi.JII)

,
,
,
,

(lIIhAD)
-

Oglw ..AI)) Modo 2

1I[-1IJ

'1-'"

'1-'"

,I

1) The definition of the project of a masonry

building is concerned with the establishment of
the masonry typologies planned to be used in
each structural element or zone of the building.
These typologies relate to the methods of block
bonding (using cut stone, ashlars, coursed or

Ljj

111

,J
.

./~

,
u.J..

(ID./IJ)

,I

,.,

<S>, eA, XI, II,ID,JII,IIII,

Figure I
The graphical construction of a ribbed vault with liernes and
tiercerons proposed by Frzier in 1737, reinterpreted in a
contemporary and more comprehensive representation

w
~
0\

TABLA 3 (1800-1850)

1800

Italy

Spain

Dates

1804 - Briguz y Bru,

Escuela de Arquitectura
Civil

Portugal

1800-62 - Venturoli, Elemenll di

meeeanlca (1) (UK)

1800-25 ~Francoeur,Trait de mcanique

lementalre; 1802 -40 Durand, Prcis de
le'ons d'archlleelure (F)(I); 1802-68 Rondelet,
Trait de I'arl de Mtlr (F) ([)

1804 - Boistard, Exprlences sur I'adhrence

des morllers; 1804-47 - Ledoux, L'archileclure
consldre sur le rapporl de I'art (F) (1); 1806(F) (1)
67- Sganzin, Programme de
1807 - Fleuret, Erprlences
1810-15
Prony, Lagrange, Lerons de mcanique
analytique; 1811-81 -Toussaint, Manuel
d'architecture (F)(E)

1806- Stabile,L'allievo capomastmcostruttore

1813 - Antolin, Ida elementari di

architettura

ch'ile

1812 - Margiochi. Theorla

da composirao

das forras

Great-Britain

Gerrnany

180 I - Atwood, A

1808-40 - Eytelwein,
Handbuch der Statik
Pesten

France

(Fi
1811-51 - Mongc - Gomlrie descrlptive
(UK); 1811-33
Poisson, Trait de meanlque:
-

1818 - Vicat, Recherches exp. sur la chaux:

1818- Borgnis, Trait de mcanique
1821- Navier, Mmoires sur les lois de

di.l',\'ertation.. ..o! the Arches;

1807-45 - Young, A course on

Mechanleal Arls; 1809-36 Soane, Leetures on
Architecture
1804 - Tennant, On dijJerenl
sorls oJ lime

1809 - Davy, New analylleal

researches

arches

1820 - Elmes, Leclures an

1821 - Normand, Le vignole des

ouvrlers;
1822 - Bruyere. tudes; 1822 Boistard, Reeueil d'expriences;
[822-35 Dupin, Applicallons
de gomlrle (F) (D) (E)
Arte de

1826 -32 - Milizia,

Opere complete

Mmolre sur la
1823 - Lam, Clayperon,
des voales; 1823-40 - Borgnis, Trait

stabilit

Ireallse
- Quilt.A
equilibrlum
oJ the

1811-39
uponlhe

/'qullibre;

1827 - Villanueva.
Albaljillerla

1809 - Pnppe, Lehrbuch

der allgemeinen
lechnalogle (D)(I)

Architecture

1819-24 - Krafft,
Anweizung zur
theo retisch -p raktischen
(D)(F)
z/mmermanns-kunst

1823 -50 - Nicholson,

The new
praclleal
bui/der

lmentaire de construction: 1824 - Poinsot,

Elements de statique
1826-29- Cavalieri San Bertolo,
ISlituzioni di architettura

[825 - Hassenfratz, L 'art de calciner la pierre:

1826 - Gwilt, Rudlmenls

1825-69 - Douliot, Trait de la mupe des

pierres; 1826-35 - Douliot, Cours lmentaire

(if

architecture

de construction
1830 - Rio, Memona
y
sobre...morteros

1828 -39 - Valadier, L'arehitetlura

pratica

1828 - Biston, Manuel du chauJournler; 1828 Raucourt, Trai/...bons mortiers; 1828 Vicat.

1830 Archllecture;

Rsum...morfiers:

Nicholson,

argamassas

Mor/iers
1836 - San Martino,
arclzitettura

Istituz/ool
civile

di

1834-92
Dolior.

]833

Berthault-Ducreux.
et timents romains

Sioaud, La coupe des pierres; 1835

Stabilit des difices; 1835 - Poncelet.

