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Key Questions

How did Wolsey rise to power under Henry VIII?


How did Wolsey maintain his position?
Why did Wolsey fall from power in 1529?

Introduction (30 and use source A)


1)

Why was Thomas Wolsey important? Be precise and specific

2)

Explain the traditional reasons used to explain Wolseys fall.

How did Wolsey rise to power under Henry VIII? (30-31)


3)

Armstrong suggests that Wolsey rose because of a combination of


luck and skill. Look at page 2 of these notes and show how Wolsey
became more powerful due to (a) luck (the situation/ context?) and (b)
his personal abilities. Mark with different colours.

Was Wolseys rise down to luck or skill? (31-2)


4)

Analyse the text on p. 31 and Source C (p. 32) to comment further on


Wolseys luck. Does Source C suggest anything more than luck?

5)

Analyse sources D & E by answering question 2 in the Skills Builder.


Use the biographical information below to evaluate the provenance.
This provides you with a context so that you can evaluate the source.

Cavendish was Wolseys loyal household servant from 1522 and first biographer. He wrote the Life and
Death of Cardinal Wolsey c30 years after Wolseys death in c1557. He was with Wolsey during his final
year.
Vergil a scholar, who Henry VII commissioned to write a History of England. The later edition was
published in 1555 and provided an unfavourable view of Wolseys rule. But then he had an on-going feud
with Wolsey. He had been a favourite under Henry VII, but Henry VIII favoured another, Andrea Ammonio.
Wolsey appeared to back the new man. Vergil wrote to Rome, criticising Wolsey, undermining his hope of
gaining a cardinals hat. Wolsey imprisoned him in the Tower briefly as a result.

How did Wolsey maintain power in the period 1515-1529? (33)


His maintenance of power was based on 3 key principles:

1. Political relationship
with Henry VIII

2. Wealth

3. Ruthlessness
1

How did Wolsey rise to power under Henry VIII? (30-31)

Pendrill, 19-25
Randell, 50-55

[Question 3] A range of factors is always needed to explain an historical development. Below


are factors showing why Wolsey rose to power. Identify skill and luck in the material below:

Before anything
Son of an Ipswich butcher
so lowly born
Became bursar of an Oxford
college (i.e. dealt with money)
but left after over-spending
the colleges money!

Wolseys character & abilities


Able and ambitious
1st at Oxford aged 15 - clever
An efficient administrator
Very industrious
An excellent speaker
Clever political operator
He could read other people
including Henry VIII

Immediate Context
Reign of Henry VII he had
established ministers whom
he trusted
His policies were cautious and
limited with little opportunities
emerging
[He liked the detail of
government]
Yet ministers were ageing?
New Context
1509: a new king, Henry VIII:
ambitious and energetic who
wished to follow new policies
He was unhappy with the
ageing, cautious ministers too
attached to Henry VIIs ways
Wolsey could seize
opportunities for promotion!

Circumstance and positions

1498: took holy orders


Chaplain to Archbishop of Canterbury, 1502
Sir Richard Nanfan, deputy lieutenant of Calais,
brought him to Henry VIIs attention
1507: Henry VII made him a chaplain
Used on small diplomatic missions to Scotland and
the Netherlands
Chance: death of Henry VII
1509: Henry VIIIs accession saw Wolsey become
Royal Almoner (dealing with food), so securing
him a place on the Royal Council.
Opportunity: Henry wanted to spend his time
hunting and in music Wolsey ensured that it was
he who filled the space! Industrious!
1512-1513: Wolsey worked very hard to organise
the expeditionary force of 12,000 to invade France.
He ensured that the logistics of the complex
campaign worked, that the force was well-fed and
supplied. He sidelined political opponents. Wolsey
did all this despite having advised against the war!
Whereas Wolsey wanted to do the dirty work
Henrys noblemen did not; they also wanted a good
time. Positions like Lord Treasurer held by the
Duke of Norfolk - were largely honorary.
Critically, Henry wanted him in power despite
noble contempt at this low born servant.
1514: Bishop of Tournai and of Lincoln, and later
Archbishop of York
1515: became a Cardinal, an honour from the Pope
1515: the key turning point: Henry VIII made him
Lord Chancellor the top political position in royal
government. Noblemen could no longer challenge
his decisions.
1518: he was appointed Legate a Latere by the
Pope giving him the authority to the reform the
Church. It also made him superior to the
Archbishop of Canterbury. Now Wolsey was
supreme in both Church and State. Though he was

Discuss in pairs. What do you think are the key dates in Wolseys career?

How Wolsey maintained power, 1515-1529


1.

Wolseys Political Relationship with Henry VIII (33-34)

(a) Key to Wolseys progress was gaining the trust of the King. After the 1513
French invasion, Henry trusted Wolsey completely.
(b) Wolsey would have to serve the King loyally and efficiently.
Traditionally, historians view Wolsey as the Alter Rex, the second king, a man with power at
court, Henry having a limited role in government. Here Wolsey is master, Henry the puppet.
Randell, 65-69
Pendrill, 22-25
Answer questions 1 and 2 in the Skills Builder on p. 33
Using the text on page 34 & Source G, explain how modern
assessments of the relationship between Henry and Wolsey
differ from the traditional view.

