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Abstract - Variation of 13C content in coral skeletons shows the influence of metabolic fractionation in aragonite coral.
Understanding coral 13C variation can thus be useful to more understand e.g. past bleaching event which is further
useful for coral health and conservation. In this study, 13C content in Porites coral from Labuhan Bajau, Simeulue
Islands was analyzed. To know the correlation between variation of coral 13C and light intensity, the monthly variation of coral 13C is compared to solar radiation and cloud cover. The result shows that for the period of 2003 to 2008,
coral 13C shows it is well correlated (r=0.42 p=0.153) with cloud cover variation in annual mean scale. Meanwhile, in
seasonal mean variation, coral 13C is strongly influenced (r=0.85 p<0.0001) by cloud cover with 1 - 2 month time lag.
Comparing to the solar radiation (cloud cover), SST influences dominantly the variation of coral 13C from southern
Simeulue Island waters (LB sample) in an annual mean scale than in a seasonal scale.
Keywords: 13C, coral, Porites, solar radiation, cloud cover, SST
Introduction
IJOG/JGI (Jurnal Geologi Indonesia) - Acredited by LIPI No. 547/AU2/P2MI-LIPI/06/2013, valid 21 June 2013 - 21 June 2016
65
Bottom
Top
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-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
Figure 2. Monthly variation of 13C content in Porites coral (sample code LB) from Labuhan Bajo.
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2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
-4.5
2001
-4.0
900
0.00
800
-0.50
700
-1.00
600
-1.50
500
-2.00
400
-2.50
300
-3.00
200
-3.50
100
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
d13C
Solar radiation
Seasonal variation of 13C content in Porites coral from Simeulue Island waters for the period of 1993-2007
(S.Y. Cahyarini)
-4.00
Figure 3. Graphic of monthly variation of coral 13C (grey line) and solar radiation (dark line) and its trend lines (bold grey
and dark lines).
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2.0
2.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-2.0
-2.0
-2.5
-2.5
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
-1.5
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
-1.0
-1.5
Figure 4. Graphic of monthly mean variation of solar radiation (grey line) and (left) cloud cover (dark line) and (right) 13C
(dark line). The data are corrected for two month lag. All time series data are standardized.
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0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Figure 5. Annual mean variation of 13C (grey line) and cloud cover (dark line). Linear trend line (dashed line). Data are
standardized to unit variance.
-2.0
y = -0.123x - 2.254
R2 = 0.180R=0.424
-2.2
-2.4
-2.6
-2.8
-3.0
-3.2
-3.4
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
Cloud Cover
Figure 6. Linear regression of cloud cover and 13C in the annual mean scale.
68
6.0
6.5
7.0
Seasonal variation of 13C content in Porites coral from Simeulue Island waters for the period of 1993-2007
(S.Y. Cahyarini)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Figure 7. Annual mean variation of coral 13C (dark line) and SST (grey line) derived from coral Sr/Ca. Data are standardized to unit variance.
References
Cahyarini, S.Y., 2011. Rekonstruksi suhu permukaan laut periode 1993-2007 berdasarkan
analisis kandungan Sr/Ca koral dari wilayah
Labuan Bajo, Pulau Simeulue. Jurnal Geologi
Indonesia, 6 (3), p.129-134.
Felis, T., Patzold, J., Loya, Y., and Wefer, G.,
1998. Vertical water mass mixing and plankton blooms recorded in skeletal stable carbon
isotopes of a Red Sea coral. Journal of Geophysical Research,103 (30), p.730-731.
Grottoli, A.G. and Wellington, G.M., 1999. Effect of life and zooplankton on skeletal d13C
values in the eastern Pacific corals Pavona
clavus and Pavona gigantean. Coral Reefs,18,
p.29-41.
Grottoli, A.G., 2002. Effect of life and bring
shrimp on skeletal d13C in the Hawaiian coral
Porites compressa: a tank experiment. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 66, p.1955-1967.
Heikoop, J.M., Hickmott, D.D., Risk, M.J.,
Shearer,C.K., and Atudorei,V., 2002. Potential
climate signals from the deep sea gorgonian
coral Primnoa resedaeformis. Hydrobiologia,
471, p.117-124.
McConnaughey, T., 1989. 13C and 18O isotopic
disequilibrium in biological carbonates: II
In Vitro simulation of kinetic isotope effect.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 53,
p.163-171.
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Conclusions
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the KNAW Mobility
Program 2007/08 -grant to SYC for the isotope
analysis at the Isotope laboratorium facilities at
Vrije University, Amsterdam.
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Abstract - The gold-silver ores of western Java reflect a major metallogenic event during the Miocene-Pliocene
and Pliocene ages. Mineralogically, the deposits can be divided into two types i.e. Se- and Te-type deposits with
some different characteristic features. The objective of the present research is to summarize the mineralogical and
geochemical characteristics of Se- and Te-type epithermal mineralization in western Java. Ore and alteration mineral
assemblage, fluid inclusions, and radiogenic isotope studies were undertaken in some deposits in western Java combined
with literature studies from previous authors. Ore mineralogy of some deposits from western Java such as Pongkor,
Cibaliung, Cikidang, Cisungsang, Cirotan, Arinem, and Cineam shows slightly different characteristics as those are
divided into Se- and Te-types deposits. The ore mineralogy of the westernmost of west Java region such as Pongkor,
Cibaliung, Cikidang, Cisungsang, and Cirotan is characterized by the dominance of silver-arsenic-antimony sulfosalt
with silver selenides and rarely tellurides over the argentite, while to the eastern part of West Java such as Arinem
and Cineam deposits are dominated by silver-gold tellurides. The average formation temperatures measured from
fluid inclusions of quartz associated with ore are in the range of 170 220C with average salinity of less than 1 wt%
NaClequiv. for Se-type and 190 270C with average salinity of ~2 wt% NaClequiv. for Te-type.
Keywords: epithermal gold-silver deposit, fluid inclusions, selenides, Se-type, tellurides, Te-type, western Java
Introduction
IJOG/JGI (Jurnal Geologi Indonesia) - Acredited by LIPI No. 547/AU2/P2MI-LIPI/06/2013, valid 21 June 2013 - 21 June 2016
71
100 E
125 E
Philippines
Malaysia
Sumatra
500
Sulawesi
East Mindano arc
Halmahera arc
Sulawesi
Irian Jaya
Sumatra-Meratus arc
Java
1,000
kilometers
P
N
G
Medial
Irian Jaya arc
Sunda-Banda arc
Australia
125 E
Magmatic arc
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Figure 1. Distribution of the magmatic arc within the Indonesia archipelago from Late Cretaceous to Pliocene (modified
after Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). The location of the studied area is bounded by a rectangle.
Serang
25 km
JAKARTA
Pandeglang
Cibaliung
Cikidang
Cirotan
Pongkor Bogor
Cisungsang
Sukabumi
7 S
Pelabuhanratu
Bandung
Cineam
Indian Ocean
106 E
Arinem
107 o E
Figure 2. Location and distribution of the Se- () and Te- () type epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the western Java, Indonesia.
with some vein association. Vein size of the Seand Te-types are various from several meters
to more than 5,000 m in length and from a few
centimeters up to 5 m in width. The gold mineralization ages within this area for the Se-type are
mostly of Pliocene and Pleistocene with the range
from 2.4 to 1.7 Ma and Late Miocene (11.18 Ma)
Methods
Ore Mineralogy
The dominant opaque minerals from the Setype deposits are Se- and Se-bearing silver minerals (aguilarite, naumannite, argentite, polybasite,
and pyrargyrite), electrum, and tetrahedrite with
various amounts of sulfide minerals of sphalerite,
galena, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrite.
Other ore minerals are found in a trace amount.
Some rare minerals of Bi- and Sn-bearing minerals such as lillianite and canfieldite occur in
Se-type deposit of Cirotan (Milesi et al., 1993).