Solution

graphiquc..stabilit

sur
1837 - Soleirol, Reeueil d'exprlenees
morllers;
1837 - Degaridel, Tables de pausses

construcciones

des votesen plein cintre: 1838 Protot. Cours

-

de Architecture

1827-39
Treatise on

and stone-cutting
-

Moseley,
In slalles

On a new
(UK) (F)

des votes

Pilago, Teorla
mecnica de las

1837-59

Masonry
1833-47
principie

Shaw, Civil

1836 - Maltan, Barlow, An

element course (~r civil

engineering: 1836 - Nicholson,

The principle.\'

ofarchi/ec/ure

1833 -Gerstner,

Handbuch

der Mechanlk

<-;
o
oo'
o
$:
;;
(')
1';
(1)
::>
::r
;;
$:
oo
;'
:;;

1839-58 - Seque;ra,
'v'orrJe.\'theorims de
architectura civil
1841 - Fornes y Gurrea,
Obsefl'Gcirmes... Arte de
edijicar

1840 - Alberti, Istru::Joni pratiche

{'ingefinere civile

1838-81 -

Gayf1icr, Manl/el complet des ponts

- Moisy, ThiolleL

et chauss,es:
1839-86
Vignole des proprilaires

(F)(I)(E)(P):

1839 -

Blottas, Trait comp/er du tois

1840 - Mry, Equilibre des voles: 1840 Demont, Tmir des lments d'architcctllre;

per

1840 LaurcnL Prcis des tours de

1842 Thumeloup. Le{'ons
-

col1struc!ion:

d'architecture
1842 - Giordani,
l'ingegnere

Ricordi

1844 - A1buquerque, Guia

per

do Engenheiro

ch'ile

1842 - VicaL lnstruction pratiquc..sur..

- Ciernen ti, Manuule

architertura civile

di

1847 - ReibelL Nuovo corso di

architettura

arches:

1839-48 Elements (?f civil

Milington,

engineering

ROlltine de f'tablissement

1846- Henry, Principes..de dessin

(F) (E); 1847

1847-98 Guide des construcleurs

uppliqu',--m{/~onnerie

Le-ims d'architecture;

Mignard,

1849 - Lagarde, Nouveau manue/ comp/et des

constructeurs

(UK)

(F)

1840-50 - Burnell,
Rudimentary treatise mI limes:
1840-52 - Law, The rudimenls
o{the civil engineering
(UK)
(F)

1841 - Davy, The urchiteel,

cngineer

...,
(')

des votes

1845-1902 - Toussaint, Nouvel/u manuel de lu

coupe des pierres; 1845-1926- Leroy, Trail' de
(F)(I): 1846 Vicat, Nouvelles
Str,olomie
tudes sur les pouzzolanes artificielles

Tbiollet,
1850

B1and, Experimental

Morlien
hvdrouliques;
1845 - C1audeL
Laroque, Formules, tables (F)(!); 1845-79
Dcjardin.

1846-54

1839 essarL,in

"=o'"
e..

1845 - Wrigbt, A practieal

lreate

1846

exi-ltance
horizontal

on morlars

Barlow,

O"

@
::o

ol the Une al equal

thrust in arche~'

1849 - 1923 - Dobson,

Treatise

fD
;;
2

Ihe

on slone

culting

1849-1910 - Breyrnann
AIgem. Bau-ConstructionLehre (D) (1)

o
S
S"111
2,;o=fD
S
'"
;;
"
8'
S"OO
:4
'"
O'"
(')
S
"
;;
"
~
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W
'D
-J

~-_.-

TABLA 4.

Spain

Dates
1850

]853 Duran
Vignola

Italy

Portugal

France

y Espaa.

proprietarios

marans;

Roffiaen,

1862
Prontuario;

1862

- Finardi.
1864-65 - Curiani.

resistenza

Hosking,

de construccin; 1859
Valds,

Manual

Ingeniero;
Espinosa,

1859
Manual

del

de.\

arehileClure:

du con.l'tructeur

rudiments

Sacehi, Le abitazioni;
Cantalupi,

Raccolfa

- Demanet,

Guide pratique

1867 -

eSlabilidad: 1861 - Rojas,

de arquitectura

1864 - Miguel y Lucuy,

Lecciones de cortes de

Molesworth.