Provide examples of the disagreements that undermined the relationship between


Wolsey and Henry VIII but explain why that relationship was so long-lasting.

http://history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123%20212%20Wolsey.htm

2.

Wealth (35-36)

3.

Randell,
58-60

Explain the significance of Wolseys low birth (use Definitions box).


What was the impact of Wolseys huge personal wealth? How did he use that
wealth?
Where did he get his wealth from?
Randell,
Wolseys ruthlessness (37)
55-57
Why is Wolsey seen as ruthless, when such a view is clearly exaggerated?
Why do you think that Wolsey was perceived as ruthless?
Cut the Mini case study about the Execution of Buckingham, 1521, into (a)
Buckinghams responsibility (b) the Kings responsibility and (c) Wolseys role

http://www.tudors.org/as-a2-level/
Enter your e-mail address as instructed
to receive a free copy of an introduction
to Wolsey by John Guy.

1.

Assess the views given below. Which views do you agree


with/not agree with? (38)
Explain
your
answer.
For Vergil,
Hall,
Skelton
and Giustinian,
Wolsey was the other king. He made
decisions without consulting the king. Thus
Wolsey was a strong minister imposing his
policy on a weak king.
Peter Gwyn: sees Wolsey as a talented
man who had been entrusted by the king to
deal with some very complex problems. Yet
he was not in total control; he relied upon
the trust and goodwill of the King who
always retained ultimate control of affairs.
John Guy also sees the Henry/Wolsey
relationship as a political partnership. The
King trusted his chief minister to carry out
the royal will. Henry may not have known
about everything Wolsey did, but then he
was not interested. He was happy to revel
in Wolseys achievement but equally quick
to condemn his failures.
Eric Ives goes further, arguing for Henrys
centrality in the decision-making process;
but Henry was vulnerable to faction at
certain times. Courtiers put pressure on
Henry. For much of 1515-1529, Wolsey had
Henrys ear; he was able to put ideas in his
head and then make the king believe that
he had formulated the idea! Unlike Gwyn,
Ives believes that an aristocratic faction
helped bring Wolsey down in 1529
4

2.

Assess Wolseys character as analysed on pp. 38-39 (abbreviated


below). Was Wolsey the most disappointing man who
ever held power in England?

Comment
Elton quoted this about Wolsey in the 1950s; it
stuck to the 1970s. He argued that all Wolseys
actions were attended by folly, arrogance, false
aims and failure.

Comment
Dickens noted that Wolseys
personal arrogance, his enormous
wealth and splendid ostentation
were resented (1964). Scarisbrick
argues that Wolsey has had
terrible judgement passed against
him for having mishandled,
violated, corrupted or neglected
most of what was in his charge.

Comment
His great work of 1990, The Kings Cardinal,
argued that Wolsey had not set out to irritate
the nobility or harm its interests; he would only
limit the nobility when it adversely affected the
Crown or the common weal.
Gwyn, The Kings Cardinal. This book, held by the History Department
could be used as an effective doorstop! You cannot read it all nor would
you want to. You should pick a feature of Wolseys character or a particular
area of policy related to your existing studies and make brief notes IF Gwyn
is saying something new.
3.

Explaining Wolsey: sources and issues

Assessing Wolsey is difficult due to a lack of sources. He did not leave a private archive
few letters and no diaries. Relying on contemporary comments means that we have to
reconcile highly negative comments from enemies with excessive praise from his friends.
Armstrong said that these commentators naturally had reasons to offer an interpretation of
the facts rather than the facts themselves. [Armstrong]
OPTIONAL: the appended sheet Wolsey and the Historians has four major contemporary
sources (from 39-41). As Armstrong notes, historians have to write histories based on them.
For more on Wolsey and Henry, see pp. 45-47

Introduction (41-2): reform or maintain the status quo?


Some historians blame Wolsey for failing to reform at home. This is not justified because:

C16th people did not want or expect reform: they did not want Wolsey to reform systems
of government; they believed that the status quo was best. Wolsey did keep law and
order and this was the key purpose of government. For most, that was enough.
Henry VIII craved foreign glory domestic achievements would not raise the status and
prestige of the Crown. Wolsey needed to focus more on foreign policy to please Henry.
Aspects of domestic policy were important to foreign policy. Efficient tax collection was
vital for adventurous foreign policies and a stable domestic government.

One criticism of Wolsey is that he was too energetic; he was involved in everything, in all
matters of state. The Kings Cardinal took on too much domestic administration leading to:

A backlog of cases in the Court of Star Chamber by 1529


Unfinished plans for reform
The failure to achieve any lasting institutional reform since he merely used the existing
machinery of the law to complete his work.
His passion for hard work actually made him inefficient.

Justice (42-43)

Pendrill, 27-29
Randell, 62-64

1.

What office was Wolsey appointed to in


1515 and what was the significance of this?

2.

