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CHAPTER 5
MOTION IN A STABILITY REGION (PART II)
Fig. 5 1
This section begins by showing how to find the steady-state response of a one
degree-of-freedom system acted on by a periodic excitation. The periodic
2
excitation has a period T, or equivalently, a frequency
. The periodic
T
1. Fourier Series
A periodic excitation f(t) is represented as a Fourier series of sine functions and
cosine functions as
(5 1)
f (t )
1
B0 ( B r cos r t C r sin r t ),
2
r 1
r r
2
T
in which Br and Cr are constants, called Fourier coefficients, and T is the period of
2
the excitation; the frequency of the excitation is
The periods
T
Tr
2 T
of the individual harmonics in Eq. (4 1) are integer fractions of the
r
r
period of the excitation. Therefore, the period of the series is T (See Fig. 5 1).
The Fourier coefficients are1.
T /2
T /2
T /2
T / 2 cos r t cos s tdt T / 2 sin r t sin s tdt 0 for any r and s that are
distinct
( r s ).
2
T
2
Cr
T
Br
(5 2)
T /2
T / 2 f (t ) cos r tdt
T /2
T / 2 f (t ) sin r tdt
r 0, 1, 2, ...
r 1, 2, ...
A0
A0
f (t )
0t T /2
T / 2 t 0
Cr
2 A0
(1 cos r ) r 1, 2, ...
r
Fig. 5 2
The Fourier series of the square wave excitation, truncated to n terms, is
f (t )
2 A0 n 1
2rt
(1 cos r ) sin T
r 1 r
Fig. 5 2 shows the Fourier series of the square wave truncated to n = 2 terms and
to n = 10 terms. The square wave itself was actually generated by truncating the
Fourier series to n = 500 terms.
Notice that the coefficients in the linear combination of the excitation are the same
as the coefficients in the linear combination of the steady-state responses.
Consider the damped system described by Eq. (5 2). Its steady-state response to a
constant force of F0 was found to be x = F0/k. Its steady-state response to
f F0 cos t is x = X 0 cos(t ) and its steady-state response to
f F0 sin t is x = X 0 sin(t ) . It follows from the principle of linear
superposition that the steady-state response to the period excitation in Eq. (5 1) is
x s (t )
(5 3)
1
1
B0 B r x 0r cos( r t r ) C r x 0r sin( r t r )
2
k
r 1
1 B0
x 0r [ B r cos( r t r ) C r sin( r t r )]
2 k
r 1
(5 4)
1
X 0r
k
r
n
2 2
r tan
[2
r
1
n
r 2
]
n
r
n
For example, look again at the square wave excitation illustrated after Eq. (5 2).
Assume now that it acts on an undamped system that has mass m and stiffness k.
From Eq. (5 4) its steady-state response is
x s (t )
2 A0 n 1
r 1 r
1 cos r
2r
k m
2r
t
T
sin
The response xs is shown in Fig. 5 3 for the Fourier series truncated to n = 1 term
and n = 10 terms. Notice that xs is dominated by the first harmonic. The higher
harmonics contribute to the response only slightly.
Fig. 5 3
cos r t
1 i r t
(e
e i r t )
2
sin r t
1 i r t
(e
e i r t )
2i
Substituting Eq. (5 5) into Eq. (5 1), yields the complex Fourier series
(5 6)
f (t )
Fr e i t
r
r r
2
T
Fr
1 T /2
f (t )e ir t dt
T T / 2
r 0, 1, 2, ...
(5 8)
2
T
F ( ) T Fr
Fr e i t
r
1
T Fr e ir t
2
f (t )
1
F ( )e i t d
2
Similarly, substitute Eq. (5 8) into Eq. (5 6), drop the index r, multiply the
result by T, and let T approach infinity to get the frequency response of f(t)
(5 10)
F ( )
f (t )e i t dt
f (t )
From Eq. (5 10), the frequency response of the pulse is (See fig. 5 5)
F ( ) 2
sin 5
2rs
N ,
i
1 N 1
fs
Fr e
N r 0
( s 0, 1, 2... , N 1)
that is present in the sampled data. The frequency data are also called
Fr
N 1
fse
2rs
N ,
( r 0, 1, 2... , N 1)
s 0
Fig. 5 6
2rs
e N
i
(r, s = 0, 1, , N 1) in the
complex plane. Notice they represent a set of unit vectors that are equally spaced
around a circle.