The Te-type is characterized by the occurrence
of hessite, petzite, stutzite, tetradymite, altaite,
and tennantite-tetrahedrite, with a high amount
of sulfide minerals of sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and pyrite with occurrences of arsenopyrite. Some photomicrographs of the ore minerals
associated in the Se- and Te-type deposits are
presented in Figure 3.
Rare telluride minerals of hessite and altaite
were reported from the Se-type deposit (Harijoko
et al., 2007), but until now there are no selenide
minerals observed in the Te-type deposits of
Arinem, except for the Te-type deposit of Cineam
which contains trace of Se-bearing minerals of
pyrargyrite-proustite. The occurrences of the ore
minerals from the two types of deposits are sum-
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Figure 3. Reflected-light photomicrographs of the ore mineral association from some deposits at the western Java. (a)
Pongkor; (b) Arinem; (c) Cikidang; (d) Cisungsang. Abv.: alt=altaite, arg=argentite, canf=canfieldite, cpy=chalcopyrite,
elm=electrum, gn=galena, hs=hessite, lim=limonite, pr=proustite, py=pyrite, pyrg=pyrargyrite, qtz=quartz, sph=sphalerite.
Ore Geochemistry
The FeS content of sphalerite from the Tetype is generally similar to those of the Se-type
mostly in the range of 0.1-2.4 mol% (Se-type)
and 0.5~2.0 mol% (Te-type, rare are up to 8.5
mol%). However, the FeS content of sphalerite
from massive deposit of the Cisungsang (Se-type)
is higher, ranging from 13.6-19.6 mol%, and from
Cirotan is between 0.5 and 26.0 mol% (Milesi
et al., 1993). Cadmium content in sphalerite of
Se-type is in the range of 0.1-2.0 mol% and in
Te-type of Arinem around 0.1-1.0 mol%.
The Ag content of electrum from the Se-type
is higher than that from the Te-type, ranging
between 22-68 wt% and 14-40 wt%. Some ore
74
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Cibaliung 3
Cisungsang4
Cirotan 5
Host rocks: basaltic andesite volcanics intercalated tuffaceous sediment (MiddleLate Miocene) overlaid unconformably by dacitic tuff, younger sediments & basalt
flows. The sedimentary rocks consist of conglomerate, calcareous sandstone, and
limestone.
Gangue & alteration: quartz, adularia, calcite, smectite, illite, mixed layered
chlorite-smectite and illite-smectite, kaolinite, epidote, zeolite.
Mineralization age: 11.18~10.65
Host rocks: volcanic rock of lapilli tuff & breccia (Early Miocene).
Gangue & alteration: smectite/chlorite mixed layer mineral, epidote, carbonate,
illite, quartz, kaolinite, limonite, montmorilonite, K-feldspar, adularia.
Mineralization age: 2.4
Host rocks: andesitic breccia, tuff, lapili, andesite intercalated limestone & sandstone
(Oligocene-Early Miocene), basement shale and sandstone, host rock overlain by
sedimentary rocks of Miocene age, which consist of claystone, limestone, sandstone,
and volcanic rocks.
Gangue & alteration: quartz, calcite, dolomite, kutnohorite, carbonate,
rhodochrosite, adularia, montmorilonite, chlorite, illite/smectite, smectite, kaolinite,
K-feldspar.
Mineralization age: 2.05~2.7
pH: neutral.
Th: quartz: 180-255
sphalerite: 207-280
Salinity: sphalerite : 2.89-7.15
quartz: -
pH: neutral.
Th: quartz: 160-300
Salinity: quartz: 2.2-3.4
pH: neutral.
Th: quartz: 160-330
(170-shallow),
170-300 (220-deep)
Salinity: quartz: <1.0
pH: neutral.
Th: quartz: 170-260 (215)
Salinity: quartz: <3.0
pH: neutral.
Th: carbonate: 171-249
(20515)
quartz: 180-287 (22021)
spha : 220-320 (25829)
Salinity: carbonate: (0.50.6)
quartz: 0-5.0 (1.01.0)
pH, Th (C),
Salinity (wt% NaClequiv.)
Words in capital: Se- and or Te-bearing mineral. References: 1Basuki et al., 1994; Marcoux and Milesi, 1994; Milesi et al., 1999; Sukarna et al., 1994; Sukarna, 1999; Syafrizal et al., 2005; Syafrizal et al.,
2007; Warmada et al., 2003; Warmada et al., 2007; 2 Rosana and Matsueda, 2002; 3Angeles et al., 2002; Harijoko et al., 2004; Harijoko et al., 2007; Marcoux and Milesi, 1994; Marjoribanks, 2000; Sudana and
Santosa, 1992; 4Rosana et al., 2006; 5Milesi et al., 1993; Marcoux et al., 1993; 6Yuningsih et al., 2012; 7Widi and Matsueda, 1998.
Ore mineralogy
Cikidang 2
Se-Type
Pongkor 1
Deposit
Table 1. Summary of Mineralogic, Age and Geochemical Characteristics of the Se- and Te-Types of Western Java Ore Deposits
Epithermal Gold-Silver Deposits in Western Java, Indonesia: Gold-Silver Selenide-Telluride Mineralization
(E.T. Yuningsih et al.)
75
76
Ore mineralogy
Host rocks: andesitic tuff, tuff breccias, lava (Oligocene-Middle Miocene) overlain
unconformably by a volcanic group composed of andesitic breccias and tuff.
Gangue & alteration: quartz, calcite, sericite, illite, mixed layered illite-chlorite,
chlorite-smectite, kaolinite.
Mineralization age: 8.8~9.9
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pH: neutral.
Th: quartz: 190-240, up to 350
Salinity: quartz: 1.45-2.30,
up to 3.7.
pH: neutral.
Th: quartz: 157-327 (194-267)
sphalerite: 153-275 (194235)
calcite: 140-217 (187)
Salinity: quartz: 0.2-4.3
(1.6-2.7)
sphalerite: 0.9-3.9
(1.7-2.7)
calcite: 1.2-3.9 (2.6)
pH, Th (C),
Salinity (wt% NaClequiv.)
Words in capital: Se- and or Te-bearing mineral. References: 1Basuki et al., 1994; Marcoux and Milesi, 1994; Milesi et al., 1999; Sukarna et al., 1994; Sukarna, 1999; Syafrizal et al., 2005; Syafrizal et al.,
2007; Warmada et al., 2003; Warmada et al., 2007; 2 Rosana and Matsueda, 2002; 3Angeles et al., 2002; Harijoko et al., 2004; Harijoko et al., 2007; Marcoux and Milesi, 1994; Marjoribanks, 2000; Sudana and
Santosa, 1992; 4Rosana et al., 2006; 5Milesi et al., 1993; Marcoux et al., 1993; 6Yuningsih et al., 2012; 7Widi and Matsueda, 1998.
Cineam 7
Te-Type
Arinem 6
Deposit
Table 1. ......................continued
Se
Te
Pb**
Mn
Cd
As
Sb
Hg
Bi
Arinem Vein
IIA
IIA
IA
IB
IIA
IIB
IIC
308
32
2.85
929
1,287.3
13.2
4.5
2.52
11.6
30
na*
0.31
696
47.2
>10,000
71.2
0.88
0.4
116
156
0.03
1,161
2.9
13.6
1.2
0.23
199.5
305
57
3.66
3,407
112.1
289.9
8.0
3.81
12.7
190
53
2.35
1,161
528.7
247.8
6.4
4.4
18.3
CGH
CGH
CGH
CGH
CRG
CRG
GH
14.5
<0.1
8
25,553
<0.1
10.2
12.4
45
0.06
12.0
0.5
10
2,729
<0.1
39.2
12.6
93
0.05
<0.1
<0.1
18
963
0.1
98.3
14.7
214
0.14
8.28
2.7
2,010
1,194
3.9
62.6
71.8
158
0.11
23.6
<0.1
770
1,039
32.1
22.9
34.1
18
0.09
52.0
<0.1
502
1,738
10.7
36.6
8
53
0.09
777
0.9
9,200
11,448
107
185
39.1
95
0.14
IIC
35
119
>500
14
14
209
1.24
1.32
15.71
1,703
309
2,013
101.7
885.3 >2,000
3,134.9 1,669.8
4.4
26.0
16.3
11.9
3.32
1.59
4.5
0.2
2.4
24.7
Bantarhuni Vein
IIB
IIC
IIC
212
na
0.10
>100
19.2
<0.5
2.8
0.06
122.1
>500
na
25.27
1,084
1,964.1
<0.5
24.3
3.22
42.9
>500
na
21.78
852
1,160.2
<0.5
15.4
1.44
6.3
KC
KC
KC
KC
181
3.1
10,100
5,248
101
58.9
125
123
0.14
199
0.2
438
259
5.3
46.1
146
19
0.1
145
0.2
276
747
3.2
53.7
156
69
0.09
44.3
<0.1
37
1,421
0.5
46.3
83.8
38
0.08
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Se
Te
Pb
Mn
Cd
As
Sb
Hg***
Bi
Pongkor Deposit 1
Unit in ppm; * no analyses; ** in percent (%); *** in ppb; 1 Warmada et al. (2003).
