Professional Documents
Culture Documents
org/english
www.alhassanain.org/english
www.alhassanain.org/english
www.alhassanain.org/english
In The Name Of Allah, And May The Peace And Blessings Of Allah Be
Upon The Messenger of Allah.
Oh Allah Accept This From Us, Undoubtedly You Are The AllHearing, All-Knowing (Qur'an 2:127)
www.alhassanain.org/english
Table Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................6
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................7
PURPOSE ................................................................ 10
Research questions........................................................ 10
LITERATURE REVIEW: WESTERN ANALOGUES TO ISLAMIC
PEDAGOGY ............................................................... 12
Theory..................................................................... 12
Application................................................................ 14
METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 17
Evaluating Our Lenses.................................................... 18
PRESENTATION OF DATA ............................................. 24
Knowledge in Islam ...................................................... 24
Islamic Education: Content or Pedagogy? ............................... 32
Basis for Islamic Pedagogy in the English Sources ...................... 35
Medieval Methods ..................................................... 35
The Historical Context of Islamic Pedagogy ............................. 39
Modern Perspectives of Islamic Pedagogy ............................ 40
Islamic Pedagogy Directly from the Quran, Sunnah, and Contemporary
Arabic Works on the Topic ............................................... 46
Scaffolding in Islam ...................................................... 47
Case-based learning, but what do we mean by cases? ................ 47
ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................................... 56
Reciprocity and Maintaining a Sincere Intention ........................ 59
Prioritizing Values Through Ones Demeanor and Composure ......... 60
CONCLUSION ............................................................. 64
Bibliography ................................................................ 67
Notes......................................................................... 73
www.alhassanain.org/english
ABSTRACT
www.alhassanain.org/english
INTRODUCTION
Egypt has a population of about 82 million; it is split into 26
governorates with about 90% of the people living on the 10% of the land
around the Nile, and the currency is the Egyptian pound. Egypt is ruled by
an authoritarian regime that has ruled by marshal law since 1981. This
emergency law is the primary obstacle to change in Egypt, including in the
field of education-not to mention that 1.3 of the 1.7 billion in American
funding is spent on support of the military which upholds these policies
(Boustany, 2008; Kelly, 2006; Zuhur, 2007, pgs. 2, 18 )3.
Egypt has the largest educational system in the Middle East (Sadik, 2006,
p. 87). This is mainly due to the tremendous population explosion over the
last half a century, which has also caused a great decline in per student
expenditure (at 40 percent per five years in the 1990s) and is getting worse
(World Bank, 2009, p.12). Education in Egypt is very centralized and
controlled by the Ministry of Education- with two sub ministries. The
main educational system in Egypt is governed by a sub ministry called the
Ministry of Education and Learning and is divided into two stages: the first
compulsory stage, from ages six to fourteen, is split into two cycles, five
then three years (only about ten percent of the population can afford any
level of private education). At the end of the second preparatory cycle,
students take a high-stakes national final exam which will essentially
determine the rest of their life, whether they go to general or technical
secondary education (Leavitt, 1992, pgs.96-97). If admitted to general
education, the second stage is two years of general studies and one year
specializing in a particular subject. The type of certificate granted at the end
of the third year depends on the score achieved on the final national exam
which will determine potential entrance into a university, and if admitted,
the field qualified for out of the students list of preferences (i.e.: Arts,
Engineering, Medicine, etc.). This final exam covers every course taken in
high-school and is such a catastrophic event that some students commit
suicide every year from sheer stress (Elhakeem, 2008)! The Ministry of
Education has repeatedly defeated efforts to change the national exam
(Leavitt, 1992, p.97). For the other half of the student population that get
tracked into technical secondary education, about 1 percent get admitted to a
university while the rest usually enter a trade or end up unemployed
(Leavitt, 1992, pgs. 96-97).