Howwhy did Wolsey bring greater justice to the


system? Explain and illustrate your answer.

3.

In what ways were Wolseys dealings with the system:


(a)
Not necessarily just
(b)
Targeted at the nobility
(c)
And ultimately not about reform?

4.

Comment on Wolseys favouring of the poor while


targeting the abuse of aristocratic privilege

Court of Star
C
Chamber
Problem: Enclosure: this is when land was fenced off for profitable sheep-rearing.
It was said to cause poverty and depopulation flocks of sheep replaced villages.
Enclosure (43)

Problem: failure of state action: 3 statutes had been passed before Wolsey had
become Lord Chancellor and all had failed.
Solution: Wolsey launched a national enquiry into enclosure in 1517. Many brought to court
had to rebuild houses that had been destroyed and return land to arable farming. Again
Wolsey is determined to bring the nobility to justice, to challenge the power of the aristocracy.
260 were brought before the court; this was remarkable as usually few people appeared.
Success?
1)
Failure in the long-term: enclosure continued and rural poverty continued to increase.
2)
Wolsey was even more unpopular with the ruling classes.
3)
1523: Parliamentary session: Wolsey had to accept all existing enclosures. This
proved that Wolsey was not always to impose his authority on the nobility.
6

Pen-y-Wal
Enclosure

Finances: Fifteenths and tenths and reform the subsidy


Compare sources O and P. In what ways do they differ over
Wolseys character?

How does the subsidy represent an improvement over the fifteenths and tenths?
Both the fifteenths and tenths and subsidy existed side by side, but the subsidy was Wolseys
greatest financial achievement. Wolsey favoured the subsidy because:

Wolsey rejected the fixed rates of the fifteenths and tenths and replaced them with a
more flexible subsidy which was based on the ability to pay.
So the new system accurately reflected the true wealth of English taxpayers: graduated
rates of tax were established placing a greater financial burden on the rich.
Efficiently administered: commissioners were sent to the localities to supervise
assessments of wealth
It raised more money: it was more efficient in raising more money and it was more
progressive.
So the subsidy raised
15ths and 10ths
subsidy
almost ________ as
1513-1516
1513-1516
much.
Raised: 90,000
Raised: 170,000

From 1513-1529, Wolsey raised:

325,000 in parliamentary subsidies


118,000 from fifteenths and tenths
250,000 in loans

Assess the success of Wolseys fiscal policies between 1513 and 1529
Finance caused problems between Henry VIII and Parliament
1523: Wolsey demanded 800,000 in taxation from Parliament:

Pendrill,
30-32

Problem: loans previously demanded were still being collected amounting to 260,000
Problem: Wolsey was far too brusque with parliament
Result - opposition:

Wolsey had to accept far less because his fiscal


policies caused ruling class hostility
This was seen in the late payments 1523-5

Problem: Wolsey was placed in the difficult position of accounting for money that had
not been paid; this affected expenditure; he could not spend what he did not have.
7

The Amicable Grant, 1525


The situation: Battle of Pavia: the French army was annihilated. Francis I was held captive
by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. Henry saw this as an opportunity to invade France.
The problem:
The solution:
The problem:

The coffers were empty.


Wolsey demanded a non-parliamentary tax called the Amicable Grant. It
targeted clergy and laity on a sliding scale.
It was too soon after the forced loans and parliamentary taxes of 1523-5

Bigger problem:
Refusal to pay: rebellion erupted across Suffolk and indeed, much of East Anglia.
10,000 men marched on Lavenham, (a cloth-making centre), highlighting the extent and
intensity of the opposition.
It was a popular rebellion; its spontaneity also reflected the degree of hostility.
His enemies, the Dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk, did not start it and indeed, did their best
to re-establish law and order. But they would increase their importance at court.
Consequences
The Grant was abandoned in May 1525; Wolsey raised no new taxes after this.
Henry doubted his minister for the first time; and so denied all knowledge of the Grant!
Wolseys opponents scented blood for the first time, but still had to wait[Why?]
With the cash gone, the French invasion was called off and Wolsey now allied with
France; he could not have known then what a disastrous error he had made

Pendrill, 49-51
A. What was the impact of the Hunne Affair, 1515? (20, 47-48)
Hunne, a London merchant, had challenged the Church over exorbitant mortuary fees. The
ensuing trial and his death in custody, had led to the Church being accused of making up
charges of heresy, murdering a wealthy merchant, and convicting him of heresy after his death
in order to seize his property.
Some argue that it helped the growth of anti-clericalism with the controversy dominating
parliament and allowed the Catholic Church to crumble under Henrys later attacks.
In fact this was not true, and most remained loyal to the Catholic Church.
However, within London, the Affair did have a big negative impact - temporarily
It reinforced Wolseys view that parliaments were more trouble than they were
worth, so another was not called till 1523.