du COJ1struCfeur;

construction;
arch/eelure;

1857 - Scheffier.
Theorie da
(O) (F)
Elaslici/UI

Pockel-book

lor Civil Engineers

1861 - Fenwick, The meehanies of

1863- Jones. [eetures

Ashpitel,
on architecture
1867

on

Trealise

1862-1966
Clcbseh,
Elastie/al

Theorie der
(O) (F)

maf'onnerie

1869 - Gabussi, Carie del

co.'lrul/ore;
1870 - Gabba,
CavegIia, Corso di costruzioni
civili

1868-1915 - Ramc, L'architeC/e

1868 - Bcnevides.
Tabella,I.para...
Engenheiros

e mililari:
1870-1912 - Musso,
Coppcri, Partico/ari
di costruzioni
1871-83

1875 - Almeida, Maleriais

para con5"fruc(rJes areia

- Nonnis-Marzanno,

Trallato di costruzione

constructor
1864 - Foleh y Brassa,
Alhum de arquitectura;
1868 - Sanchez Tirado.
Estaeotomia

ojarchileC/ure:

Cours de constructiof/;

1874 -Moerman,

1873- Bum,

'"
;;;
"

Building

construction
1873- Y oung, Simple medlOds..
calculating..
arches:

Trait de

constru.
1874 -84 - Cantalupi. Portafog!io
del/'ingegnere:
1875 - Curion;.
L'elasticita
neUe teorie... del!e

1875-77 - Almeida.
Apontamentos
re!atiw)s
cal

]874

Mmoire

1876 -85 - Ferrinj,

calore:

TecnoloRia

del

1879 - Seala, Compendio

de/le costrllz/oni

1877 - Al mcida.
Composi{'ilo
de pedras

1875 - Warren, SlerfOlomr: 1877Rogers, The architecI's

guide

sur la stahilit des votes: Bonnin.

Elude .\ur la stabilit

laurez,

I'olte

Levy, La statique graphique; PcaucelJicr.

-

La/lib.

1877 -Gonin,

des vote5: Bonncville.

des briques
Manuel

el des /Uiles: 1877-87

1877-1910

Oenfer, Archileclure & Consl. Ciriles: 1878

Belpairc,

Tables.calculs.colles;

Claye, SllIbilil

1878

des vOlles; 1880-1910

Manuel

- Culmann.
Sfafik
(O)(F)

1875-80

Die graphische

Trall
pralique:

marbrier

- OurandGuedy,
-

1881 - Barry.

Lectllres

on Architecture

<-,
o
,",
o
2::
e;
(')
...,
'"
""..
'"
e;

2::

1870- Bury, Rudimenta!)'

architecture:
]
870-Mitchell.
A rudimenlary
manual

1872187 I -79 - Oebauve, Manuel de l'ingnieur:

82 Oevillez, Elemenls de conslr. Civiles: 187381 - RsaL Tmit de mcanique;
J874-Devos,

Lanck.
1868 - Ferrada. Tralado
elemental de las rocas;
y Lobez.
1869-97 - Ger
Manual de construccin

ella

Cours de
1869-80 - Collignon,
mcanique:
1870 Oupuit, Trail de l'quilibre
des vot?les; 1870 - Prud'homme.
Cour.\' pralique
de COJ1.\'lfllction
conslruC/ian:

piedras: 1864 - Garcia

Lopez, Manuul del

civil

The

handbook
1855 - Fergusson, lIluslraled
of archilec/Ure:
1858 - Rankjne, A
manual of applied mechunics (UK)(F):
1860-1945

1864-1909 - Malepeyre. Manuel du briquelier

]
/Uilier: 866 - Chateau, TechnoloRie du blimenl:
1867 Ourand-Clayc,
S/Ubilil des volles en

di tavole

1855 - Bullock.
ofarchitecture

de

construcciones
1860 - Michon,
instrucciones
sobre la
Manual

J864

1852Redtenbacher.
Pripen der
Mechanik

dam' les construclions

Manuale
1864 - Orlandini,
de/l'inRegnere
civile: 1865-93 Curion;, L'am difahbricare:
1866

Treatises

Smeatnn. The builder's podel

companion;
1853 Ruskin, Leclures on
-

1
1858 - Seheidnager,
Noticia.\' sobre materiales

Young,

on Architecture

briquetier; 1862- Rivat, Matriaux employes

La

dei materiali

TredgoJd,

]852

1859 - 1903 - Bataillc. Nou\'. Manuel de la

construction moderne; 186 J - ChaHetan. L 'art da

~Canta/upi, tituzioni

praliche;