There is also the parallel Islamic educational system of Al-Azhar, which
is administered by the sub ministry Al-Awqaaf, and was established 975
CE. Al-Azhar has a four year primary stage, a three year preparatory stage, a
four year secondary stage, and higher education (Leavitt, 1992, p. 97). Both
the main educational system and the parallel Al-Azhar system have public,
private, and semi-private branches with the main difference between these
being that the size of the classroom decreases and use of international
languages such as English (for instruction) increases as one moves down the
spectrum from public to private. Correspondingly, under both ministries
public schools are free, semi-private at varying costs, and private rarely
within reach except for the elite class-of course aside from tuition, there are
www.alhassanain.org/english
www.alhassanain.org/english
political regimes that hinder any possible change that might put their power
at risk, lack of planning/organization in ministries of education, widespread
corruption, lack of resources, and the population boom mentioned
previously (Christina, 2003).
There are many issues that need to be addressed in Egyptian education
including curriculum (Herrera & Torres, 2006, p. 9), funding (Zuhur, 2007,
p.19), teacher training (NCERD, 2000, p.7), and early childcare education
(NCERD, 2000, pgs.7-14), but what has been seen over the last 2 decades to
the common observer-and of course professionals in the field as well
(AREME 2003; Birdsall, 1999, p.3; Herrera 2006; ; UNESCO, 2007)-to be
the greatest problem in improving education in Egypt has been quality.
Aside from the horrible economic prospects for employment, Egyptian
education does not motivate students to intellectually grow and it produces
citizens who have merely memorized and forgotten a lot of books. This
pattern is quite ironic given that traditional4 (pre-colonization) Islamic
pedagogy centers on a case-based learning approach where students
practically apply knowledge through an apprentice-style relationship with
their teachers and cooperative group work which allows them to participate
in their own moral and cognitive growth. Due to the complexity of political
constraints in improving many institutional aspects of Egyptian education,
enhancing teachers abilities to teach will empower them to change what
they can-their classroom.
www.alhassanain.org/english
PURPOSE
The objective of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy that
inspires an active approach to creating change in ones society by changing
oneself and working to be an active contribution to societal change
simultaneously. This thesis focuses on Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two
branchesdeveloping caring student/teacher relationships and utilizing these
relationships to apply a case-based learning approach where students learn
how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from their peers. To
stimulate such relationships, I have focused on utilizing metaphysical
(Islamic) motivation in improving teacher effort/ability. Muslim teachers
who practically live according to the belief that teaching is an act of
worship-through the way proper education produces active citizens who
improve society-are more effective teachers. Through such relationships, I
have concentrated on utilizing case-based learning to stimulate critical
thinking, which enhances the quality of education.
Islamic pedagogy, with its high emphasis on caring apprenticeship
relationships between teacher and student allows teachers to utilize their
personal relationships with students to scaffold them to higher concepts.
When teachers draw on classroom occurrences/ disturbances to model
appropriate behavior and elaborate on various academic concepts, they will
construct live learning experiences inside the classroom. I will provide
specific examples of how to accomplish this. More generally put, every
moment in the classroom is a learning experience. This is what I intend by
case based learning.
Through the aforementioned student-teacher relationships and teaching
methods, educators set a certain example for students, thereby not only
directly guiding students moral/cognitive development, but also creating
mini role models among them to affect peer influence. Complimentary
group activities in such an environment would allow students to help each
other morally and cognitively develop. Given that family and peers have
been two of the biggest indicators of childrens future academic and social
achievement globally (Hanushek, 2007, p.277), empirical research appears
to support an approach that does not neglect peer influence. A common
theme on the parts of teachers and students I will highlight is Ihsaanworshipping God as if you see Him, and even though you dont see Him
you live according to the acknowledgment that He sees you. The potential
of this concept in addressing motivation will be elaborated on. From my
research and personal experience in Egypt, I have seen the potential for
these aforementioned threads due to the very social nature of Egyptian
society.
Research questions
In order to craft a pedagogy such as what has been described above, it
will have to be asked first and foremost, what is Islam and what are the
epistemological definitions of knowledge and education within this belief
system; are there different types of the former or latter? What is the purpose
of seeking knowledge in Islam; how and with whom should it be done?