Se-type
Pongkor:
120
Homogenization Temperature ( C)
160
200
240
280
320
Quartz
Carbonate
360
Se-type
Pongkor:
0.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Quartz
Cikidang:
Cikidang:
Quartz
Quartz
Cibaliung:
Cibaliung:
Quartz
Quartz
Cisungsang:
Cisungsang:
Siliceous breccia
Precious breccia
Calcite
Siliceous breccia
breccia
Cirotan:
Cirotan:
Quartz
Sphalerite
Quartz
Te-type
Te-type
Arinem:
Arinem:
Quartz
Calcite
Sphalerite
Quartz
Calcite
Sphalerite
Cineam:
Cineam:
Quartz vein
Quartz vein
Figure 4. Temperature and salinity ranges of the Se- and Te-type deposits estimated from homogenization and melting
temperatures of fluid inclusions.
Discussions
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Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank PT. Antam Tbk.
for support access to data and samples during the
field investigation and to acknowledge the contribution of the large member of geologic staff.
This work is funded by the Directorate General
for Higher Education (DGHE), Ministry of Education, Indonesia, and the Faculty for the Future
Program (FFTF) Schlumberger, France.
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References
Conclusions
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Carlile, J.C. and Mitchell, A.H.G., 1994. Magmatic arcs and associated gold and copper
mineralization in Indonesia. In: van Leeuwen,
T.M., Hedenquist, J.W., James, L.P., and Dow,
J.A.S. (eds.), Indonesian mineral deposits:
Discoveries of the past 25 years. Journal of
Geochemical Exploration, 50, Amsterdam,
p.91-142.
Harijoko, A., Ohbuchi, Y., Motomura, Y., Imai,
A., and Watanabe, K., 2007. Characteristic
of the Cibaliung gold deposit: Miocene lowsulfidation-type epithermal gold deposit in
western Java, Indonesia. Resource Geology,
57, p.114-123.
Harijoko, A., Sanematsu, K., Duncan, R.A., Prihatmoko, S., and Watanabe, K., 2004. Timing
of the mineralization and volcanism at Cibaliung gold deposit, western Java, Indonesia.
Resource Geology, 54, p.187-195.
Izawa, E., Urashima, Y., Ibaraki, K., Suzuki, R.,
Yokoyama, T., Kawasaki, K., Koga, A., and
Taguchi, S., 1990. The Hishikari gold deposit:
high grade gold epithermal epithermal veins
in Quaternary volcanics of southern Kyushu,
Japan. Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
36, p.1-36.
Kelly, W.C. and Goddard, E.N., 1969. Telluride
ores of Boulder County, Colorado. Memoir of
Geological Society of America, 109, 237pp.
Marcoux, E. and Milesi, J.P., 1994. Epithermal
gold deposit in West Java, Indonesia: Geology, age and crustal source. In: van Leeuwen,
T.M., Hedenquist, J.W., James, L.P., and Dow,
J.A.S. (eds.), Indonesian mineral deposits:
Discoveries of the past 25 years. Journal of
Geochemical Exploration. 50, Amsterdam,
p.393-408.
Marcoux, E., Milesi, J.P., Soeharto, S., and
Rinawan, R., 1993. Noteworthy mineralogy of
the Au-Ag-Sn-W(Bi) epithermal ore deposit
of Cirotan, West Java, Indonesia. Canadian
Mineralogist, 31, p.727-744.
Marjoribanks, R., 2000. Geology of the HonjeCibaliung Area, Indonesia - An air photo
interpretation based study. Unpublished Report, 13pp.
Matsuhisa, Y. and Aoki, M., 1994. Temperature
and oxygen isotope variations during forma-
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Abstract - The carbonate on Fika Field has a special character, because it grew above a basement high with the thickness and internal character variation. To develop the field, a proper geological model which can be used in reservoir
simulation was needed. This model has to represent the complexity of the rock type and the variety of oil types
among the clusters. Creating this model was challenging due to the heterogeneity of the Baturaja Formation (BRF):
Early Miocene reef, carbonate platform, and breccia conglomerate grew up above the basement with a variety of
thickness and quality distributions. The reservoir thickness varies between 23 - 600 ft and 3D seismic frequency
ranges from 1 - 80 Hz with 25 Hz dominant frequency. Structurally, the Fika Field has a high basement slope, which
has an impact on the flow unit layering slope. Based on production data, each area shows different characteristics and
performance: some areas have high water cut and low cumulative production. Oil properties from several clusters
also vary in wax content. The wax content can potentially build up a deposit inside tubing and flow-line, resulted
in a possible disturbance to the operation. Five well cores were analyzed, including thin section and XRD. Seven
check-shot data and 3D seismic Pre-Stack Time Migration (PSTM) were available with limited seismic resolution.
A seismic analysis was done after well seismic tie was completed. This analysis included paleogeography, depth
structure map, and distribution of reservoir and basement. Core and log data generated facies carbonate distribution
and rock typing, defining properties for log analysis and permeability prediction for each zone. An Sw prediction for
each well was created by J-function analysis. This elaborates capillary pressure from core data, so it is very similar to
the real conditions. Different stages of the initial model were done i.e. scale-up properties, data analysis, variogram
modeling, and then the properties were distributed using the geostatistic method. Finally, after G&G collaborated
with petrophysicists and reservoir engineers to complete their integrated analysis, a geological model was finally
created. After that, material balance was needed to confirm reserve calculations. The result of OOIP (Original Oil in
Place) and OGIP (Original Gas in Place) were confirmed, because it was similar to the production data and reservoir
pressure. The model was then ready to be used in reservoir simulation.
Keywords: reservoir modeling, carbonate, rock and oil types, simulation, Fika Field
Introduction
IJOG/JGI (Jurnal Geologi Indonesia) - Acredited by LIPI No. 547/AU2/P2MI-LIPI/06/2013, valid 21 June 2013 - 21 June 2016
83
Petrophysical Evaluation
1. Review available Special Core Analysis
(SCAL) data to determine of a, m, n.
Facies carbonate assignment after core
depth matching and core description.
Net Overburden (NOB) core correction for
porosity and permeability and Klinkenberg correction for permeability.
Defining matrix end-point value from
crossplot: RHOB vs core porosity, DT vs.
core porosity, NPHI vs. core porosity.
Defining a and m from the best straight line
plot log F (Formation Resistivity Factor)
vs. log porosity on every facies (rocktyping result).
Defining n from the slope of the line plot
log Sw vs. log RI (Ro/Rt).
2. Analyzing log using zonation based on geological correlation.
Estimating Rw value for Baturaja reservoir in Fika field.
Calculating Vcl (mudstone) using SP log
and Density- Neutron log after confirmation with XRD data correlation.
Calculating porosity effective and Sw using Simanduox and Indonesia. The final
selection for Sw values will be based on
transition zone analysis (TZA).
Crossplot between log porosity (effective
and total) vs. core porosity (NOB correction).