Trait dSllr la rsistance

J858 - With, Manuel

malriauJ:;

construcciones
1857 - Amors y Pujol,
Arte de delinear y trazar;
1858 - Gotti,
Curso...arquitectura..
..civi

]852 - Shaw.Civil Archileclure: 1852 -

1853 - Carvallo, Slabilit des voltes: 1856 La

Bosne, Le guide thorique el pralique des

1855 - De Cesare. La scienza

dril 'architettura

1853 - Pericr y Gallego.

Tesoro de alhG11i1leria:
]854
- Carrillo,
Prontuario
de

Germany

Great-Britain

1850- I 920 - Lagardc. Manuel complel du

(F) (1): 1850-75
conslrueleur
Reynaud. Trail
(F) (1): 1852 Poneelet.
d'archilec/ure
Examen...quilibre
de5 vo[es

850 - Vannini. Elemenli di

archilellura
civile: ]850-60 Magistretti, Architettura ('ivile

de los

W
\O
oc

(1850-1900)

1878-86 Wanderley,
Handbuch

der Bau-

Konstruktio!l.\'lehre
(D)(F)

Frmulas
1878 para
das
ahbadas de barrete de
clrigo e ares/a

872 - Rebolledo,

Construccin
general
(E)(F): 1875 Hernaez de
Perca, Manual de
Perspectiva

]
884 - Castigliana, Manuole
prafico per gli ingegneri: 1884MelanL Manita/e d'archileltura

1877 - Gareia Lopez,

Manual de artes
ceramicas

188]

Opperman, ,4genda.des ingniears:

Duquesnay,
(a/caire.\', chaux, lI1ortiers:

Debauve,

Procds

- Merceron-

Vicat.

et mal. de construction;
Chaux hidraulyqucs

MolinarL

Genuys,

Enseignment.ma('onnerie:

1886 -Hausscr,Cung,

,ateri, gesso,

[,

1889 - Cattaneo.

5tatique

graph;que:

1888- Bunnami,

1892 - Neves, Estudos

sobre algumas
hydraulicas

cae~'
e magnesianas

nacion(le~'
- Forrnenti, La prat;ca
fabbricare

del

894-97 - Cordeira, Estado

sobre as abhadas
circulares

894 - Rolla, Manuale

architettonieo:
1894 Regis, Taglio
-

delle pietre: 1896 - Levi, Fabbrieat;

1900

1895-98 - Cunha,
E\pessura das abbadas;
]896 -Leitao, Curso
elementar

civili

L 'arte moderna

1886 - KCIT. The consultant

1887 Pillel,

architec/

-1

'arte muratoria

895-1933 - Mazzocchi,
]
eement;:
900 - Misuraca,

1886-97

des cOfutructions

el ciments;

Calce e
A1bertini,

del fahhricare

de cOf1.\'trucr6es
Sousa, Ideia geral

1896 mbre desmonte de rochas;

1899 - Lepierre, Estudo
\'Obre a cermica

portuguesa

]888-

construction:
18881889 - Monduil,
1889 - Autran. Cours de

Le conslructeur;

Tmit de Strotomie;
statique; Kocchlen, Apprciations
graphique

1885 - Kidder, The urchitect

de la mconique:
1887
Traif de Strotomie;
1887 - Tourtay, Etude sur
le calcul des arehe.' (n(I);
1887-95 - Chatelier.
Recherches sur mortiers hidrallliques

Renleaux.

893-95

superin/endence

1885

P1anat, Pratique

Brune. Flamant,

1884 - C1ark. Building

et ciments

pozzolane
1895 - Saraay
Fernandez, Manual del
Constructor

1885 - Oslet. Trait d'architecture:1885 - Muller,

Breslau, Seyring, El. de statique graphique; 1885
F1amant, Stahilit

1887

1883
1884-

(D
(')
::r-

]889 Berg, 5afe building; 1890Parkinson, Strllctural mechanic.~; 1892

Taro, The mechanics of architecture
-

]893 Dixon, Vademecum;1893Heat, A manual

1893-1930

of lime and cement;