B. What was the impact of Friar Henry Standishs attack on benefit of the clergy? (48)
Benefit of the clergy allowed the clergy to be tried in more lenient ecclesiastical courts rather
than tougher secular courts. Educated laymen abused the practice, gaining immunity from
secular trial. Parliamentary action in 1512 and 1515 gave oxygen to the issue and so increased
anti-clericalism. Wolsey had to swear to Henry personally that royal authority was superior to
ecclesiastical power, that an ecclesiastical practice was not undermining his secular courts.
So rigorous revelling,
Key Point: the anti-clericalism generated in 1515 probably accounts for In a prelate specially;
the delay in holding another parliament until 1523. Wolsey simply had to
So bold and bragging,
call it then to get the money to fund Henrys foreign policy; he also had to
And was so basely born;
compromise over enclosure in order to get the extra cash.
So lordly of his looks,
And so disdain[ful],
C. Ecclesiastical Extravagance (48)
So fat a maggot,
Wolsey did exploit his ecclesiastical position to secure enormous
Bred of a flesh-flye.
wealth. As Legate a Latere he was able to set up probate courts (church
John Skelton,
courts dealing with laymens wills) whose fees enhanced his wealth.
8 Speak,
Parrot, 1522

Wolsey let everyone know that he was fabulously rich; Hampton Court sparkled - but then
there were his plans for Ipswich School and Cardinal College. Unsurprisingly, such display
caused jealousy and resentment and added to anti-clerical feeling. Remember he is a cleric!

www.luminarium.org/renlit/skelton.htm

Look at the picture. What is Wolsey riding on? What might have been the response to this?

Pluralism, Nepotism and Absenteeism (48-49)


How serious are the charges of corruption aimed at Wolsey?

Monastic Reform (49)


How successful was Wolseys monastic reform?
What motivation lay behind some of the reform and what is the significance of this?
Pope or King? (49)
Who did Wolsey serve? The Pope or Henry? Explain your answer.
Conclusion: did Wolsey weaken the English Church?
Answer the question above. Discuss your response with the person next to you.

(45-47)
Answer questions 1 and 2 in the Skills Builder on p. 45
Wolsey, as Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of York and Cardinal, had great legal, political and
ecclesiastical power; but such power brought with it real administrative problems and trouble.
Parliament
1.

Why did Wolsey not call Parliament much during his ascendancy?

2.

How important was Parliament? What happened at Court?


9

Privy Chamber and Council


1.

What was the role of the Privy Council and the Privy Chamber?

2.

How far did Wolsey institute a purge to ostracise potential political rivals in the
Privy Chamber in 1519. How far might this have damaged his political position?

3.

What were the Eltham Ordinances of 1526 and what is their significance in terms
of Wolseys treatment of the nobility and his hold on power?
Randell,
Conclusion and Key Text: The Kings Cardinal
61-62

How does the revisionist view differ from the traditional?

Make Key Points

Some background: the Traditional View of Wolsey (51-52)


Wolsey is seen as an unpopular royal favourite always fighting to retain
his hold over the King. The hostile nobility gained revenge on Wolsey
when he lost the Kings favour over the divorce. The traditional view is
that there was a long-term conspiracy against Wolsey that became
very obvious during 1528-29. This suggests that Henry was quite weak
and easily manipulated by Wolsey and others.

In contrast to:

The Revisionist View of Wolsey


This plays down his unpopularity at court. Gwyn argues that Wolsey
did not try to alienate the nobility or directly harm ambitious young men
in order to preserve his influence over the king. He argues that Wolsey
was too capable a politician to offend anyone needlessly and so create
enemies. There was no long-standing conspiratorial group only a
short-term opportunist faction led by the Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk.
They acted on Henrys dissatisfaction with Wolsey over the Great Matter.
Was there a noble conspiracy against Wolsey? (52-3)
2.

2.
Why

Answer the question above using the text on pp. 52-3.


1.
Analyse Source X (52): what aspect of Wolseys character,
outlined in the source, may have created enemies for him?

Was there a noble conspiracy against Wolsey? 52-3.


did Henry VIII lose faith in Wolsey?
Amicable Grant (see previous notes)
Foreign Policy the alliance with France
Failure to secure his divorce from Catherine of Aragon

Wolseys
Fall
See later

10

Key Questions

Can Henrys early foreign policy be considered a success?


How far did Wolsey achieve his aims in foreign policy in the years 1514-1529?
To what extent was Henry isolated and vulnerable in European Affairs 15301540?
Do the years 1521-40 in foreign policy merit their reputation as ones of
expensive failure?
For a list of key events in foreign policy, see pp. 58-59
Answer the question 1 and 2
on source A on p. 59

Francis I: France
Francis I (House of Valois) became
King of France. France was the
largest kingdom in Europe with 16m
people. Additional lands (such as
Burgundy and Brittany) were
acquired through conquest or
diplomacy.
Aim: he wished to uphold French
honour and glory abroad. He had
inherited from Louis XII a conflict in
Italy against the Habsburgs

Charles V(Habsburg): Holy Roman


Empire
It was a collection of 400 semi-autonomous states
in the heart of Europe, roughly where Germany is.
Although ruled over by an Emperor, power was in
reality, decentralised. Each state had a prince with
much political power; while the 65 Imperial Free
Cities were all independent of the Emperor.
The office of Holy Roman Emperor brought with it
great prestige if little actual power. Charles V ruled