3. Lithofacies based on core description and
rocktyping determination.
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Geological Setting
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Fika-1
0.605
Fika-2
0.698
Fika-3
0.781
Fika-4
0.281
Fika-5
0.447
Fika-6
0.463
Fika-7
0.845
Petrophysical Evaluation
This step begins with an analysis of core
data measurement after core depth matching. It
is important to make a reliable definition of the
position of the carbonate facies development
with depositional setting and match with the
subsurface condition. Thereafter, routine core
85
10000
Fika-07
Perm at NOB
1000
Fika-06
Fika-01
Fika-02
Fika-03
300
600
1.0288
10
1
0.1
0.01
Fika-05
Fika-04
y = 0.5159x
100
900
1200
1500 m
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
Perm at Ambient
1000
10000
Fika-07
Fika-06
Fika-01
Fika-02
300
600
900
1200
0.8
1500 m
0.6
0.4
Trendline
-1
Porosity at NOB
40
35
y = 0.9801x
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
20
Porosity at Ambient
30
86
40
Log kair
Klinkenberg effect on permeability is estimated from available liquid permeability data and
given trend from text book (Figure 6).
Based on geological setting, the carbonate
facies which developed from the top of Baturaja
to basement are reef, platform, and breccia/
conglomerate clastics. A previous study on the
1.0288
0.2
IJ
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Correction Factor
Klinkenberg Effect
Fika-05
Fika-04
Fika-03
Conglomerate/breccia
Mudstone
Limestone
Massive to
Volcanic
Mottled
microcrystalline Mudstone conglomerate
wackstone
wackstone
Volcanic
breccia
LF-2
LF-3
LF-4
IJ
O
LF-1
Vuggy to mottled LS
Bedded to lamited LS
Massive to
microcrystalline LS
LF-6
LF-5
LF-7
Mudstone
Rubble bed
(Breccia/conglomerate)
Number of Percentage
Data Points
Reef
Vuggy Coral/Grainstone
Mottled Wackstone
34
36
11%
12%
Platform
Vuggy Wackstone/Packstone
31
10%
109
36%
60
20%
31
10%
301
100%
Breccia/Conglomerate
2850
Depth TVDss
Depositional
Facies
2800
2900
Rock Type
Reef Vuggy
Reef non Vuggy
Platform Vuggy
Platform Non Vuggy
Breccia Limestone
Breccia Clastic
2950
3000
3050
3100
3150
87
Legend:
Well-B
MDI-TVD
Grain size
3215/-2885.5
Well-D
Grain size
Well-6-2
Grain size
MDI-TVD
MDI-TVD
3285/-2946.63
Well-C
MDI-TVD
Grain size
3266/-2958
10 ft
Well-E
MDI-TVD
Grain size
3244/-2936.55
3355/-3029.5 Basement
3467/-3133.63 Basement
3297/-2996 Basement
3238/-2980.55 Basement
3320/-3011 Basement
Figure 10. Relationship between lithofacies and subsea elevation on Fika Field.
Description
IJ
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88
Vuggy Wackstone/Packstone
Mottled Wackstone
Vuggy Coral/Grainstone
Description
Lithofaces
included
Reef
0, 5 and 6
Platform
0, 3 and 4
Breccia/Conglomerate
0, 1 and 2
obtain the special log character of each lithofacies, it could be done using crossplots between
RHOB - NPHI, RHOB - DT, RHOB - PHIT,
RHOB - SP, RHOB - PHIE, and RHOB - GR.
Consequently, the lithofacies needed to be simplified in order to distribute on uncored (electrofacies) wells, as shown below (Table 5).
Low energy limestone represents mud dominated on rock matrix, while high energy carbonate
represents grain dominated on rock matrix. The
Lithofaces
Description
included
Non reservoir
Breccia/Conglomerate
0, 1 and 2
Low energy LS
0, 3
High energy LS
0, 5
Vuggy LS
0, 4, 6
IJ
O
0.1
10
y = 1.0768x
-1.795
Porosity, v/v
RT 1
100
Formation Factor
Formation Factor
y = 1.0995x
0.1
RT 2
Formation Factor
0.1
-1.761
Porosity, v/v
Power (RT1)
100
10
Power (RT2)
100
10
y = 0.702x
-2.16
Porosity, v/v
RT 3
Power (RT3)
Figure 11. Formation Factor vs. Porosity to obtain Cementation Factor (m).
89
1.5
1.5
1.4
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0
1.4
1.2
y = -1.9357x
1.2
y = -1.905x
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
Linier (RT1)
RT 1
-0.1
0
0
Linier (RT1)
1.5
1.4
y = -1.9588x
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Linier (RT3)
Figure 12. Formation Resistivity Index vs Brine Saturation to obtain Saturation Exponent (n).
It should be noted that this definition of porosity difference ratio does not align with the results
from this study, since theoretically speaking,
sonic porosity should be lower than densityneutron porosity for interval with vugs. However,
log analysis results indicated sonic porosity to
be higher than density-neutron porosity for most
intervals.
Even with the incorrect definition, the results
in the above chart do not indicate any correlation
for defining criteria to identify vuggy intervals. It
should be noted that Vsh values initialy calculated
for this study were based on minimum values
among several methods available in the Petrolog
software. The study team revised this concept
in view of the questionable applicability of GR
logs in carbonate reservoirs. Accordingly, only
density-neutron logs were used to define Vsh.
The core data do not include platform with
vugs. Accordingly, the study team decided not to
include this rock type in the current model. This
decision was further supported by the geologic
concept of low probability for finding vugs in
platform carbonate intervals overlain by reef
carbonate.
The fact that vuggy intervals that cannot be
recognized from well logs is supported by visual
investigation of available core material. Figure
15 shows that vugs were scattered within thin
IJ
O
Rock Type
1
2
3
n
1.905
1.936
1.959
RT1
RT2
RT3
2.68
2.7
2.71
1.1
1.2
1.1
0.07
0.83
0.94
1.1
50
52
53
225
198
210
R = sonic - D-N
D-N
Where:
sonic = sonic porosity
D-N = average porosity from density and
neutron logs
90
1000
0.100
0.010
0.2
20
200
2000
VCL (v/v)
1
0.5
0
IJ
O
1.5
-0.5
-1
Rock Type
Meteoric diagenesis
5mm
0
Leaching is more intense in exposed marine
limestone on topographic highs
intervals that cannot be read and cannot affect log response. Investigation of side wall core
samples from well Fika I1(1) as well as thin
section analysis of these samples indicate the
91
Porosity Plot
Porosity Plot
40
40
35
35
30
30
25
Trend
A1
F2
E1
C1
20
15
PHIE
PHIE
25
15
10
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Trend
A1
F2
E1
C1
20
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 16. Comparation between plot between log porosity (total and effective) vs. core porosity (NOB).
1
0
IJ
O
log k
-1
y = 14.543x - 2.1684
-3
0.05
vuggy
0.1
grain supported
0.15
0.2
Porosity
0.25
0.35
0.4
y = 16.167x - 1.9623
log k
0.3
-2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.05
0.1
mud supported
vuggy
0.15
0.2
Porosity
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
4.0
3.0
log k
2.0
1.0
y = 14.148x - 1.9209
R2 = 0.8757
Swc
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Porosity
Clastics
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Linear (Clastics)
Swc Transform
0.5
from Relative Permeability from Pc
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
4
3
2
0.1 y = -0.0007x + 0.0068x - 0.0178x - 0.052x + 0.3618
0.05
0
-1
3
1
2
0
Log (k)
Figure 17. Permeability transform for high energy limestone (a), low energy limestone and vuggy limestone (b),
and breccia clastics (c).
92
k/por<100
100 <k/por<1200
k/por> 1200
1.6
1.4
J eld
1.2
Log (J+1)
low k/por
medium k/por
high k/por
J lab
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Lab J-function
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.3
1.4
low k/por
med k/por
1.2
1
0.6
0.7
0.8
J eld
0.4
0.8
J lab
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.2
0.6
0.8
high k/por
0.6
0.8
Log (J+1)
Log (J+1)
0.5
SW*
1.6
SW*
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
SW*
Log (J+1)
0.6
J eld
0.5
J lab
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
IJ
O
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
SW*
Figure 20. Curve shape for Lab J-function for range 3 (a),
range 2 (b), and range 1(c).