2
N 1 i
s 0
2s
N 1 i
( r n)
N
( n 0, 1, ... N 1) .
On the right
s 0
fs
n 1
2rs
s 0
( r 0, 1, 2... , N 1)
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Fig. 5 6
6. Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform is used in a general procedure to solve constant-coefficient
linear differential equations. The procedure draws from the method in Chapter 4
and the previous sections in this Chapter of finding transient solutions and steadystate solutions to systems acted on by non-periodic excitations obtained using a
Fourier transform. The Laplace transform of f(t) is defined as
CONTROL OF DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTORY APPROACH
(5 13)
F (s)
f (t )e s t dt
Notice that the Laplace transform of f(t) is similar to the Fourier transform of f(t)
(See Eq. (5 10)). There are two differences, though. First, the lower limit in the
Laplace transform is 0 instead of . This change was made because, when
computing time responses of systems, its convenient to let the excitation f and the
response x start at time t = 0. Secondly, notice that s is used in the Laplace
transform instead of .
To develop the Laplace transform procedure in a general way, we start with the nth-order constant-coefficient linear differential equation
(5 14)
an
d nx
dt
a n 1
d n 1 x
dt
n 1
...a 2
d 2x
dt
a1
dx
a0 x f
dt
X (s ) using
To perform the first step, we will need to take the Laplace transform of the left side
of Eq. (5 14) which contains derivatives of x(t). From Eq. (5 13) and by
employing integration by parts, the Laplace transform of x (t ) is
X (1) ( s )
st
(t )e s t dt x (t )e s t |
x
dt sX ( s ) x 0
0 s 0 x (t )e
(t )e s t dt
X (1) ( s ) x(t )e s t dt x (t )e s t |
0 s x
0
s[ sX ( s ) x 0 ] v 0 s X ( s ) [ sx 0 v 0 ]
By repeating this procedure for higher derivative of x(t), the Laplace transform of
the n-th derivative of x(t) is expressed in terms of the Laplace transform of x(t) as
(5 15)
d n 1 x 0
X ( n) ( s ) s n X ( s )
dt n 1
d n2 x 0
dt n 2
... s n 2
dx 0
s n 1 x 0
dt
Equation (5 15) is used to take the Laplace transform of the left side of Eq. (5
14). The Laplace transform of the right side of Eq. (5 14) is performed using the
Table of Laplace transforms.
The second step in the Laplace transform procedure is to solve for X (s ) . When
this is done, you will find that X (s ) is a ratio of polynomials in s. The Table of
Laplace transforms contains simple ratios; certainly not every possibility.
Therefore, X (s ) needs to be expressed in terms of the Laplace transforms that
appear in the Table. This is done by performing a partial fraction expansion of
X (s ) .
Examples at the end of this section illustrate the Laplace transform procedure.
Laplace transform X (s )
d n 1 x 0
s n X ( s)
dt
n 1
d n2 x 0
dt
n2
... s n 2
dx 0
s n 1 x 0
dt
1
s
n!
tn
s n 1
1
s
n!
e t
t n e t
( s ) n 1
cos t
s
2
s 2
sin t
cos t e
s2 2
s
(s ) 2 2
sin t e t
(s ) 2 2
Fig. 5 8
time response
Displacement Force
x(t)
f(t)
complex Fourier
coefficients
Fourier transform
Xr
Fr
X()
F()
Laplace transform
X (s )
F (s )
Fig. 1a
Find and graph the frequency response of the pulse shown. Let A0 = 1 and T = 5.