The Papacy
Spiritual
He was spiritual leader of the Catholic Church and he
aimed to defend Catholic interests in Europe. So the Pope
called for successive Catholic crusades against the Muslim
Ottoman Empire.
Temporal
The Pope was a major landowner in central Italy, ruling
over the papal states. Pope Julius II had a court to rival any
prince. He wanted to expand papal territory through
conquest, hence the name the warrior pope. The
Habsburg-Valois conflict in northern Italy threatened papal
interests. The papacy had to choose its allies carefully to
avoid domination. 1527 saw an unpaid Imperial army sack
Rome and kept Clement VII prisoner. This was a key
obstacle to Henry getting his divorce through Rome. His
failure set England on course for the Henrician Reformation

Aims:
Wage war in Italy
Defeat the Infidel Turk
in the Mediterranean
Repel the Protestant
Reformation in Europe.
Charles I: Spain
Spain emerged from the
uniting of Aragon and
Castile. Spain was very
diverse in climate, language
and culture. It had 6.8m and
was devoutly Catholic and
had defeated the Moors of
Grenada so defending the
Iberian peninsula for
Christendom.
11

What was achieved by the French campaigns of 1511-14?


Henrys Aim: pursue his claim to the title of King of France, passed
down through English kings since the C15th.

analytical
comment success
or failure?

Method: he had his Anglo-Spanish alliance through marriage;


Ferdinand was a crucial ally in the invasion of France; he knew he
needed an ally given Englands limited resources when set against the
HR Empire or France.
War against France (62)
Henry and peace
Henry was limited by his fathers councillors (Warham and Bishop Fox)
who wished to avoid war. This would preserve English security while
allowing foreign countries to look for an alliance that would move the
balance of power in their favour. This led to a peace treaty with France
in 1510! Yet Henry wanted war.
Henry isolated
In 1508, Pope Julius put himself at the head of the Holy League (Fr.
Sp. Empire and Papacy) to attack Venice. Henrys diplomacy failed to
get him in the League and he was isolated. By 1511, France had
emerged as the strongest power in Italy, threatening the papal states.
Henry and war
Unsurprisingly, the Pope changed direction and headed the Holy
League (now Sp. Venice, the Empire and England) in order to remove
France from Italy.
Henry won over the Great Council by portraying the war as a papal
war in defence of church liberties. Parliament granted the necessary
money to wage war in April 1512. An expeditionary force under the
Marquis of Dorset was dispatched to Bayonne. The plan was to gain
control of Aquitaine (SW France) through a joint Anglo-Spanish
invasion.
Henry deceived
Ferdinand only wanted the English troops as a diversion so that he
could capture Navarre! While the English waited for the Spanish,
dysentery and drunkenness hit the camp and Dorsets troops were
recalled. To add to this, in 1513: naval defeat at Brest capped an
ignominious first entry into European affairs. Englands first continental
campaign had been a disaster.
The Battle of the Spurs, 1513 (62-3)

http://www.hrp.org.uk/Resour
ces/Battle%20of%20the
%20Spurs

Henry was simply more determined to attain glory in France! Henry


learnt from his mistakes; he needed to act independently of any
untrustworthy allies if English aims were to be met.
12

The campaign seized Therouanne (given to Emperor Maximilian I)


aennd Tournai with little French resistance. Tournai was garrisoned
by Henry at great cost until 1518. Little fighting had occurred, but
English propagandists named a minor skirmish as the Battle of the
Spurs given the speed with which the French expeditionary force
retreated. Several important French nobes were captured and
returned to England to enhance further English prestige.
The Battle of Flodden 1513
The Earl of Surreys army went north to meet James IV, King of
Scotlands opportunistic invasion of England while Henry was in
France. Surrey was outnumbered and held the weaker position on
Flodden Edge. Yet Surrey won a devastating victory, for the majority
of the Scottish nobility were left dead on Flodden Field including
James IV himself. The Scottish threat was diminished even further by
the fact that his son, James V was just a boy and Henrys own sister
(Margaret) acted as regent. Now Henry could regard his northern
frontier as secure for the rest of his realm.
How successful had Henry been by the end of 1513?
Draw a table showing gains and issues.
The Anglo-French Treaty, 1514
Henry VIIIs weakness
In 1514, Henry had to make peace with France because:
His allies, Ferdinand and Maximilian, had decided to make
peace with Louis XII and were negotiating separate treaties.
Leo X, the new Pope wanted peace
Henrys coffers were emptying rapidly
The Treaty

England got possession of Tournai


Louis agreed to pay the arrears of the English pension handed
out to Henry VII in the 1490s.
[A proposal by Henry to make a joint attempt to drive
Ferdinand out of Navarre and claim Castile for Catherine was
unrealistic and not acted upon. This shows Henrys
annoyance with Ferdinands double-crossing.]
The peace treaty was sealed with the marriage of Henrys
younger sister Mary to the elderly Louis XII.

