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Complications in low energy X-ray dosimetry caused by electron contamination

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1991 Phys. Med. Biol. 36 1111
(http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9155/36/8/006)
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Phyr. Med. Biol., 1991, Vol. 36, No 8, 1111-1116. Printed in the UK

Complications in low energy x-ray dosimetry caused by electron

contamination
S C Klevenhagen, D DSouza and I Bonnefoux
Department of Medical Physics, The Royal London Hospital, Whitechapel.
London E l lBB, U K

Received 18 January 1991, in final farm 25 March 1991

Abstract. Dosimetry of low energy x-rays is performed more and more often with the use
of thin window parallel-plate ionization chambers because of their favourable performance
characteristics compared with cylindrical chambers. The thin window is particularly attrao
live for measuring beam parameters at the skin (phantom) surface but it also introducer
dosimetric problems by allowing the secondary photoelectrons produced in the beam
collimating system to enter the chamber. This may result in erroneous dosimetric data.
This paper deals with some o f the problems caused by the secondary electrons and their
effect on absorbed dose and depth dose measurements. To minimize these effects, it is
suggested to increase the window thickness of the ionization chamber employed thus
making the chamber only x-ray sensitive.

1. Introduction

In the dosimetry of low energy x-rays it is often necessary to investigate various

parameters such as the backscatter factors, output variation with field size or depth
doses. In performing such measurements the experimenter must be aware of some
potential problems which may arise under certain dosimetric conditions. These investigations have been undertaken after significant dosimetric irregularities were observed
with a 140 kV radiotherapy unit.
Measurements in a beam of this radiation quality are best performed with a plane
parallel-plate ionization chamber because of its attractive performance characteristics.
Such a chamber presents to the beam a shallow air cavity minimizing fluence perturbation effectsdealing well with the steep dose gradient as well as fulfilling the requirement
for measuring the absorbed dose in layers close to the surface which is the area of
main interest in skin therapy. One of the chambers available for soft x-rays is the
chamber type 2532 ( N E Technology, England) which has the advantage of having a
small 3 mm diameter area collector and a sensitive volume of 0.02 cm3 suitable for
measurements with small size applicators or cut-outs.
Its thin 0.03 m m entrance window made of polyethylene (CHJ suggests suitability
for surface dose measurements. This chamber was therefore our obvious choice for
use when a clinical requirement arose to determine radiation output for a small field
size of 1.5 cm diameter.
However, the measurements resulted in a surprising find in that the measured
radiation output for small fields turned out to be significantly higher (see figure 3)
than for larger radiation fields, just the opposite to what would be expected on the
0031-9155/91/081111+06%03.50

@ 1991 IOP Publishing Lrd

1111

1112

S C Klevenhagen et a1

basis of the BSF variation with field size (Grosswendt 1984, Klevenhagen 1989). The
experiments described below were designed to identify the reason for this.
2. Experiment
An early work of one of the authors (Klevenhagen 1979) suggested to us that the
reason for this dosimetric irregularity may be the production of photoelectrons by the
interaction of x-rays with the applicator walls which, due to the thinness of the chamber
entrance window, would be able to enter the sensitive volume and cause an increase
of the total ionization charge measured. In order to prove this point the following
experiments were set up:
(i) In the first experiment, the ionization chamber was embedded in a water
equivalent solid material of suitable thickness so that its window was level with the
phantom surface. The x-ray machine applicator was placed in contact with the phantom
surface and the depth dose variation over a range of thin absorbers was determined.
Sheets of polyester film (CH,) of thicknesses varying between 20 and 500 Fm were
used as absorbers. These measurements were performed at generating potentials of 90
and 140 kV, 1.4 mm AI filtration (2.2 mm AI HVL and 3 mm AI HVL,respectively). The
results are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Variation of ionization with thickness of polyester film determined at generating potentials of
140 kV (dotted curve) and 90 kV (continuous curve).

(ii) In the second experiment, carried out under similar conditions, the ionization
chamber was moved across the radiation field from the centre towards the applicator
wall in an attempt to see whether the ionization increases in this region which would
confirm the origin of the secondary electrons. The results are seen in figure 2.
(iii) In the last experiment, performed under similar conditions, the relative variation of the radiation output was measured, first with a bare chamber followed by
measurements with a polyester absorber placed on top of the ionization chamber
window. Two absorbers, 75 and 125 p m thick were used to simulate a thicker ionization

Complications in low energy x-ray dosimetry

1113

iod

12

,*

Figure 2. Variation of chamber reading from the centre of a 140 kV x-ray beam towards the wall of a 7 cm
diameter applicator ( a ) with a bare window chamber, i n order to include secondary electrons produced in
the a p p k d f o r wall and ( b ) with an increase i n window thickness of 75 pm, thus eliminating the secondary
electrons. (cl shows the difference in the above Situations and represents the contribution of the secondary
electrons to the chamber reading. The readings are normalized to the chamber reading at the centre of the
applicator with an increase in window thickness of 75 fim.

