You are on page 1of 21

CHAPTER 2

THEORITICAL ASPECTS

WHAT IS OSCILLATION
Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value
(often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. Familiar examples include
a swinging pendulum and AC power. The term vibration is sometimes used more narrowly to
mean a mechanical oscillation but is sometimes used as a synonym of "oscillation". Oscillations
occur not only in physical systems but also in biological systems, from human society to the
brain.
TYPES OF OSCILLATION

1. SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATION


The simplest mechanical oscillating system is a mass attached to a linear spring subject to only
weight and tension. Such a system may be approximated on an air table or ice surface. The
system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is displaced from the
equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium.
However, in moving the mass back to the equilibrium position, it has acquired momentum which
keeps it moving beyond that position, establishing a new restoring force in the opposite sense. If
a constant force such as gravity is added to the system, the point of equilibrium is shifted. The
time taken for an oscillation to occur is often referred to as the oscillatory period.
Systems where the restoring force on a body is directly proportional to its displacement, such as
the dynamics of the spring-mass system, are described mathematically by the simple harmonic
oscillator and the regular periodic motion is known as simple harmonic motion. In the springmass system, oscillations occur because, at the static equilibrium displacement, the mass has
kinetic energy which is converted into potential energy stored in the spring at the extremes of its
path. The spring-mass system illustrates some common features of oscillation, namely the
existence of an equilibrium and the presence of a restoring force which grows stronger the
further the system deviates from equilibrium.

2. DAMPED AND DRIVEN OSCILLATIONS:


All real-world oscillator systems are thermodynamically irreversible. This means there are
dissipative processes such as friction or electrical resistance which continually convert some of
the energy stored in the oscillator into heat in the environment. This is called damping. Thus,
oscillations tend to decay with time unless there is some net source of energy into the system.
The simplest description of this decay process can be illustrated by oscillation decay of the
harmonic oscillator.
In addition, an oscillating system may be subject to some external force, as when an AC circuit is
connected to an outside power source. In this case the oscillation is said to be driven.
Some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This transfer typically
occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow. For example, the phenomenon of flutter
in aerodynamics occurs when an arbitrarily small displacement of an aircraft wing (from its
equilibrium) results in an increase in the angle of attack of the wing on the air flow and a
consequential increase in lift coefficient, leading to a still greater displacement. At sufficiently
large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide the restoring force that
enables an oscillation.

3.COUPLED OSCILLATIONS:

FIG -04 TWO PENDULA WITH THE SAME PERIOD FIXED ON A STRING ACT AS PAIR
OF COUPLED OSCILLATORS. THE OSCILLATION ALTERNATES BETWEEN THE
TWO.
The harmonic oscillator and the systems it models have a single degree of freedom. More
complicated systems have more degrees of freedom, for example two masses and three springs
(each mass being attached to fixed points and to each other). In such cases, the behavior of each
variable influences that of the others. This leads to a coupling of the oscillations of the

individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks (of identical
frequency) mounted on a common wall will tend to synchronise.
This phenomenon was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665.[1] The apparent motions of
the compound oscillations typically appears very complicated but a more economic,
computationally simpler and conceptually deeper description is given by resolving the motion
into normal modes.
More special cases are the coupled oscillators where the energy alternates between two forms of
oscillation. Well-known is the Wilberforce pendulum, where the oscillation alternates between
an elongation of a vertical spring and the rotation of an object at the end of that spring.
I. ORBITAL DAMPING OF THE LEVER MOVEMENT CAUSES RADIAL DAMPING OF
THE PENDULUM
Two types of damped oscillations appear during operation of the two-stage oscillator system.
One occurs due to orbital and the second due to radial damping of the oscillator movement.
Orbital damping is a consequence of friction on the axis, resistance of the fluid, resistance of the
piston of some device as water pump, interaction between electric currents in the solenoids etc.
Radial type of damping results from the movement of the oscillator axis bearing, i.e. movement
of the oscillator referent point in respect to the ground. Radial damping frequently causes the
decreasing of the engine power and other harmful effects which are produced by unwanted
vibrations. If the oscillator system consisting of pendulum and a lever is isolated, the lever and
the pendulum oscillate in resonance and there is no damping.

This study analyses voluntary damping of the oscillating pendulum-lever system, by reverse
action of the user system on the lever. User system overtakes a part of the total internal
mechanical oscillation energy of the lever-pendulum system. The lever bears orbital damping.
Orbital damping of the lever causes radial damping of the pendulum. The work of the outer force
periodically compensates the loss of the part of the total internal mechanical oscillating energy of
the lever-pendulum system due to the work of the outer force, which affects the pendulum
directly. Radial damping of the lever is excluded, since the bearing of the lever axis is fixed.