IJ
O
3200
3250
Soka-G1
3200
0.28
0.24
0.2
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
3000
00
Soka-F4
27
Soka-G2
3000
Soka-F4
Soka-F5
Soka-F2
21
50
250
Soka-D10
Soka-I2
25
00
Soka-D7
Soka-D4
Soka-A3
Soka-A1 (3)
Soka-B
Soka-B1
Soka-B/1(2)
Soka-H3
Soka-B6
Soka-B3
94
Soka-D2ST
Soka-H4
Soka-H1
Soka-D1 Soka-D5
Soka-D
Soka-E2
0
275
Soka-D3
Soka-D9
Soka-C4
Soka-C2
Soka-H1
Soka-E1(2)
50
Soka-B2
Soka-B5
Soka-H1
32
Soka-H2
Soka-A2
Soka-F1
Soka-D6
250
500
750 m
3200
3250
Soka-G1
3200
180
32
56
1
0.10
0.032
0.0056
0.001
0.00010
3000
Soka-F4
27
Soka-G2
3000
Soka-F4
Soka-F5
00
Soka-F2
21
50
250
Soka-D10
Soka-I2
25
00
Soka-D7
Soka-D4
Soka-A3
Soka-B5
Soka-B Soka-B/1(2)
Soka-B1
Soka-D2ST
Soka-H4
Soka-H3
Soka-B6
Soka-D
Soka-E2
0
275
Soka-D3
Soka-D9 Soka-E1(2)
Soka-C4
Soka-C2
Soka-B3
Soka-H1
50
Soka-B2
Soka-H1
Soka-D1 Soka-D5
32
Soka-A2
Soka-A1 (3)
Soka-H1
Soka-H2
Soka-F1
Soka-D6
250
500
750 m
Fika-I1(1)
Fika-A1 (3)
-2400
Subur-1
Fika-F-4
IJ
O
-3200
-3200
-2600
Fika-D1
-2600
-2400
-3600
-3600
FAC
Non Reservoar
Breccia
Low energy Lst
High Energy Lst
Vuggy Lst
Figure 23. Vertical cross section that shosw facies modeling distribution.
= N+C
Y1
Conclusions
1600
1550
Pressure, psig
1500
1450
1400
1350
1300
1250
1200
Jan-00
Jun-01
Dec-04
May-07
Nov-09
Apr-12
Date
Wtihdrawal/Y1, MMSTB
IJ
O
(p.Qd)/Y1, M.psi
h. ft
95
k.mD
106
w. cP
0.24
. fraction
0.18
cw, 1/psi
3.26E-06
cf, 1/psi
5.72E-06
Bw. RB/STB
re. ft
. degree
35.000
180
Based on the distribution of reservoir properties, i.e. porosity and water saturation, the
value of OOIP was about 25.3 MMSTB, while
the value of OGIP was about 131.7 BCF.
Because the hydrocarbon in-place has been
already confirmed, this static model could be
used in reservoir simulation (initialization and
history matching).
96
Acknowledgements
References
IJ
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97
IJ
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Abstract - Rising sea levels since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), some ~20,000 years ago, has drowned the
Sunda Shelf and generated the complex coastal morphology as seen today. The pattern of drowning of the shelf will be
utilized to assess likely timing of shoreline displacements and the duration of shelf exposure during the postglacial sea
level rise. From existing sea level records around Sunda Shelf region, sea level curve was assembled to reconstruct
the shelf drowning events. A five stage drowning model is proposed, including 1) maximum exposure of the shelf at
approximately 20,500 years Before Present (y.B.P.), when sea level had fallen to about -118 m below present sea level
(bpl.), 2) melt water pulse (MWP) 1A at ~14,000 y.B.P. when sea level rose to about -80 m bpl., 3) melt water pulse
(MWP) 1B at ~11,500 y.B.P., when sea level was predicted around -50 m bpl., 4) Early-Holocene at ~9,700 y.B.P,
when sea level was predicted at about-30 m bpl, and 5) sea level high stand at ~4,000 y.B.P., when sea level jumped
to approx. +5 m above present sea level (apl.). This study shows that the sea level fluctuated by more than 120 m at
various times during LGM and Holocene. Also confirmed that sea level curve of Sunda Shelf seems to fit well when
combined with sea level curve from Barbados, although the comparison remains controversial until now due to the
considerable distinction of tectonic and hydro-isostatic settings.
Keywords: Last Glacial Maximum, sea-level changes, transgression, drowning shelf
Introduction
IJOG/JGI (Jurnal Geologi Indonesia) - Acredited by LIPI No. 547/AU2/P2MI-LIPI/06/2013, valid 21 June 2013 - 21 June 2016
99
Thailand
2500 m
0m
-2500 m
Sunda Shelf
-5000 m
-7250 m
Kalimantan
Su
m
at
ra
500
1000
Kilometre
elf
Sh
ul
Sah
Figure 1. A map shows the Sunda Shelf region derived from 30 arc-seconds resolution bathymetric grid sourced from GEBCO. (after Molengraaff and Weber, 1921; Dickerson, 1941).
IJ
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Table 1. Sea Level Observations from some Localities presenting LGM - Holocene Sea-level Records
Localities
Barbados
Proxies
Coral, mostly
A. Palmata
Time scale
Dating
LGM - midHolocene
14
C and U-series
References
Fairbanks (1989),
Peltier and Fairbanks (2006)
Tahiti
Fossil coral
MWP-IA mid-Holocene
14
Huon
Peninsula,
PNG
Coral (Porites,
Acropora,
Montipora,
etc.)
Chappell and
Polach (1991)
Bonaparte
Gulf, NW
Australia
Sediment core,
marine shell,
fauna
Yokoyama et al.
(2001)
Scott
Reef, NW
Australia
Coral
Holocene
U-series
Collins et al.
(2011)
100
C and U-series
where available
Tectonic
setting
A Drowning Sunda Shelf model during Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and Holocene: A Review (T. Solihuddin)
IJ
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-20
Holocene
highstand
-40
-60
-80
Transgression
LGM lowstand
-100
-120
-140
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
101
Maps
The maps presented in this paper show a
summary of the gradual Sunda Shelf drowning
model which represents the predicted shorelines
and shelf exposures during LGM and Holocene.
Starting from -118 m depth contour, the drowning
model was gradually established on a vertical elevation of -80 m, -50 m, -30 m, +5m, and present
sea-level which every depth contour corresponds
to 14C calibrated years Before Present age. For
example, the current -118 m depth contour was
predicted as a shoreline at approx. 20,500 y.
B.P., while the current -50 m depth contour was
attributed to 11,500 y. B.P., etc. Topographic and
bathymetric contours are indicated by the change
in colour scheme as shown in the legend; however, the grey colour is also applied to the DEM
representing the exposed shelf. In addition, the
flowage of paleo-river of Sunda Shelf during
LGM is also presented with refers to the map
of paleo-river (Voris, 2000; Sathiamurthy and
Voris, 2006).
IJ
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Results
102
A Drowning Sunda Shelf model during Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and Holocene: A Review (T. Solihuddin)
3000 m
3000 m
2500 m
2500 m
0m
0m
-2500 m
-2500 m
-5000 m
-5000 m
-7250 m
-7250 m
250 km
500 km
750 km
1250 km
0 km
250 km
500 km
3000 m
2500 m
2500 m
0m
IJ
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0m
-2500 m
-2500 m
-5000 m
-5000 m
-7250 m
-7250 m
250 km
500 km
750 km
1250 km
0 km
250 km
500 km
750 km
1250 km
250 km
500 km
750 km
1250 km
3000 m
3000 m
2500 m
2500 m
0m
0m
-2500 m
-2500 m
-5000 m
-5000 m
-7250 m
0 km
1250 km
3000 m
0 km
750 km
0 km
-7250 m
250 km
500 km
750 km
1250 km
0 km
Figure 3. Shelf and sea level exposures at various ages. a). 20,500 y BP, sea level of - 118 m bpl. b). 14,000 y BP (MWP
1A), sea level of - 80 m bpl. c). 11,500 y BP (MWP 1B), sea level - 50 m bpl. d). 9,700 y BP, sea level of - 30 m bpl-predicted. e). 4,000 y BP, sea level +5 m apl. f). Present day sea level. Map derived from 30 arc-seconds resolution bathymetric
grid sourced from GEBCO.