S C Kleuenhagen

1114

et

al

1.301

= i
,

01.10
H

Y
DIAMETER

0.80 1

FIELD

(cm)

Figure 3. Variation of output relative to a 5 cm diameter field sire measured with a bare window chamber
and an increase in window thickness of 75 pm and 125 pm. Backscatter factor variation (at 140 kV) with
field size is shown for comparison.

chamber window. The results, compared with the hare window measurements, are
shown in figure 3.
3. Discussion of results

The depth ionization measurements carried out over the range of shallow depths (figure
1) confirm the presence of secondary electrons and show that the intensity of the
electrons decreases rapidly with the absorber thickness, most of them being absorbed
in a layer of about 50 pm. Adding the window thickness of 30 pm, the electrons are
absorbed by a total thickness of about 80 pm. On this basis, and using CSDA ranges
in plastics (ICRU 1984), the estimated maximum electron energy would be 25 keV.
The effective energy of the 140 kV x-ray beam, evaluated on the basis of HVL, is about
35 keV which agrees broadly with the estimated maximum energy ofthe photoelectrons.
The effect is most pronounced with small size applicators due to the closeness of
the walls to the chamber and hence the effect is applicator size dependent. The
experiment was carried out at 90 and 140 kV and n o noticeable difference in electron
penetration was observed. However, the number of photoelectrons reaching the chamber increases with generating potential and this becomes more noticeable with decreasing field size.
The data in figure 2 provide evidence that the photoelectrons originate in the
applicator wall which is indicated by the increased ionization (figure 2(a)) observed
close to the wall as compared to the centre of the field. Measurements with increased
window thickness when electrons are eliminated show the normal x-ray beam profile
which is decreasing towards the field edge (figure 2(h)). The calculated difference
between these two sets of data in figure 2(c) reveals the relative electron contribution

Complications in low energy x-ray dosimetry

1115

alone. Figure 3 shows the variation of the radiation output with field size at 140 kV
determined with a bare window and hence inclusive of the electron contribution, which
was the reason for undertaking these experiments on account of the unexpected trend.
The data measured with the use of an extra absorber increasing the chamber window
thickness show, on the other hand, an expected normal trend of the output decreasing
with decreasing field size. This is due to the removal of the secondary electrons from
the x-ray beam. With both 75 pm and 125 pm added absorber thickness, the curves
follow similar trends. The small differences evident at larger field sizes can be attributed
to experimental uncertainties arising from difficulties in positioning of the chamber
and fluctuations in the tube current. The relationship between the backscatter factor
and field size plotted for comparison in figure 3 is seen t o vary in a similar manner to
output, as expected.
4. Conclusions

The dosimetry of x-rays in the low energy region is predominantly performed by means
of cylindrical chambers (ICRU 1973, HPA 1983) with a relatively thick wall which in
the case of a Farmer type chamber may be made of 0.375 mm of graphite (Aird and
Farmer 1972) and hence sufficiently thick to conceal the secondary electrons effect. In
recent years, the thin window parallel-plate chambers became more easily available
and there will he a tendency to use them more often particularly for measurements of
surface doses.
In relation to the problem under discussion, it is appropriate to comment on the
general concept of how the surface or skin dose should be defined.
Although the term surface dose implies a quantity determined at the skin surface,
this is a somewhat misleading term since such a determination is virtually impossible
to make and even if made needs to be, from clinical point of view, interpreted with
caution.
Radiobiologically, if measured at the real surface, it would have little meaning
because of the radiation insensitivity of the very superficial layers of the skin. The
definition of the surface or the entrance dose needs therefore to be related to the depth
at which the radiation sensitive layer begins and that is underneath the epidermis about
0.1-0.15 mm depth.
In dosimetry close to the surface one is therefore concerned with epidermal thickness
as the most sensitive cells are believed to be those lying at the bottom of the epidermis.
The dermis plays an important part in the changes observed after irradiation and there
are other considerations (Burch 1970) which suggest that the term skin dose should
be taken as meaning the dose to the dermis. Hence in orderr to estimate skin dose or
to measure the dose from a source of radiation, a value for epidermal thickness is
required for incorporation in the design of the dosemeter.
Maximow and Bloom (1942) in their textbook of histology have given the thickness
of the epidermis as being between 0.07 and 0.12 mm on most parts of the body. On
this basis, health physicists have assumed in the past that minimal epidermal depth is
7 mg cm? ( 1 mg cm-* equals approximately 11 pm for tissue). The work of Whitton
(1973) showed that the epidermal thickness varies significantly with body site being
4.7 mg cm-2, 6.6 mg c K 2 and 40.6 mg on
body trunk, arms and legs and fingertips
respectively. No dependence on age between 15 and 89 years or sex was found.
It is obvious therefore that the ionization chamber window thickness is an important
issue not only on the grounds of physics but also radiobiology. Lack of appreciation