II. PENDULUM OVERTAKES THE ENERGY FROM THE ENVIRONMENT EO UNDER


STABLE OPERATIONCONDITIONS OF THE MACHINE. USER SYSTEM OVERTAKES
THE RESULTING ENERGY OF THE MACHINE ER BY MEANSOF THE LEVER WHICH
OSCILLATES FORCEDLY

Work of the outer force on activating the machine, to achieve stable operating regime, can be
neglected after a certain period of time since this initial energy is input only once. Only the outer
supplied energy EO, which is needed in order to maintain already achieved operating regime of
the machine, is relevant for the further analysis. The machine thus continuously gives over the
resulting energy ER to the user system.
All the energy values in the further analysis are related to the time of one oscillation of the
pendulum. Further analysis operates with absolute values of the work of the forces and
momentum of the forces.

III. FREE ENERGY OF THE MACHINE IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE


RESULTING ENERGY ER AND INPUT ENERGY EO

Input of the energy EO from the environment results in transfer of the energy ER to the user
system which is a part of the machine having the role of energy consumer. In this study, the free
energy is defined as the difference between the resulting, used energy of the machine and the
energy input from the outside:

= ER EO

..... (1)

The effect of free energy is not in accordance with the energy conservation law but it has

been proved experimentally. The objective of this study is to support this effect theoretically
andto explain it.

IV. TOTAL INTERNAL MECHANICAL OSCILLATION ENERGY OF THE PENDULUMLEVER OSCILLATOR SYSTEM IS REDUCED TO THE OSCILLATION ENERGY OF THE
PENDULUM

User system overtakes a part of the total internal mechanical oscillation energy of the two stage
oscillator by damping the oscillation of the lever. The lever oscillates forcedly, not freely but in a
condition of damping its movement. One can assume that the total mass of the lever is in the
point where the user system reacts. This equivalent material point of the lever has a variable
kinetic energy in reference to the ground. But the lever is periodically changing the direction of
the rotation around its axis. This periodical change of the direction is fully depending on the
oscillations of the pendulum, so the lever does not have its own oscillation energy:

UL = 0

....... (2)

If the equilibrium position of the lever were vertical, a relevant variable component of the
gravitational force would affect the equivalent material point as in the case of the pendulum,
which
is not the case, since the equilibrium position of the lever is horizontal.

If the oscillations of the pendulum would stop abruptly, the lever would stop oscillation
immediately, which proves that the lever does not have its own oscillation energy. On the
contrary, if the oscillations of the lever would stop abruptly, the pendulum would continue to
oscillate since the pendulum has its own oscillation energy. This means that the total of internal
mechanical oscillation energy of the pendulum-lever oscillation system: U = UP + UL, belongs
solely to the oscillation energy of the pendulum UP:
U =UP

.......

(3)

The same is valid for each variation of this variable:


U =UP

.....

(4)

Outer energy EO is used solely to compensate the loss of the part of oscillation energy of
the pendulum .UP:
EO = UP

(5)

Loss of the part of oscillation energy of the pendulum .UP, which is equal to the outer energy
EO, occurs during each oscillation of the pendulum. This loss is the consequence of the work of
the forces damping the oscillations of the pendulum. Total loss of the oscillation energy of the
pendulum depends on the work of radial damping force of the pendulum AP, and the work of
orbital damping forces of the pendulum AFP, which results from friction on the pendulum axis
and the resistance of air:
EO = AP + AFP (6)

Effect of free energy of the pendulum-lever oscillating system, where only the lever is loaded by
reverse action of the user system, is based on two key properties of this oscillation system. First
is related to the fact that the lever does not have its own oscillation energy, and the second to the
fact that the work of the orbital damping force of the lever is greater than the work of the radial
damping force of the pendulum

FIG. 5 refers to the moment when the right arm of the lever moves upward, and the load of
the pendulum to the left.

Force F affects directly the users system, for example the piston of the pump. Work of this force
A is equal to the resulting energy of the machine ER:
A = ER

(7)

Total work of the orbital damping forces of the lever AL depends on the energy that is overtaken
by the user system ER and the work of the friction and resistance forces AFL, which are directly
related to the lever:
AL = ER+ AFL

(8)

Forces F and FL have the same point of application T. Force F has smaller intensity than the
equivalent orbital damping force FL.

But if the intensity of the momentum of the force F is much bigger than the intensity of the
momentum of the friction and resistance forces FFL the difference between the intensities of the
moments of the FL and F forces is negligible.