103
Chao
Mekong
Ma
r
ve
Ri
da
N.
Su
n
er
sia
v
Ri
lay
it
tra
aS
cc
ala
Sunda Shelf
m
Su
Kalimantan
ra
at
N
0
250
500
Jawa
Kilometre
E. Sunda River
Hence, it is necessary to consider those mentioned factors when combining the data into a
single dataset and generating sea level curve on
these data. Also, when comparing these sea-level
records to Sunda Shelf data, those factors should
be taken into account to avoid bias in analysis
and interpretation.
Fairbanks (1989) and Peltier and Fairbanks
(2006) reported an important source of information for relative sea-level changes in Barbados
during the late stages of the LGM and the lateGlacial period. Using coral cores as a proxy and
AMS radiocarbon calibrated by Thermal Ionisation Mass Spectrometry (TIMS) dating methods,
the local relative sea level in Barbados stood
between -125 m bpl. at 21,000 y. B.P. and -15
m bpl. at 7,000 y. B.P. (Figure 5). The uplift rate
was 0.34 mm/year due to local tectonic setting.
Meanwhile, the relative sea-level change data
in Tahiti is from Bard et al., (1996) with supporting information on coral species given by
Montaggioni and Gerrard (1997). Using coral as
a proxy, radiocarbon dating yielded time scale
between MWP-1A and Mid-Holocene (Figure
5). Tahiti experienced slow tectonic subsidence
(0.15 mm/year) and was also characterized as a
far-field location.
The local relative sea-level changes were also
investigated from a rapidly uplifting area such as
Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. The records
were obtained from a raised Holocene reef drill
core collected by Chappell and Pollach (1991).
AMS radiocarbon dating was applied to the
samples and uranium series (U-series) ages were
subsequently obtained from the same samples by
Edward et al. (1993), providing sea-level indicators from post-Glacial to Mid-Holocene (Figure
5). The uplift rate was reported 1.76 0.05 mm/
year in the last-Interglacial (LIG) and 2.16 0.44
mm/year in the Mid-Holocene. This region was
also considered as a far-field location.
Moreover, Yokoyama et al. (2001) discussed
the relative sea-level estimation from the NW
Australia Shelf. The information was obtained
from the sediment cores of Bonaparte Gulf which
were dated by AMS radiocarbon dating, providing
sea-level indicators corresponding to a late stage
of LGM (Figure 5). The region of NW Australia
was assumed to be relatively tectonically stable
IJ
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104
A Drowning Sunda Shelf model during Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and Holocene: A Review (T. Solihuddin)
20
10
15
20
25
35
14
-20
-40
14
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
IJ
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-160
14
Figure 5. Sea-level curve estimations from some localities presenting LGM - Holocene records.
Conclusions
IJ
O
The Sunda Shelf provides suitable environments for sea level studies and has provided one
of the best examples of sea-level at the time of
the LGM. In particular, the continent is relatively
tectonically stable and lies far away from the former ice sheets, thus the effects of hydro-isostatic
adjustment are less and eustatic changes should
be well reflected in the data. The model reveals
that the drowning Sunda Shelf was initiated at
~20,500 y. B.P., when sea level had fallen to
about -118 m bpl. During sea-level transgression,
the Sunda Shelf experienced rapid sea-level rise,
inundating the shelf exposures until reaching
sea-level highstand at ~6,000 - 4,000 y. B.P.,
before finally returning to the present sea level
at approx. 1,000 y. B.P. LGM and Holocene sea
level changes are principally forced by the climate
change; with sea level fluctuating by more than
120 m at various times. The trigger for these
climate and sea level variations is believed to
relate to cyclic changes in the earths orbit and
solar radiation (the Milankovitch cycles) and the
insolation of the worlds atmosphere and oceans.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Moataz Kordi,
fellow PhD students at Curtin University, who
106
A Drowning Sunda Shelf model during Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and Holocene: A Review (T. Solihuddin)
IJ
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107
IJ
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Abstract - Fifteen samples were taken ply by ply from a 33 m thick drill core of Muara Wahau coal seams for interpretation of depositional environments. Generally, lithotype variation in the bottom part of the coal seams has a
lower frequency than in the upper part. Petrographical analysis was performed to determine the maceral composition,
groundwater index (GWI), and gelification index (GI). The samples from lower sections show much higher GWI-GI
values and lower variation frequency than from the upper section. This characteristic is interpreted as the result of
development of mesotrophic to ombrotrophic peats during the deposition of lower to upper parts of the section, respectively. During the development of the mesotrophic peat, water was more abundant and relatively stable in budget.
However, during the development of ombrotrophic peat, water was less abundant and relatively not stable in budget.
The latter is related to the water supply depending only on rain, resulted in the more sensitive water table in the ombrotrophic peat. The unstable water table is thought as the reason of higher variation frequency of lithotype, GWI,
GI, as well as maceral composition in the upper part of the core. Unstable water table would lead to moist condition
in the uppermost layer of the ombrotrophic peat, favoring fungi to grow. This is confirmed by the higher abundance
of sclerotinite maceral in samples from the upper part of the coal core.
Keywords: coal seam facies, Muara Wahau, Kutai Basin
Introduction
supply and deposited-organic matter preservation. Peat water may originate from groundwater,
rain water, and intrusion of sea water. The peat
water table is fluctuative and sensitive to season
or climate changes. The hydrological condition
in peats determined the vegetation and peat type
accumulated in a basin.
In the present case, the Muara Wahau coals
are interesting to investigate. The thick coal
seams can provide more detailed indications of
chemical and physical changes during peatification. With respect to hydrological condition,
the succession of early development of Muara
Wahau coals will be reconstructed and discussed
in detail. Petrographical analysis was carried out
to characterize the maceral composition of the
Muara Wahau coals.
IJOG/JGI (Jurnal Geologi Indonesia) - Acredited by LIPI No. 547/AU2/P2MI-LIPI/06/2013, valid 21 June 2013 - 21 June 2016
109
Methods
The study was commenced by collecting representative samples from the coal field. Drilling
programme, which was conducted, penetrated
Seam 1 and Seam 2 in the coal field (Figure 4).
The selected coal samples were then taken directly ply-by-ply/ply sampling (Thomas, 2002)
from Seam 1 core. The samples were separated
based on the lithotype observed along the core,
then they were crushed and split for further laboratory analysis.
For maceral composition, fifteen samples
were investigated using Zeiss Axio Imager A2m
polarized microscope in the Laboratory of Earth
Resources Exploration, Faculty of Mining and
Petroleum Engineering, ITB. During the maceral
analysis, five hundred points with a minimum
distance of 0.2 mm between each point were
counted from the polished sections. The maceral
composition is stated as percent (%-volume).
le
Te
IJ
O
Geological Settings
au
ve
Ri
Sepinang
ive
nR
ah
W
Muara Wahau
Sangkulirang
KALIMANTAN
Tanah Merah
Tanjung Bengalun
Sangkinah
Muara Kaman
Tenggarong
SAMARINDA
ak
Adara
Pulung
Muara Payang
East Kalimantan
Penajam
100
Kilometres
116o E
110
1o S
Belimbing
Longikis
115 E
BALIKPAPAN
Studied Area
o
0o
tra
it
ass
ar
S
Adara
1 N
Tanah Grogot
117 E
o
118 E
o
QUATERNARY
SURFACE
DEPOSITS
AGE
VOLCANIC
ROCK
INTRUSION
PERIOD
Depositional Cycles of Muara Wahau Coals, Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan (K. Anggayana et al.)