Allen,

Praclical

building

constructlOn
1894 - B1ack, First principies
building

bliment; 1897 - Simonet, Mo'onneries: 1898 1913, Cloquel,

Trait

!:\

de... la statique

]
890 1890 -Oslet, Coars de construction:
Courtin, Rsistance des mat.; 1890 - De
Fontvlolanl,
Lignes d'influence:
1890-98 - Tubeuf,
Cours de construction;
1891 - Christie, Chareyre,
Manuel de {'areh.-ma,on
1891-98 - Candlot, Ciments et chaux
]
hydrauliques;
892 - Duquesnay, Rsistance des
matriaux,
1893 - Rouch. Coupe des pierres;
1894 - Grange, Chaux el seis de chaux
1894 - Debauve. Procds el maf. de
constructioll;
1897 - Lefevre, La cramique du
de d'architecture

1899 - Chassagnard, L 'art de

Navat.
1900-13
des matriau:r

(S.
"ES

1888 - Addison, Practical elements o}

construction; 1888-92 - Green,
Graphicsforengineers:
1888Mitchell. Building cO/utructio/1

1897 - Harris, The science af

brickmaking

al

1889 - Telmajer.
Normen
fur...Hydraulischer
Bindemitte1

e@
""
::o
o
i3
(D
5'

m
g,
a;'
::r-

"(D
i"3
g
8'
(D
5'
-o
o;:
SO
Q.
"(')
(D
i3
(D
g
!:\
'"

u.>
~
~

1400

J08.0 Mascarenhas

other better known criteria, such as distribution

and function of internal spaces of the building,
the project of the facade, the chosen style, the
taste, the background
of the designer, the
economy of means.
The definition of the load bearing sections of
horizontal and vertical structural elements was, until
the eighteenth century, obtained using basic empirical
rules. These rules were based on masonry typologies
and the geometry of arches and vaults, piers, columns
and load bearing walls. In general these rules tended
to overestimate the necessary dimensions of the load
bearing sections, in comparison to how we determine
them today. During the eighteenth century, newly
developed algarithms simplifying the most advanced
methods, and were introduced in practical calculation
of arches. These advanced methods were based on
typical coJIapse mechanisms
far circular arches
which calculated the width of arch abutments (La
Hire, 1712; Belidor, 1729). Other methods were
developed in arder to determine the size of the
voussoirs (Couplet, 1729) or even the best figure of
vaults (Bossut,
1770). The eighteenth
century
methods were improved by the introduction of a new
graphical method based on the funicular polygon of
force s used to determine the lines of pressure.
Following the first theoretical and experimental work
by authors such as Poleni (1748), Coulomb (1776),
Mascheroni (1785), Venturoli (1806) and Navier
(1826), this new method was developed by Lam and
Clayperon (1823), Gerstner (1831) and Moseley
(1833) and further refined by Mry (1840), Scheffler
(1857) and Culmann (1874) (see Benvehuto 1991,2:
428-37). At the end of the nineteenth century, the
calculation methods for masonry structures were the
result of a wel! balanced association of empirical and
theoretical methods based on approximated static and
elastic principIes which permitted optimisation of the
resistant sections. These latest methods were mainly
applied in bridges and important buildings. For the
common buildings much of the calculation was still
being done with the most traditional
empirical
methods and presented in widely circulated treatises
such as the one of Rondelet (1802) or Breymann
(1849).
1) The rules and processes
preparation and manipulation

relating
to the
of material s, deal

Mateus

with elementary stone or ceramic blocks, lime

mortars and lime concrete. The work with stone
blocks included, according to the particular
nature of the slOne, the extraction, the first
quarry sorting, the cleavage observation and the
respect for the natural bedding plans. This was
followed by the preliminary dressing of the
surfaces, the different phases used on milling to
obtain
the desired
shape,
the finishing
operations, the transportation and storage. For
ceramic blocks, technical literature gave al! the
information
concerning
the choice
and
extraction of the clay, its manipulation
and
puddling, the description of the different pug
mili types, the advantages and limitations of
each firing method in relation with the evo]ution
of the kiln, the use of additives and the
traditional
quality
control
criteria.
This
literature also evaluate al! the processes used in
the preparation ofthe basic material s needed for
mortars: the different types of lime, pozzolan,
crushed brick, ashes, gypsum, water and sand.
In particular the methods of lime burning,
slaking, practical methods to obtain hydraulic
mortars and the evolution of the theories of
aeria] and hydraulic limes hardening,
were
closely addressed. In addition to the description
of the production of basic material s, all the
procedures
to mix them are detailed:
the
proportioning, the batching and the mixing of
concrete, laying and rendering mortars, stuccos
and mastics.
2) The methods to assemble blocks and mortars
depended on the typology of the block s used.
Different rules were used to create the masses in
foundation, the vertical elements in elevation
and finally the arches and vaults. For walls and
piers every bonding method was designed to
optimise strength and stability in relation to the
required
width,
guaranteeing
the
best
imbrication of blocks and the highest adhesion
between blocks and mortars. Bonding methods
were al so important for projecting layers or
overhanging masonry elements. For arches and
vaults specific bonding methods depended on
the dimension of blocks, the geometry of the
intradors and extradors, and the particular form
of falsework structures to ay up the blocks.
These methods referred lO the laying of blocks