13

How far did Wolsey achieve his aims in foreign policy in the years 1514-29?
Debate over the guiding principles of Wolseys foreign policies.
Traditional View: Wolsey tried to
maintain the balance of power in Europe:

But Eltons view:

To ensure that no one side became


dominated European affairs.
How? Support those states looking to limit
the power of the dominant force.
But A.F. Pollard argues that
Wolseys main principle was
to follow papal policy:

JJ. Scarisbrick rejected this pro-papal interpretation:

He was a loyal papal servant


and so always sought to defend
the interests of the curia (central
governing body of the RC
Church). It has been argued
that Wolsey followed such a
policy because he wished to
become Pope one day.
Steve Gunn: the modern interpretation: the flexibility of Wolseys policies:

England and French ambitions


January 1515, Francis I became King on Louis XIIs death. Like Henry, he had ambitions, but
made more impact given his greater monetary and material resources.

1515: Francis effectively dissolved the Anglo-French peace by sending the Scottish
claimant, the Duke of Albany, to overthrow Margarets regency government. The unrest
in Scotland did lead to Margarets overthrow.

[1515: after the Battle of Marignano, Francis came to control northern Italy.
1516: a concordat with Leo X confirmed the French kings right to appoint bishops to
French sees.]

Henry/Wolseys response
1.

A pro-papal, anti-French alliance with Emperor Maximilian


A secret subsidy was sent to Maximilian to remove France from northern Italy.
Maximilian accepted the money and then joined the French!
14

2.

An anti-French league (Rome, Venice, Spain and the Empire)

However, January 1516, Ferdinand died and was replaced by his grandson, the Archduke
Charles. He did not want to fight France at once and so made peace; he did not feel that he
needed England. HR Emperor Maximilian joined the Franco-Spanish alliance in 1517 through
the Peace of Cambrai.
Significance
By the end of 1517, despite the efforts of Wolsey and Henry, England was isolated and
humiliated.

Wolsey was able to redeem himself for the previous failures. Leo X wanted a crusade against
the infidel Church. Wolsey took papal plans and modified them to suit the European powers.
His was a settlement of universal peace, which seemed to put England at the centre of
diplomatic affairs.
The treaty terms:

A peace settlement bound France, Spain, the Papacy, the Empire and England to action
against the Turk.
It guaranteed non-aggression between the powers
Built in a principle of collective security any aggressor would meet the might of the
other states.

The treaty was a diplomatic success:

It heaped prestige onto Henrys reign

It ended the threat of English isolation in Europe.

Tournai was returned to France in return for further great pensions

The Duke of Albany was to be kept out of Scotland while Henrys infant daughter, Mary,
was betrothed to the Dauphin.

Wolsey had hijacked Leos plans but also received the commission of Legate a latere, a
position he had been pressing for since 1514. The papal representative to England, Lorenzo
Campeggio, was not allowed to enter the country until Wolseys new title had been officially
confirmed by the curia.
Spain or France? (67)
Given Europes almost constant state of warfare, the Treaty of London was unlikely to last long.
When Emperor Maximilian died, a power struggle was set up between Charles of Burgundy,
King of Spain and Francis I. Inevitably, the seven electors of the Empire would choose
Charles, given that he was a Habsburg. And so the balance of power was upset again.
France was encircled by Charles huge territorial inheritance and so a Habsburg-Valois conflict
appeared inevitable.
Wolsey and Henry continued to present England as the arbiter of peace in Europe while at
the same time France and the Empire looked to England as an ally.
15

Wolseys Foreign Policy, 1520-1525: The Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520 (68-9)
In June 1520, Henry
and Francis met at
the Field of the Cloth
of Gold, near Calais.
3000 notables at a
sumptuous feast of
chivalric pageantry.
Both spent on
marvellous royal
pavilions, both trying
to display their
Renaissance
Credentials. Jousting
went on and even
an unplanned wrestling match between the two kings.
Significance
Little was achieved diplomatically there was no alliance with France.
Yet neutrality was difficult given rising Habsburg-Valois tensions. Charles had visited
England in May 1520 and then July 1520 Henry, Wolsey and Charles V met at
Gravelines. Charles was desperate for Henry not to join France; in fact Henry was
always likely to side with Emperor Charles V.
Traditional hostility towards France; Henry resented Francis I success since 1515
Charles via the Habsburg Netherlands could help protect key trade links with the
Low Countries.
The pope was anti-French too given Frances domination in northern Italy.
England, France and the Holy Roman Emperor, 1521-1525
Wolsey the Peacemaker, July 1521
Wolsey arranged a three-power conference at Calais; England was to act as the peace broker
between the 2 main superpowers
Wolsey and the Treaty of Bruges, August 1521
Wolsey concluded a settlement with Charles. The English would invade France unless the
French King agreed to make peace. Wolsey later negotiated a delay for war until 1523 hoping
that the situation would change and England would not have to fight.
Domestic Opinion and War
This was not 1513 and the conquest of France was not popular (how did it really serve
English interests?), especially as it would need increased taxation.
Action: skirmishes
1.

1522: Earl of Surrey led a raiding party from Calais into Normandy and Picardy.