What do we intend by pedagogy and has a particular Islamic pedagogy ever
10
www.alhassanain.org/english
11
www.alhassanain.org/english
Theory
Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist by profession, was one of the earliest
academics to comment on the importance of reconnecting the link between
cognitive and affective factors when researching the human psyche
(Goldstein, 1999, pg.648).Vygotsky defined a zone of proximal
development as the distance between the actual developmental level as
determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance
or in collaboration with more capable peers (as cited in Goldstein, 1999,
p.649 emphasis added). Therefore, using a customized student-centered
12
www.alhassanain.org/english
13
www.alhassanain.org/english
Application
Concerned about the moral state of youth in his time, Thomas Lickona
undertakes the task of outlining a detailed stratagem for the practical
application of a caring pedagogy. Lickona applies the concept of
Vygotskys ZPD to not only demonstrate the importance of teachers
taking active roles in helping their children cognitively and morally develop,
but that the teachers themselves must embody the potential results of that
development. He particularly goes a little further than Noddings by
highlighting that ones private life affects their public behavior (Lickona,
1991, p.49, 79). One has to become a role model of the behavior one wants
to see in students; the caring relationship that will be developed is what will
allow students to reach their potential development intellectually and
emotionally. An artificial faade played out every time a teacher comes to
class is easily seen through;
Lickona states we are coming to see that our societal moral problems
reflect, in no small measure, our personal vices (Lickona, 1991, p.49). On
the issue of role models one could also add to this that on a macro level, the
leaders of the nation should be the first exemplars in demonstrating these
morals on the world stage for them to really have any effect and trickle their
way down to the masses. However, the causal direction of social change is
not predetermined and teachers are also in a decisive position to effect longterm societal change from the roots up-through the children that will inherit
their legacy.
Undoubtedly, one has to truly change oneself before one can hope to be a
role model for others.
Doing so will pragmatically show children how to identify when moral
action/judgment is needed, how to reflect on it, and then act. By using daily
occurrences, positive or negative, in the classroom as teaching moments
instead of mere disruptions, Lickona shows how educators can act out the
moral reflection process right in front of their students. Teachers can
literally think out loud when a teaching moment occurs, about their
primary reaction to it, the weighing of opportunities for possible further
action, and then following through assertively to respond to the situation.
This process could involve for example, teachers modeling composure as
they pause to deliberate a situation requiring a moral decision, making value
14
www.alhassanain.org/english
15
www.alhassanain.org/english
16
www.alhassanain.org/english
METHODOLOGY
I have defined education and pedagogy thus far; therefore, we should
define some other essential terms to be utilized before proceeding. Islam, as
used in this paper, refers to Sunni Orthodox Islam (more specifically Ahl Al
Sunnah wal Jamaaa, ASWJ; lit: the people of the Sunnah and the
Community); ASWJ Islam makes up roughly 90% of the Muslim world
and includes the four major jurisprudence schools of thought: Hanafi,
Maaliki, Shaafii, and Hanbali. ASWJ works are known for their clear
reliance on the actual revelation as evidence when they write about anything
regarding Islam; this is opposite of the methodology of Sunni Ahl AlKalaam (lit: the people of talk) who sometimes prefer their own personal
reasoning over textual evidence by default and minimally cite Islamic
scripture when theorizing about Islam (Ashqar, 2003; Phillips, 2006).
Ironically, Ahl Al-Kalaam, who represent about 5% or less of Islamic
scholarship and Muslims throughout history, are the sole perspectives
formally acknowledged in Western discourses about Islam (except for
minute exceptions sometimes in Islamic Studies departments)6. The other
ten percent of the Muslim world consists of a mixture of various sects
(Shiism, varieties of Sunni like Sufism, etc.) which generally have some
different fundamental beliefs. Sunni Muslims follow the Quran (believed to
be the literal word of God revealed to prophet Muhammad) and the Sunnah
(the teachings, sayings, and way of prophet Muhammad, peace be upon
him7, on how to practice the Quran).