Solution
T
0
F ( ) A0 e it dt
A0 it T
A
A
e
i 0 (cos T i sin T 1) 0 [sin T i (cos T 1)]
0
i
in which
F ( )
tan
A0
A
[sin 2 T (cos T 1) 2 ]1 / 2 0
1 cos T
4
2
T
2
T
T
2 sin
cos
2
2
cos T 1
1
tan
sin T
1/ 2
2 A0
T
sin
2 sin 2
tan 1 tan T T
2
2
Fig. 1b
CONTROL OF DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTORY APPROACH
Fig. 2b
Fig. 2a
2
t is sampled N times at time intervals of
T
t T / n. Find the discrete Fourier transform of f(t) for the two cases: 1) n = 15
2s i
Fr A0 cos
e
n
s 0
N 1
( r 0, 1, 2... , N 1)
Figures c and d show its magnitude for n = 15 and n = 10. In the first case, the
cosine function is sampled 15 times per period. The discrete Fourier transform
shows a peak at N/n = 13.3 from the start and finish of the frequency line. In the
second case, the cosine function is sampled 10 times per period. The discrete
Fourier transform shows a peak at N/n = 10 from the start and finish of the
frequency line. In the second case, the discrete Fourier transform is zero except at
the two peaks because N/n is an integer.
Fig. 2d
Fig. 2c
6
s
from which
X 6
1
s ( s 2 5s 6)
Next, perform a partial fraction expansion of X . Factor the denominator into s, s+2 and
s+3. Then rewrite the polynomial in terms of the Laplace transforms that appear in the
table as
1
2
s ( s 5s 6)
A
B
C
s s2 s3
A BC 0
s:
5 A 3B 2C 0
1:
6A 1
s s2 s3
Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform of X using the Table of Laplace transforms,
X
The system is an over-damped. Its equilibrium position is xe = 1. The answer given in Eq.
(e) is checked by differentiating x, substituting the results into the left side of the
differential equation, and verifying that its equal to the right side.
s
2
s 3
from which X 5
s
( s 2 2 2 )( s 2 3 2 )
( s 2 )(s 3 )
As B
2
s 2
Cs D
s 2 32
AC 0
s2 :
BD 0
s:
4 A 9C 1
1:
4B 9D 0
s
2
s 2
transform of X
s
2
s 32
x cos 2t cos 3t
from which
X
(mx 0 ) s (mv 0 cx 0 )
ms 2 cs k
Since the system is under-damped, the denominator can be written as
ms 2 cs k m[( s ) 2 d2 ]
c / 2m ,
in
which n k / m ,
and
d n2 2 . The polynomial is written in terms of the Laplace transforms that
(mx 0 ) s (mv 0 cx 0 )
x0 s (v0 2x0 )
( s ) 2 d2
v x 0
d
s
( 0
)
= x0
2
2
d
(s ) d
( s ) 2 d2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform of X using the Table of Laplace transforms,
the time response
v x 0
v x 0
x x 0 cos d t e t 0
sin d t e t e t ( x 0 cos d t 0
sin d t )
d
d
ms 2 cs k
1) L(1) = 1/s,
s
3) L( cos t ) =
1
s
4) L( sin t ) =
s 2
2
Solution
1 st 1
e
0
s
s
1
1
L(e t ) e t e st dt
e ( s )t
0
0
s
s
it
it
e e
L(cos t ) cos t e st dt
e st dt
0
0
2
it
e
e it st
1
e dt [e ( s i )t e ( s i )t ]dt
0
2
2 0
L(1) 1 e st dt
0
1
1
1
e ( s i )t
e ( s i )t
2 s i
s i
1
1
1
1 ( s i ) ( s i )
s
2
2
2 s i s i
2
s
s 2
it
e
e it st
L(sin t ) sin t e st dt
e dt
0
0
2i
it
e
e it st
1
e dt [e ( s i )t e ( s i )t ]dt
0
2i
2i 0
1
1
1
e ( s i ) t
e ( s i ) t
2i s i
s i
1
1
1
1 ( s i ) ( s i )
2
2
2 s i s i
2i
s
s 2
Problem Statement
The problems in this chapter consider systems 1 1 through 1- 7. Set the applied
moment and the applied force to zero. Assume that the system is initially at rest
and that the initial angle is 10 larger than the first equilibrium angle (like in
Chapter 2). This places the system in the neighborhood of the first equilibrium
position.
M3
A0 ,
A0 ,
(r 1, 2, ...)
in which T0 denotes a half-period. Use the same values of T0 and A0 here that you
used in Problem 4 1.
(a) Find the response of the system by representing the forcing function M3 as
a Fourier Series. Plot the response for about 6 oscillations.