2.

1523: Opportunity to undermine Franciss power: Charles, Duke of Bourbon rebelled


because he believed that he had been denied his rightful territorial inheritance. A 3pronger attack (England, Empire and Bourbon) was planned. A force costing 400,000
was sent under Suffolk; under-supplied and in France in winter, it fell apart.

3.

1523-25: Wolsey avoids action despite Charless demands, and tried to release England
from its obligations under the Treaty of Bruges.
16

The Battle of Pavia and the


Diplomatic Revolution, 1525
1.
Henry and Charles
Charles victory over Francis at
Pavia changed everything:
French army was destroyed
Francis I himself taken
Prisoner
Charles was now much
Stronger and could do
without England. Charles
rejected their call for the
French crown and even
called off his marriage to
Mary
The Anglo-Imperial alliance
was at an end.
2.

The Battle of Pavia, 1525

Henry and France: the Treaty of the More, 1525

Elton argued that Wolseys attempt to make a connection with France


represented a diplomatic revolution.

3.

Henry gave up his claims to France in return for an annual pension.

Henry and France: the Treaty of Cognac, May 1526

Francis did want Charles to dominate northern Italy, and the treaty aligned England, France
and several Italian states against Habsburg hegemony (i.e. Charles Vs domination) in Italy.
Wolsey helped to construct the League and England financed it. But they never joined it.
How far was 1525 a watershed mark in Henrician foreign policy? (69-70
Analyse Source E
Answer the questions on p. 69

The Treaty of Westminster, 1527


Traditionally, the turning away from the Emperor and towards France is seen as a turning-point
in English foreign policy. The alliance was cemented by this treaty.
Terms

Princess Mary was again presented as a diplomatic marriage pawn for Francis or his
second son.
Henry threatened Charles with armed intervention if he did not make peace.

The Significance of Westminster and Cognac


England did not have the military power to threaten Charles; the League of Cognac achieved
nothing.
1527: Imperial forces sacked Rome and imprisoned Clement VII.
A disaster for Wolsey - since now English foreign policy was tied to the Kings Great
17

Matter. The King expected Wolsey to deliver the annulment on his divorce since this
was for him the most important issue of state. However, Wolseys diplomatic
revolution had moved him away from the man who could make it happen, Charles
V. Wolsey was beginning to regret that decision.
Charles V was Catherine of Aragons nephew and he would not see a close
relative wronged and humiliated. Henry needed the Pope to annul the marriage,
but as a virtual prisoner of Charles, there was little hope of success in 1527.

Wolsey had little room for manoeuvre


Wolsey tried to act without the Pope, given his imprisonment, the College of Cardinals
might decree on the matter. He did not convince them and nothing resulted.
Wolsey declared war on Charles (after he had released the Pope but still controlled
northern Italy) in 1528, but no English army was ever mobilised.
Wolsey knew he did not have sufficient military forces and so tried an economic route,
considering a trade embargo on the Low Countries. Yet this was more damaging to
Englands trade interests. A separate agreement was made with the Dutch markets to
maintain trade despite the prospect of Tudor-Habsburg hostilities.
Charless emphatic victory at Landriano in June 1529 led to the Peace of Cambrai
(between France, Spain and the papacy) which ensured Charless control in Italy.
Wolsey was not even informed.
Significance of Cambrai
England was left isolated.
Wolsey had no chance of attaining an annulment through Rome.
With Clement now officially in the Empires camp and with France forced to
sign Cambrai, Wolsey was facing ruin. He could not deliver the divorce.
Armstrong: In the end, Wolseys fate had depended upon the changing nature
of foreign affairs, which had conspired against him from 1525-29.

Make notes on pp. 71 and 72 identifying Wolseys successes and failures:


Successes: Headings
The significance of Therouanne and Tournai
Wolsey, Peace and Prestige
A flexible and reactive foreign policy despite limited resources
Failures: Headings
Unrealistic aims and ambitions
Costly expeditions, taxation, civil unrest and few actual gains
Henry was outmanoeuvred by other monarchs, unreliable allies
Wolsey looked as much after his own promotion as he did Henry
VIIIs:
on the secular stage
as a candidate for Pope
Henrys diplomatic revolution was unfortunate due to the Kings
Great Matter
1527-8: The Unpopularity of Policy and Wolsey
CONCLUSION (73):How successful was Wolseys foreign policy? Note
particularly the constraints on his actions.
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Analyse Sources F, G and H

Answer the questions on p. 73


Read and use the exam tips on p. 74

The Impact of the Divorce and the Royal Supremacy


The French alliance collapsed, 1530-35
Francis would not want to be seen in alliance with an heretical power
Given his recent failures, Francis wanted to maintain good relations with Charles V.
Catherine was the aunt of Charles V and he was furious with Henry V. With France and
Spain at peace, Henry was potentially in a lot of trouble.
Henry and Thomas Cromwells Options, 1530-35
1.

Ally with the German Protestant princes.