There is a lot of literature on Islam in general concerning almost every
disciplinary lens; however, relatively little has been written on the
development of a specific Islamic pedagogy. One must preface such a
statement by clarifying that the author has had limited time to research in a
Muslim country-where Islamic literature is expectedly much more
accessible. There is particularly much more literature in Arab Muslim
countries since Arabic is the language that the Quran and Sunnah were
revealed in, and therefore the language used in most serious theological
works written about them. This being said, one would normally be left with
the limited English scholarship that exists on Islamic Education as a whole
here in America. However, I have had the opportunity to research for a
small period of time in Egypt searching for Arabic works on Islamic
pedagogy. These combined with the Arabic Quran and Hadeeth (the
individual narrations of the Sunnah; pl. ahadeeth) exegesis available here in
America have been the primary sources for this research. For exegesis, I
have relied the most heavily on those of Ibn Kathir (the most widely known
exegesis in the Muslim world, compiled by the named 13th century alim),
Al-Ashqar (which is an abridged version of the famous 18th century AlShawkaanees exegesis), and Arkahdaan (which is an abridged version of
the widely respected Al-12th century Qaasimi exegesis). In regard to the
Sunnah, I have relied mostly on the two most authentic collections of
ahadeeth (the compilations of Al-Bukhari and Muslim). Other than my own
scriptural reflections, I have also highlighted the educational perspectives of
two of the most knowledgeable ulamaa in the past half century, Shaykhs Bin
17
www.alhassanain.org/english
18
www.alhassanain.org/english
19
www.alhassanain.org/english
Modernism spread through the academic circles (and the elite sectors) of
major centers of Islamic culture like Turkey, Egypt, and the sub-continent;
however, particularly with the decreasing trust that laymen had in
theologians connected to the authoritarian regimes controlling most of the
Muslim world post-colonization, Modernism did not widely spread among
the masses (Hussein, 2008, pgs.20-50). Many of these Modernists were
viewed as foreign implants connected to the puppet regimes that were ruling
the Muslim world at the time since many of them not only promoted the
idea that Muslims only salvation after colonization was to Europeanize
completely, but many even rejected the notion of fighting colonial armies8
(Hefner and Zaman, 2007, pgs. 108, 118; Hussein, pgs.22-24, 106, 2008;
Kincehloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs. 128, 149; Zarabozo 1, 2010). In short,
Modernist philosophy was (and is today) to reform the parts of Islam that
were/are not compatible with Western culture/interests: the most popular
being the criminal code, polygamy, belief in miracles/universal Truths,
prohibition of interest in business transactions, prohibition on women being
head of state, women wearing hijab, and much of the Sunnah in general
since it specifies Quranic legislation (Modernists prefer to go by the
spirit of the faith and not the specific commandments)9,10 (Hussein, 2008;
Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo, 1, 2010). I merely highlight this phenomena lest
readers presume that authors with Islamic sounding names necessarily
offer a native perspective because usually only people with the cultural
capital of a Modernistic worldview are admitted into Western-oriented
academic institutions in Muslim or non- Muslim countries-I hope to be one
of the few exceptions to this screening process. The Modernist movement,
and its later sub-branches of post-modernism and the like, was not widely
accepted among much of Western European laity in places like Britain, just
officially conformed to in academia and government circles for purposes of
promoting secularism and similar ideologies that served economic among
other interests (Zarabozo 1, 2010). Part of the reason for this trend might be
Western Europes long historical ties to religion as a source of identity and
the fact that Darwinism as an alternative perspective on life has been
arguably disproved by many scientists, particularly European ones-much of
the evidence used to support the theory has even been found to be forged
(Yahya, 2001). What concerns us however is that Modernism spread much
wider among laity in America and is the lens through which knowledge is
produced, particularly that concerning religion (Zarabozo 1, 2010).
The Modernistic lens is antithetical to religion because it portrays
religion as tales of the ancients (Quran, 16:24) (Wheeler, 2003, pgs.2223), irrational, and uncivilized (by European Enlightenment definitions) and
Modernism as the opposite objective alternative-an us vs. them
demonization of the other (Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58). Modernism dons
a cloak of supposed scientific precepts, which are much more based on
culture than empirical proof, to try to promote a myth in academia that the
advancement of civilization itself depends on Modernism as educational
theorist James Carper has demonstrated (Moore, 2007, p. 57). However, it
has been realized that it was never so much the empirical sciences advanced
in the West, such as Chemistry and Biology (or even the technology), that
20
www.alhassanain.org/english
were at odds with Islamic values as some have posited (Talbani, 1996,
p.70), as much as it was the culture and value system (especially of Western
philosophy) being transplanted along with them (Cook, 1999, p.11).