Technicalliterature

frorn the Enlightenrnent

both on their edge and bed. Resides the question

of bonding, the technology of vault construction
considered
many more important
factors:
centering, laying and decentering techniques,
and the times required between laying and
decentering. General treatises and specialised
works
gave enormous
attention
to the
differentiation of the methods of raising vaults,
depending on the experience of each author.
D'Espie
(1754), for example, detailed the
construction of vaults using blocks laid on bed
with the aim of creating modem fire proof
buildings. Once the skeleton was executed, the
masonry skin was applied. For this phase,
special procedures and tools were developed to
give different levels of surface finishing to stone
or brick. Another class of techniques dealt with
the (vertical) facing (i.e. renderings, stuccos and
paint) and the (horizontal)
revetment
of
pavements. In this later case, the maximum
compaction
of the foundation
layers was
obtained by repeated cycles of tamping, resting
and watering. This procedure of compaction
was considered
finished when a required
reduction
of the original depth had been
obtained.
3) Once the skeleton and the skin of the building
had been completed,
new techniques
and
detailing were used to protect and guarantee the
durability of the work. Although not using a
contemporary terminology, traditional builders
were aware of the main deterioration processes
that we know of today. In the nineteenth century
there was already an awareness of atmospheric
polJution due to coal combustion in the big
industrial cities. In order to prevent the water
infiltration
intrinsic to every deterioration
process, several methods were developed to
protect masonry from rain water infiltration
from above, the lateral incidence of the rain and
from rising damp. This masonry protection was
guaranteed by different techniques such as
capping and roofing, drainage systems, facing
against erosion and splashing, the construction
of cavity walls and ventilated
periphery
chambers in the ground. All these protective
elements required maintenance
which was
anticipated from the early planning stages of the
project.
Besides
the protection
and the

to the Portland

cernent

1401

era

maintenance of masonry building s they were,

when needed, also reinforced and consolidated
using many of the same techniques as used in
the original construction. Examples of this kind
of intervention include the local reconstruction
of deteriorated structural elements (eg. settled
foundations, deformed piers and arches), and
the introduction
of additional
reinforcing
elements such as tie rods and counterforts.
This synthesis of the four key steps of traditional
masonry building science, that 1 have proposed, these
being, the design, the material s production,
the
assemblage
and the protection,
can constitute a

~,,

~'i...

'.

1I
~"""''''tlf

~":;iWI._'i..

l.. CATTANW,'Am Mtt~

Figure 2
Exarnple of
presented by
consolidation
published in

Partt 1.

a typical rnasonry reinforcernent

operation
Cattaneo in 1889. This systern of provisional
can be already found in the treaty of Scarnozzi
1788 and frequently repeated by other authors

as Valadier, in 1828

1402

Joao Mascarenhas

framework within which to categorise and analyse the

content of technicalliterature.