FORMATION
DESCRIPTION
Alluvium: pebble, cobble, sand, mud
and plant remain
HOLOCENE
PLEISTOCENE
Metulang Vulcanic: andesite, basalt,
lava, tuff, aglomerat breccia and
laharic
PLIOCENE
MIDDLE
OLIGOCENE
LATE
EARLY
PALEOCENE
EARLY
EOCENE
TERTIARY
MIOCENE
LATE
116 42'E
116 44'E
116 46'E
116 48'E
116 50'E
1 16'N
1 16'N
IJ
O
Figure. 2. Regional stratigraphy of Upper Kutai Basin (Supriatna and Abidin, 1995).
N
1
Km
Co
al
al
Co
1 12'N
am
Se
am
Se
PMB-01-08
1 12'N
GT-03
1 14'N
1 14'N
GT-02
1o10'N
1o10'N
116 42'E
o
116 44'E
o
116 46'E
LEGEND :
Wahau Fm
116 48'E
''
1 8'N
1 8'N
Tomw
Anticline, Syncline
Lineament
River
A
0
100
m
Coal Seam 1
Coal Seam 2
116 50'E
o
Sample location
Coal Cropline Seam A
Coal Cropline Seam B
B
0
100
m
Figure 3. Geological map and cropline of Muara Wahau coals (modified from Supriatna and Abidin, 1995).
111
Natural Gamma
Ray
CPS
34
Depth
1m:100m
Coal
Thickness (m)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
14.00
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
Seam -1
31.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
35.0
33.30 m
36.0
37.0
38.0
39.0
40.0
41.0
42.0
43.0
44.0
45.0
46.0
47.0
47.30
48.0
50.0
51.0
52.0
53.0
54.0
55.0
56.0
57.0
58.0
59.0
60.0
61.0
62.0
63.0
64.0
65.0
66.0
67.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
GWI =
Humocollinite + Minerals
Humocollinite + Humodetrinite
IJ
O
77.0
49.0
78.0
79.0
80.0
81.0
82.0
83.0
84.0
85.0
86.0
87.0
88.0
89.0
90.0
91.0
92.0
93.0
94.0
95.0
96.0
97.0
98.0
99.0
100.0
101.0
102.0
103.0
104.0
105.0
106.0
107.0
108.0
109.0
110.0
111.0
112.0
113.0
114.0
115.0
116.0
The second indicator used in this study is gelification index (GI) based on Diessel (1986). GI is
a tool to contrast gelified macerals to nongelified
ones as the indicator of peat wetness. When the
peat is flooded by water, vitrinite and geloinertinite tend to form. On the other hand, when the
water table is lower and the peat surface becomes
dryer or moist, teloinertinite and detroinertinite
will form in the peat surface due to oxidation
(Lamberson et al., 1991)
117.0
118.0
119.0
120.0
Seam-2
121.0
122.0
123.0
124.0
125.0
15.90 m
GWI =
Huminite + Macrinite
...(2)
Fusinite + Semifusinite + Sclerotinite + Inertedotrinite
126.0
129.0
129.60
130.0
131.0
132.0
133.0
134.0
135.0
136.0
137.0
138.0
139.0
140.0
141.0
142.0
143.0
144.0
145.0
146.0
147.0
148.0
149.0
150.0
151.0
152.0
153.0
154.0
155.0
156.0
157.0
158.0
159.0
160.0
112
127.0
128.0
Depositional Cycles of Muara Wahau Coals, Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan (K. Anggayana et al.)
IJ
O
Coal Lithotype
Lithotype classification used in this study is
based on Stopes (1919) and Diessel (1965). Coal
from the Seam 1 of the Muara Wahau Formation
could be classified into three lithotypes, those are
banded coal (clarain), dull banded coal (clarain),
and dull coal (durain). Coal lithotype profile shows
cycle changes in the vertical section as presented
in Figure 5. Lithotype variation may indicate
changes of vegetation type composing coals
(Bustin et al., 1983) or changes in sedimentary
facies, especially related to water table conditions
during peat depositional process. Facies changes
in both vertical and lateral trends could control the
variation of maceral composition.
Coal Petrology
Microscopic analysis shows that huminite
reflectance of the Muara Wahau coals is 0.44
% on the average, suggesting brown coal
maceral nomenclature based on ICCP System
1994. The coals predominantly consist of
huminite macerals, with minor liptinite and
inertinite (Figure 6). Huminite maceral of the
coals comprises humotelinite, humodetrinite,
densinite, and humocollinite. Liptinite maceral
consists of cutinite, resinite, suberinite, and
sporinite. Inertinite maceral is dominated by
fusinite, semifusinite, and sclerotinite.
Humotelinite (Figure 6a) is mostly found as
thick layers in association with humodetrinite
and cutinite, grey to dark in colour, sometimes
forming lighter layers. This maceral may
originate from the lignin of high plants.
0m
10 m
Sample Number
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
20 m
3
2
Legend:
Dull Coal
Dull Banded Coal
30 m
Banded Coal
GT-02, Seam-1
Figure 5. Coal lithotype profile of seam 1 from Drillhole
GT-02.
113
100 mikron
100 mikron
Suberinite
Humocollinite
Cutinite
Humodetrinite
Sclerotinite
Sporinite
Humotellinite
a
0
100 mikron
Resinite
d
0
100 mikron
Sclerotinite
Cutinite
Sporinite
Humodetrinite
b
0
Fusinite
100 mikron
Humodetrinite
Resinite
100 mikron
Pyrite
Sclerotinite
IJ
O
Humocollinite
Sclerotinite
Humodetrinite
Humocollinite
Figure 6. Photomicrographs of macerals in the Muara Wahau coals (Seam 1). a. Sclerotinite associated with huminite; b.
Sclerotinite and fusinite associated with humodetrinite; c. Humodetrinite in association with round bodies of sclerotinite
and humocollinite; d. Suberinite, sporinite, resinite, and cutinite as individual bodies with distinct cell walls; e. Sporinite,
resinite, and cutinite as individual bodies with distinct cell walls; f. Huminite macerals in association with round bodies of
sclerotinite and pyrite mineral. a, b, c, and f in reflected light mode, while d and e in fluorescence mode.
114
at 47% and 18%, respectively. Generally, humodetrinite abundance exhibits a decrease in depth,
the opposite condition with that of humocollinite.
In segment 1 (sample 1 - 4), the variation is low,
while in segment 2 (sample 5 - 15) the variation
is higher. The higher variation of humodetrinite
- humocollinite in segment 2 may reflect that the
groundwater in the ancient peat fluctuated more
intensively.
Figure 7b indicates that the abundance of
liptinite macerals generally decrease in depth.
Sporinite and cutinite only appear in some of segment 2 samples. Resinite is consistently present in
all samples, averaging 1.3%. Alginite is present
only in some samples of segment 2. Suberinite
appears in sample 3 - 15 with varying amounts.
Depositional Cycles of Muara Wahau Coals, Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan (K. Anggayana et al.)