Action of the total variable orbital damping force of the lever FL is transferred to the pendulum
axis by the radial damping of the pendulum FP. We could assume that the points of application
of the time dependent variable forces FL and FP are placed at equal distances from the lever axis.
In that case intensities of these are equal at any time: FL = FP. Since the right arm of the lever
moves upwards the force FP which is damping the lever is directed downwards. Radial force
damping the pendulum FP is directed upwards. This action on the pendulum axis is transferred
on the pendulum load by the handle of the pendulum in the opposite direction. For this reason,
the intensity of the pendulum damping is the same as if the force of intensity FP sin 2 would
affect the load of the pendulum perpendicular in respect to the pendulum handle. This force is
smaller than the force FP and apparently smaller than the force FL.

In order to simplify the analysis, it was assumed that the handle of the pendulum and both arms
of the lever have the same lengths. Under the given conditions, the intensity of relevant
momentum of the equivalent orbital force damping the lever ML is greater than the radial
momentum of the force damping the pendulum MP at any time:

ML > MP

(9)

More precisely:
ML : MP = sin 1 : sin 2 (10)

If we take into account that 1 = 900, which is technically achievable, prompt ratio ML : MP
depends only on angle 2. Decrease of the angle 2 is followed by increase of the intensity ratio
MP :MK and this ratio could be much greater than unity. Maximum value of the angle 2 is
Determined according to the technical demands related to the power of the machine and
efficiency coefficient. Relations (9) and (10) cannot be questionable under any conditions. For
that reason the work of the orbital damping force of the lever during one oscillation of the
pendulum is greater than the work of the radial damping force of the pendulum:
AL > AP

(11)

From relations (1), (6) and (8) it follows:

= AL AFL AP AFP

(12)

Free energy of the machine & is included in the work of orbital damping forces of the lever,
decreased for the total work of the friction and resistance forces and the work of radial damping
force of the pendulum, which is unavoidable smaller than the work of the orbital damping force
of the lever.

FIG -06 Schematic Diagram Of Water Pumping Model

V. ENERGY CONSERVATION LAW IS VIOLATED INDEPENDENT OF THE FREE


ENERGY VALUE.

Three cases are possible:


a) Free energy is less than zero if: AL AP < AFL + AFP:

<0

(13)

This means that the total work of the friction force exceeds the difference between the work of
the orbital damping force of the lever and the work of the radial working force of the pendulum.
But the total work of the friction and resistance forces (AFL + AFP) is the part of the total output

work of the machine. So the energy conservation law is violated in this case, since AL > AP,
according to relation (10).
b) Free energy is equal to zero if: AL AP = AFL + AFP:

= 0

(14)

This case does not yield any novelty. From the energy point of view it is not particularly
interesting.
c) Free energy is greater than zero if: AL

> 0

(15)

This means that the total work of the friction and resistance forces is relatively small or almost
negligible compared to the difference between the work of the orbital damping force of the lever
and the work of the radial damping force of the pendulum. Technically this is achieved by using
a massive pendulum load and a massive lever, with respective reverse action of the user system.
Experiments have shown that the application of ball bearings was sufficient for minimizing the
work of friction forces. Resistance of the air is negligible since the rates of pendulum and lever
oscillation are relatively small.

In this case the efficiency coefficient of the machine m is bigger than one. But the total
efficiency coefficient of the device 8 depends also on the efficiency coefficient of the user
system 8u. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the user system is not capable of
transforming the total resulting energy ER into useful work. Total efficiency coefficient of the
device is equal to the product of two mentioned coefficients:

If this total efficiency coefficient is greater than one, the system as a whole produces more
available energy than the input quantity, neglecting the useless dissipation of energy. There are
no theoretical or technical constraints to achieve this efficiency coefficient.

COIL SPRING
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device, which is typically used to
store energy due to resilience and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to maintain a force
between contacting surfaces. They are made of an elastic material formed into the shape of a
helix which returns to its natural length when unloaded.
One type of coil spring is a torsion spring: the material of the spring acts in torsion when the
spring is compressed or extended. The quality of spring is judged from the energy it can absorb.
the spring which is capable of absorbing the greatest amount of energy for the given stress is the
best one. Metal coil springs are made by winding a wire around a shaped former - a cylinder is
used to form cylindrical coil springs.

FIG -07 A COMPRESSION COIL SPRING

FIG -08 A TENSION COIL SPRING

FIG -09 A SELECTION OF CONICAL COIL SPRINGS

TYPES OF COIL SPRING ARE:

Tension/extension coil springs, designed to resist stretching. They usually have a hook or eye

form at each end for attachment.

Compression coil springs, designed to resist being compressed. A typical use for compression

coil springs is in car suspension systems.

Torsion springs, designed to resist twisting actions. Often associated to clothes pegs or up-

and-over garage doors

DESIGN OF HELICAL SPRINGS


The design of a new spring involves the following considerations:
Space into which the spring must fit and operate.
Values of working forces and deflections.
Accuracy and reliability needed.
Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications.
Environmental conditions such as temperature, presence of a corrosive atmosphere.
Cost and qualities needed.
The designers use these factors to select a material and specify suitable values for the wire size,
the number of turns, the coil diameter and the free length, type of ends and the spring rate needed
to satisfy working force deflection requirements. The primary design constraints are that the wire
size should be commercially available and that the stress at the solid length be no longer greater
than the torsional yield strength. Further functioning of the spring should be stable.