TRADlTIONAL

MASONRY BUlLDlNGS AND THE

HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION

The study of the traditional construction of masonry

building, that is construction before standardisation of
reinforced
and non reinforced
masonry in the
twentieth century, has been my personal pretext to
read all this technical literature in its complexity of
aims, and cultural and scientific contexts. My study
has had a very precise and immediate practical
application, this being the use of the information in
the different phases of a contemporary process of
architectural conservation. This includes the study
and the survey of a historical building, the decision
making phase, and finally, the intervention itself
(Mateus, 2002). As a general consideration
it is
important
to remember
that technical literature
constitutes an indispensable source of study, but it is
not the only one. Many other inputs can and should be
obtained through archaeology, iconography, archive
research, etc. From my research on masonry building
and its conservation, 1 have been able to outline new
fields of research, using and filtering the content of
the technical
literature
of the eighteenth
and
nineteenth century. These fields of research can be
put at the service of the new history of the
construction, the aim of the present congress.
History of construction should consist of the study
of: 1) the material s; 2) the techniques; 3) ideological
factors; 4) economic factors; and 5) sociological
factors.
Materials: With regard to the study of materials
and the concerns of masonry construction,
new
critical
analysis
can be undertaken
from the
perspective of the study of the characteristics of local
natural resources available in a limited historical
periodo This analysis should also be related to factors
such as trade and transportation which impact upon
the circulation and availability of materials. The
availability of specific materia]s contributed also to
the local interpretation of an architectura] style. This
methodology, applied to masonry buildings, could be
readily expanded to other types of masonry structures
(bridges, aqueducts, mari time works, for example)
and to other material s and structures
such as

Mateus

structures in wood, wood and masonry, steel and

masonry. Naturally, these new aims would require the
expansion of the given bibliography.
Techniques: The study of techniques, via technical
literature, has already be en undertaken in the field of
structural
mechanics
by
authors
including
Timoshenko, Heyman, Benvenuto, Giuffr, and Di
Pasquale. The other field of major development has
been in the study of graphical representation methods
by authors including Sakarovitch and Palacios. More
work needs to be done in the areas of the terminology
and the evolution of the tools used in different
construction
processes, and in the adaptation of
general technology to local materials and traditions.
Other fields of interest may vary from the evolution
of the techniques of ornamentation and decoration,
the wooden stereotomy, the traditional design of
wood structures, to the different patents on steel
construction during the second half of the nineteenth
century.
ldeological
factors:
The influence
of the
ideological factors can be studied using technical
literature as an important source. The evolution of the
theorisation of styles, tastes and the political and
cultural
intentions
of the commissioners,
the
designers and the builders, are well presented in the
texts and illustrations of the main treatises and essays
on architecture. Many of the traditional construction
rules and methods were continually adapted to obtain
a certain contemporary image of architecture. The
question of the evolution and the interpretation of the
models of antiquity and their influence on new
architectural styles is by no means exhausted.
Economic factors: The evolution of construction
was naturally also guided by economical factors.
Modern methods of construction proposed by the
literature of this period were presented as more
economically
viable in comparison
with former
methods and materials. This economic optimisation
of processes and techniques was the key factor that
determined the decline of traditional methods of
construction in favour of concrete and steel.
Sociological factors: Finally, construction is the
result of the integration of many different human
activities. Commissioners,
designers (architects and
engineers) and builders were always conditioned by
their own cultural background and experience in the
field. Associated with these main protagonists were a
huge number of professional classes of craftsmen

Technica1literature

from the Enlightenment

responsible for each phase of the complex process of

construction. In the studied technicalliterature,
much
can be discovered
about the stone carvers, the
masons, the carpenters and the iron workers. The
history of the professional and sociological condition
of al! these actors who contributed anonymously to
this long path of experiments,
failures
and
achievements, much also form an important chapter
of the history of construction.

REFERENCE LIST
Benvenuto, Edoardo. 1991. An Introduction to the History of
Structural Mechanics,
Part ll- Vaulted Structures and
Elastic Systems. New York/Berlin-Heidelberg:
Springer,
Verlag.

to the Portland cement era

1403

Carbonara, Giovanni (dir.). 1996-2001. Trattato di restauro

architettonico.
Torino: Unione Tipografico-Editrice
Torinese.
Di Pasquale, Salvatore. 1996. L' arte del costruire: tra
COlloscenza e scienza. Venezia: Marsilio.
Giuffre. Antonino. 1987. La Meccanica nell'A rchitettura.
Roma: Nuova Italia Scientifica.
Heyman, Jacques. 1995. The Stone Skeleton: Structural
Engineering
of Masonry
Architecture.
Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Mateus, Joao Mascarenhas. 2002. Tcnicas tradicionais de
constru~'ao de alvenarias: a literatura tcnica de 1750 a
1900 e o seu contributo para a conservarao de edificios
histricos. Lisboa: Livros Horizonte.
Sakarovitch,
JoeJ. 1997. De la reprsentation
a la
ralisation, un exemple tir de la strotomie. I/ disegno
di progetto dalle origini al XVIII secolo. Roma: Gangemi
Editore.