HUMINITE
Humotelinite
Telocollinite
Humodetrinite
10
11
12
13
14
15
81.4
78.6
82.6
86.6
88.0
80.4
73.4
87.8
83.2
75.0
77.4
86.0
81.4
86.8
12.6
11.0
10.6
10.0
10.6
12.2
8.6
5.0
12.6
10.0
2.8
6.0
8.6
7.4
7.6
12.6
11.0
10.6
10.0
10.6
12.2
8.6
5.0
12.6
10.0
2.8
6.0
8.6
7.4
7.6
52.2
45.0
51.8
49.0
39.4
52.4
53.4
57.6
48.4
56.2
67.4
64.4
63.6
61.2
64.2
Attrinite
8.6
6.0
6.6
7.6
5.2
8.4
8.8
9.2
6.6
11.4
5.0
3.4
8.8
7.2
13.8
Densinite
43.6
39.0
45.2
41.4
34.2
44.0
44.6
48.4
41.8
44.8
62.4
61.0
54.8
54.0
50.4
18.8
25.4
16.2
23.6
36.6
23.4
18.4
10.8
26.8
17.0
4.8
7.0
13.8
12.8
15.0
18.8
25.4
16.2
23.6
36.6
23.4
18.4
10.8
26.8
17.0
4.8
7.0
13.8
12.8
15.0
0.8
0.6
2.0
3.2
1.0
1.6
1.6
4.8
1.8
4.0
6.8
5.6
3.0
2.4
1.4
Sporinite
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.2
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.2
Cutinite
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.4
1.0
Resinite
0.8
0.6
0.6
1.2
0.8
1.0
0.6
2.4
0.6
2.4
3.4
1.4
1.4
1.6
0.4
Alginite
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
Suberinite
0.0
0.0
1.4
2.0
0.0
0.6
0.8
1.6
1.0
0.6
2.8
2.4
1.4
0.6
0.4
Humocollinite
Corpogelinite
INERTINITE
0.2
LIPTINITE
8.8
12.0
15.0
7.6
6.4
5.8
13.6
18.4
6.4
9.6
11.8
13.6
8.6
12.0
9.4
Fusinite
0.4
0.2
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
1.2
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.6
1.4
0.6
0.0
Semifusinite
0.8
1.8
3.0
2.8
0.8
0.2
2.8
2.6
0.2
1.4
1.6
1.6
0.4
1.2
2.0
Sclerotinite
5.8
7.6
7.4
3.4
3.8
4.8
5.6
9.8
5.6
6.0
7.2
8.8
5.8
7.6
5.2
Inertodetrinite
1.8
2.4
3.4
0.6
1.4
0.8
4.0
4.8
0.2
1.6
2.4
2.6
1.0
2.6
2.2
Macrinite
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.8
6.0
4.4
6.6
6.0
4.6
4.4
3.4
4.0
3.2
6.4
3.4
2.4
4.2
2.4
4.6
2.0
0.0
0.0
1.6
3.6
1.2
MINERAL MATTER
Oxide
1.8
0.4
2.0
0.6
1.6
1.8
IJ
O
Pyrite
0.6
Clay
1.0
1.2
0.6
2.8
2.4
0.6
1.6
4.4
5.6
2.4
0.4
2.0
1.6
1.8
1.0
1.2
0.6
2.8
2.4
0.6
1.6
1.2
TOTAL (%)
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
0.45
0.46
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.43
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.44
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.44
116
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
8,8
12,6
11,0
10,6
10,0
10,6
12,2
10
6,0
6,6
7,6
5,2
8,6
8,4
6,6
9,2
12,6
8,6
5,0
8,8
11,4
3,4
7,2
13,8
10,0
2,8 5,0
6,0
8,6
7,4
7,6
40
50
60
18,4
70
25,4
16,2
23,6
10,8
18,8
23,4
23,4
26,8
17,0
4,8
80
13,8
2,0
1,6
2,8
0.8 %
0.6 %
2.0 %
3.2 %
2.4 %
3.0 %
5.6 %
6.8 %
4.0 %
1.8 %
4.8 %
1.6 %
1.6 %
1.0 %
1.4 %
0,6
2,4
= Resinite
7,4
2,4
0,2
= Alginite
0,8
0,6
0,6
1,2
0,6
0,8
1,0
2,4
3,4
1,4
1,4
= Sporinite
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
0,4
1,0
0,6
= Cutinite
50
40
30
0,8
1,0
0,2 0,6
0,8
0,2 0,6
0,6
1,4
1,6
= Desmocollinite
100
28
27
0,6
0,2 0,4
26 0,2
25
24
23
22
21
20
0,2
0,2
= Corpogelinite
90
83.6 %
81.4 %
78.6 %
82.6 %
20
19
18
17
16
15
= Suberinite
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
14
13
15
Sample No.
50
40
30
20
0,6
0,4
0,6
0,6
1,4
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
1,4
1,8
0,8
1,2
0,8
1,2
1,2
0,4
1,8
1,2
1,6
2,0
23 0,6 0,1
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
2,8
3,0
4,8
2,8
2,6
3,0
5,6
5,8
5,8
5,2
3,4
1,4
0,8
6,0
1,2
7,6
0,1
5,6
8,8
0,6
7,4
1,0
1,6
9,8
2,2
10
2,4
2,4
2,6
4,0
12
2,6
3,4
14
4,8
= Sclerotinite
= Inertodetinite
16
= Macrinite
= Semifusinite
1,8
= Fusinite
7,6
IJ
O
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
77.4 %
75.0 %
83.2 %
87.8 %
73.4 %
80.4 %
88.0 %
86.6 %
86.0 %
14
13
15
81.4 %
86.8 %
14
13
= Telocollinite
30
43,6
44,8
7,0
12,8
15,0
Deepness (meter)
= Densinite
20
a
39,0
45,2
41,4
44,0
44,0
41,8
44,6
48,4
62,4
61,0
54,8
54,0
50,4
Sample No.
18
20
8.8 %
12.0 %
15.0 %
7.6 %
12.0 %
8.6 %
13.6 %
11.6 %
9.6 %
6.4 %
18.4 %
13.4 %
5.8 %
6.4 %
9.4 %
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
14
13
15
Sample No.
Deepness (meter)
Deepness (meter)
Deepness (meter)
50
40
30
20
Figure 7. Comparison of maceral distribution in vertical section of the Seam-1, Muara Wahau coals a. huminite; b. liptinite; c. inertinite; d. minerals.
50
40
30
20
18
17
16
15
14
13
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
0,4
1,8
1,8
2,0
3,6
1,6
1,0
1,2
0,4
3,0
2,4
2,2
2,6
1,8
2,8
2,4
1,6
1,2
0,6
0,6
1,2
5,6
2,4
3,0
2,6
1,0
2,6
4
d
4,4
0,4
0,6
0,6
10
2,0
= Clay
= Pyrite
2,0
3,6
= Oxides
12
6.8 %
6.0 %
4.4 %
6.6 %
4.2 %
2.4 %
3.4 %
6.4 %
3.2 %
4.0 %
3.4 %
4.4 %
4.6 %
6.0 %
2.4 %
14
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
14
13
15
Sample No.
Depositional Cycles of Muara Wahau Coals, Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan (K. Anggayana et al.)
Gelovitrinite
10
Mesotrophic
High Tide
15
14
13
12
20
11
10
9
9 25 8
7 6
6
5
5
30
4
4
15
15
14 13
12 1110
15
14
13
11 12
9 10
7 8
6
5
4
15
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
25
30
35
35
40
45
50
0.1
0.5
1.0
5.0
1.0
10.0
45
20.0
25
50
30
35
40
20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
20
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
% Gelovitrinite
25
30
35
10
15
20
25
30
10
50
Segment
2
Segment
1
3
2
45
1
Sclerotinite
% Inertinite
20
15
14
13 12
10 9 11
8 76
5
4
40
45
50
15
Mineral Matter
35
40
10
15
14
13
12
10 11
9 7
8
6
5
4
20
45
50
15
40
Sclerotinite
10
IJ
O
25
Inertinite
10
Depth (m)
Ombrotrophic
Low Tide
Depth (m)
1
2
10
Mineral Matter
Figure 8. Vertical variation of GWI, GI, humocollinite, inertinite, sclerotinite, and minerals.
16
y= 9.986x+4.589
2
R =0.371
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Groundwater Index (GWI)
0.8
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Parameter
Correlation
GWI vs. GI
0,37
0,96
0,29
0,39
0,24
GI vs. humocollinite
0,49
GI vs. inertinite
0,89
GI vs. sclerotinite
0,62
GI vs. minerals
0,02
10
0,13
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Acknowledgment
Conclusions
The thick Muara coal seam has been investigated and is considered representative to indicate
118
Depositional Cycles of Muara Wahau Coals, Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan (K. Anggayana et al.)
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