STABILITY OF THE SPRING (BUCKLING)


Buckling of column is a familiar phenomenon. Buckling of column is a familiar phenomenon.
We have noted earlier that a slender member or column subjected to compressive loading will
buckle when the load exceeds a critical value. Similarly compression coil springs will buckle
when the free length of the spring is larger and the end conditions are not proper to evenly
distribute the load all along the circumference of the coil. The coil compression springs will have
a tendency to buckle when the deflection (for a given free length) becomes too large.
Buckling can be prevented by limiting the deflection of the spring or the free length of the
spring.

The behavior can be characterized by using two dimensionless parameters, critical length and
critical deflection. Critical deflection can be defined as the ratio of deflection (y) to the free
length (Lf) of the spring . The critical length is the ratio of free length (Lf) to mean coil diameter
(D)
The critical deflection is a function of critical length and has to be below a certain limit. As could
be noticed from the figure absolute stability can be ensured if the critical length can be limited
below a limit.

FIG -10 NON PARALLEL ENDS

FIG -11 PARALLEL ENDS

FIG -12 GRAPH BETWEEN RATIO OF Y/L AND L/D

Similarly compression coil springs will buckle when the deflection (for a given free length)
becomes too large. The condition for absolute stability can be given as:
1 D 2(E G) 2 L o 2G E < +
For steels this can be simplified as:
D L 2.63o <
Where is a constant related to the nature of support of the ends simply referred as end constant

SPRING SURGE AND CRITICAL FREQUENCY

If one end of a compression spring is held against a flat surface and the other end is disturbed, a
compression wave is created that travels back and forth from one end to the other exactly like the
swimming pool wave. Under certain conditions, a resonance may occur resulting in a very
violent motion, with the spring actually jumping out of contact with the end plates, often
resulting in damaging stresses. This is quite true if the internal damping of the spring material is
quite low. This phenomenon is called spring surge or merely surging. When helical springs are
used in applications requiring a rapid reciprocating motion, the designer must be certain that the
physical dimensions of the spring are not such as to create a natural vibratory frequency close to
the frequency of the applied force. The final equation for the natural frequency, derived from the
governing equation of the wave motion, for a spring placed between two flat parallel plates is
given by:
d G. f 232. DN a = g

For steels this can be simplified as:


d 4 f 38.5 102 N Da =
The fundamental critical frequency should be from 15 to 20 times the frequency of the force or
motion of the spring in order to avoid resonance with harmonics. If the natural frequency is not
high enough, the spring should be redesigned to increase k or decrease the weight W.

FATIGUE LOADING

The springs have to sustain millions of cycles of operation without failure, so it must be designed
for infinite life. Helical springs are never used as both compression and extension springs. They
are usually assembled with a preload so that the working load is additional. Thus, their stresstime diagram is of fluctuating nature.
Now, for design we define,
FFmax min Fa 2 = FFmax min Fa 2+

Certain applications like the valve spring of an automotive engine, the springs have to sustain
millions of cycles of operation without failure, so it must be designed for infinite life. Unlike
other elements like shafts, helical springs are never used as both compression and extension
springs. In fact they are usually assembled with a preload so that the working load is additional.
Thus, their stress-time diagram is of fluctuating nature. Now, for design we define,
Then the stress amplitude and mean stress values are given by: if we employ the Goodman
criterion, then
The best data on torsional endurance limits of spring steels are those reported by Zimmerli. He
discovered the surprising fact that the size, material and tensile strength have no effect on the
endurance limits (infinite life only) of spring steels in sizes under 10mm(3/8 inches). For all the
spring steels in table the corrected

values of torsional endurance limit can be taken as: = 310 Mpa (45.0 kpsi) for unpeened springs=
465 Mpa (67.5 kpsi) for peened springs.
The stress amplitude and mean stress values are given by:
8FD 8FD amKand Ka c m s 3 3 dd = =
If we employ the Goodman criterion, then
S.S 1 a s m or n SSn .S.Sse su a su msu + = = +
The design or resulting factor of safety will depend on the spring material selected and their
endurance strength. In the absence of data on the endurance limit, the best data on torsional
endurance limits of spring steels are those reported by Zimmerli. He discovered the surprising
fact that the size, material and tensile strength have no effect on the endurance limits (infinite life
only) of spring steels in sizes under 10mm(3/8 inches). For all the spring steels the corrected
values of torsional endurance limit can be taken as:
= 310 MPa for unpeened springs
= 465 MPa for peened springs. e su

You might also like