1116

S C Kleuenhagen et a1

of this problem may lead to serious dosimetric errors as demonstrated particularly for
the example of the absorbed dose variations with radiation beam field size.
When planning to use a thin window chamber, it is necessary to first evaluate the
magnitude of the photoelectron production effect in order to be in a position to estimate
what window thickness is required. The thickness can be adjusted to requirement by
employing a sheet of appropriately selected absorber which can be placed on top of
the chamber during measurements.
Resume
Difficult& rencontrCes pour la dosimCtrie des rayons x de faible hergie B cause d e la contamination
ilectronique.

On effectue de plus en plus s o ~ v e n tla dosimetric d e i rayons x de faible Cnergie B I'aide de chambres
dimisation plates, B parois minces et parall$les, B cause d e leurs caracdristiques plus favorables que celles
des chambres cylindriques. Une fenElre d'entree mince est specialemem intlressante pour mesurer les
parametres du faisceau au niveau d e la pea" (surface du fant6me). mais e l k crie aussi des problemes
dosimetriques en laissant des Clectrons secondaires produits d a m le systkme de delimitation du faisceau
pCnCtrer d a m la chambre. Ceci peut entrainer des donnees dosimetriquer errodes. Le travail present6 ici
se rappone B quelques uns der p r o b l h e s dus aur Clectrons secondaires et leur effef sur la mewre de la
dose absorb& et les n o n " d e dose en profondeur. ARn de reduire ces effets, la auteurs suggerent daccroitre
dipaisseur de la fenetre d'entrke de la chambre, de manisre B ne la rendre sensible qu'aun rayons x.

Zusammenfassung
Prableme bei der Dasimetrie niederenergetischer Rkntgenstrahlen durch Kantamination mit Elektranen.
Die Dosimetrie niederenergetischer Rkntgenstrahlen wird immer hiiufiger durchgeffihrt unter Verwendung
Parallel-Platten-lonisationskammern mil dlinnem Fenster wegen deren hervorragenden Eigenschaften
gegenliber Zylinderkammern. Dar diinne Fenrter is1 imbesondere attraktiv ffir Messungen der
Strahlparameter an der Hautoberfliche (Phantom), fiihn jedach gleichzeitig zu daaimetrischen Problemen,
da die im StTahl-KollimatOTSyStem erreugten Sekundirelektronen in die Kammer eintreten kknnen. Daraun
k6nnen sich falsche dosimetrische Date" ergeben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden einige Probleme,
hervorgerufen durch Sekundiirelektronen und deren EinfluD auf Mersungen der Energiedorir und der
Tiefendosisverteilung, untersucht. Zur Minimierung dieser Effekte wird vorgeschlagen, die Fenrterdicke der
verwendeten lonisationskammer zu erhkhen, damit die Kammer nur noch fur Rkntgenstrahlen empfindlich
ist.

yon

References
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Biol. 17 169-74
Burch P R J 1970 A new apprach to cancer Nature 225 512
Grosrwendt B 1984 Backscatter factors for x-rays generated at voltages between 10 and 100 kV Phyr. Med.
B i d 28 579-91
HPA 1983 Revised code of practice for the dosimetry of 2 10 35 MV x-ray and of caesium-137 and cobalt-60
gamma-ray beams Phys. Med. B i d 28 1097-104
ICRU 1973 Measurement of absorbed dose in a phantom irradiated by a single beam o f I or gamma rays
ICRU Reporr 23 (Bethesda Md: ICRU)
- 1984 Radiation dosimetry: electron beams with energies between 1 and 50 MeV ICRU Reporr 35
(Bethesda Md: ICRU)
Klevenhagen S C 1979 Modification to backscatter factor due to insufficient tissue thickness or use of internal
lead shielding observed with the RT 305 Radiotherapy machine Philip MediealSysremr Producldaro 8-10
1989 Experimentally determined back scatter factors for x-rays generated at vollages between 16 and
140 kV Phys. Med. Bid. 34 1871-82
Maximow A A and Bloom W 1942 Texrbook o/Hirralog.y 4th edn (Philadelphia, PA: Saunder) p 335
Whitlon J T 1973 New values for epidermal thickness and their importance Healrh Phys. 24 1-8