Lutheran princes were approached in 1533. In 1534 Henry supported the Protestant
town of Lubeck who were trying to stop an Imperial candidate from becoming King of
Denmark. The princes were approached again in 1535 though nothing came of it.

2.

Do nothing
The Habsburgs and the House of Valois were bound to fall out given their traditional
rivalry. When they both turned to war, England would be ignored.

Henry and Cromwells Concerms, 1536-1539


Once again the situation changed and by 1536 the second option seemed the best of the 2.

Both Ann Boleyn and Catherine of Aragon died that year and so Anglo-Imperial relations
might recover.
France and Spain fought over Milan.

The latter improvement was only temporary and when they both signed the Peace of Nice,
Cromwell and Henry felt vulnerable.

English military defences were strengthened in anticipation of a Catholic invasion


Negotiations with German princes were reopened

Henry, Cromwell and Pro-Papal calls for an anti-English crusade


Cardinal Reginald Pole once more urged Charles and Francis to overthrow heretical England.
Henrys Response: the Purging of the Poles
Yorkist Reginalds brothers, Geoffrey and Lord Montague were arrested (Geoffrey
pardoned on giving incriminating evidence against the rest), along with his mother, the
Countess of Salisbury.
Other key figures, Henry Courtenay and Sir Edward Neville were arrested.
All had been executed by 1541.
With one bloody swoop, Henry had removed the last of the Yorkist faction; now there was no
hope of a pro-papal resurgence.
19

The options, 1539: Protestant or Catholic


1.
Henry and the 6 Articles
Henrys Act of Six Articles again demonstrated his belief in orthodox Catholic doctrine. Some
might argue that these were designed to reassure Catholic Europe that he was moving towards
Lutheranism.
2.
Henry and the Lutherans
Yet just as the Act was passing Parliament, another Lutheran essay was visiting England. Of
course, just as before, Henry would not sign a deal with heretics. However, Cromwell did
succeed in proposing a marriage alliance between England and the duchy of Cleves.
The Duke of Cleves was not a Lutheran but part of the Lutheran alliance. Henry was unsure,
especially as Franco-Spanish relations were again deteriorating. So why go ahead with the
marriage?
Cromwell convinced Henry that the alliance could be useful in preventing any invasion
of England.
Henry was convinced by Holbeins portrait of Anne of Cleves(see p. 145)
3.
Henry, Ann of Cleves, and Thomas Cromwell
Henry detested Anne and the marriage remained unconsummated. The Italian war was
resumed and so an alliance with the German princes was not so important. Unlike the 1530s,
Henry now intended to involve himself more in foreign affairs, with invading France and
conquering Scotland coming again to the fore.
1541-1547: was Henrys foreign policy an expensive failure?
Anglo-Scottish Relations: Henrys success via politics and diplomacy?
From 1542, Henry intended to invade France. But before this could occur, Scotland would
have to be subdued. The two countries were also already suffering from poor relations owing
to the Franco-Scottish alliance and clashes between James V and Henry over church reform.
The Duke of Norfolk went up north but poorly supplied, the expedition to Scotland ended poorly.
However, at the Battle of Solway Moss, an inferior English army defeated the Scots. Many
nobles surrendered while James died and left his daughter Mary in the hands of a pro-French
faction. Henry opportunistically bribed noble prisoners taken at Solway Moss. A new Regent,
the Earl of Arran seemed to back Henry. The 1543 Treaty of Greenwich heralded peace and a
marriage of Mary Stuart to Prince Edward.
This seems to represent a successful combination of politics and diplomacy. It was not. The
nobles took their bribes and then simply returned to Scotland. Mary was allowed to retain her
connections with France! Arran had claims on the throne himself and would hardly seek to
strengthen Henry! The Treaty of Greenwich merely gave Scotland time to rebuild their
defences and strengthen their link with France.
A concerted violent expedition under the Earl of Hereford in 1544 merely united the Scots
against England and strengthened the link with France. Henry had simply squandered a
winning position after Solway Moss.
Anglo-French Relations: expensive failure?
The invasion of France was certainly no closer. From 1541 Charles V tried to secure Henrys
support against France. In 1544, an English force of 40,000 invaded France from Calais and
joined the Spanish in a two-pronged attack on Paris. Henry, ageing and increasingly immobile,
20

accompanied the slow progress of the army. In fact neither he nor Charles would truly help
each other since they had attacked France with quite different agendas. Thus Henry focused
on Boulogne, not Paris, and Suffolk captured it easily. Charles, annoyed, made peace with
France. Boulogne was garrisoned and the English army sailed home. France sought to regain
Boulogne and planned an invasion. Skirmishes occurred in the channel and Henrys Mary
Rose sank itself, attempting a sharp manoeuvre with its gunports open. All this has been too
expensive the campaign cost over 2m. Increased taxation and forced loans were not
enough to pay for the campaign and Henry actually had to sell off crown lands gained with
the dissolution of the monasteries. A steady income from future rents was lost. He gained a
million by debasing the coinage but this also increased inflation and reduced confidence in
English financial markets.

Analyse sources L, M and N.


Answer the question that appears on p. 80 using the
advice provided for you.

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