As has been mentioned, Modernism views everything as a matter of
opinion; religion does not have any constants but is merely a product of its
environment and therefore inherently variable in all aspects. Due to
Modernisms secular nature, notions of providential guidance are not
entertained.
Subsequently, most American academics when speaking about Islam
take their own prerogative on, and present their own opinions on what
should be the real True interpretation of Islam since it coordinates with
Western culture (despite the fact that it might contradict the belief and
practice of millions of Muslims). Accordingly one finds a wide diversity of
opinions (Moore, 2007, pgs. 35, 127-128,) as Moore and others (Sheridan
and North, 2004, p.149; Barazangi; Bonakdarian 1998; Anscombe 2007;
Sells 1999; Abou el-Fadl 2002; and Esposito 1999) have mentioned, but
they are all from the default Modernistic perspective11 mistakenly applied as
a universal Truth that all humans must follow. Many such authors often
write about very advanced theological issues with little or no
experience/knowledge of the Islamic sciences-like ilm Al rijaal (the science
of authentication for chains of narrators of ahadeeth-the teachings and
sayings of Prophet Muhammadthe science of Naskh (which verses or
ahadeeth have been abrogated by others and how), which verses/ahadeeth
are general and which are specific to the context they were revealed in or
one similar to it, and many other fundamental principles which are
inherently connected to the directives of the Quran and Sunnah12
(Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.165; Phillips, 2005). As Nasr notes, very
few of these academics with advanced degrees are actually able to read
classical Arabic texts with full in-depth comprehension of their meaning
(Nasr, 2009, p. 21). Accordingly such academics would not be considered
Islamic scholars as is usually understood when this term is translated into
the language of many Muslim majority countries-usually alim, someone
who has been deeply immersed in Islamic scholarship over 20-50 years.
This is pivotal to keep in mind when discussing literature written on Islamic
topics in the West and will be relevant to our discussion of Modern
perspectives of Islamic pedagogy.
Contrary to Modernist claims, the ulamaa of the Islamic sciences in the
Muslim world have always taken the context of revelation into
consideration when discussing scripture; hence, the emphasis on the Sunnah
and Seerah (essentially the biography of prophet Muhammad which gives
the context that he and his companions lived in while the Quran was being
revealed) which are their own sciences (with sub branches within them)
(Nadwi, 2005, p.115). But since the Quran commands Muslims to take
prophet Muhammads interpretation of the Quran that he taught to his
companions over anyone elses (Phillips, 2005; Qadhi, 1999), there is no
way to realistically force Islam to coincide with most current Western
cultural practices despite the wide diversity of arguments that may be
made. The aforementioned factors all contribute to the noteworthy disparity
21
www.alhassanain.org/english
found between how lay Muslims in Muslim countries practice Islam and
how Islam is re-presented in much of Western literature.
One can see examples of this imposition of values explicitly in the bias
representation of Middle Eastern educational systems of the Middle Ages
and how most non-religious education that occurred in fields ranging from
Medicine to Architecture is glossed over (in Western post-enlightenment
literature); the result has been the confection of a revisionist history where
the religious sphere of society was somehow divorced from the rest
(Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.130), a re-written secular history of the
Muslim world13. What academia has been silent about has been just as
telling as what has been said. Such selective memory leads to an easily
consumed myth for a progressive-minded audience: that such people, who
supposedly have nothing but theological knowledge, would either be
particularly unsuitable for the modern world, or an even more extreme
presumption that maybe the Medieval Muslim world was even secular all
along. Even with Harvards international character, they teach little about
Islam as a religion aside from Sufi mysticism in India and Africa; Sufis are
to Islam what Quakers are to Christianity (Kavulla, 2007, p. 56).
Nonetheless, Modernist, extreme Sufi(theres nothing wrong with moderate
asceticism in Islam that is not related to actions of polytheism, but then it
would not be considered Sufism as the term is used today) or Mutazilite
(deviant philosophical sect that rationalizes not believing in destiny and
many other parts of Islam) versions of Islam are what the American
government promotes with added notions of no hijab, sharia, or any
remotely social aspects of Islam (see Rand Report on Civil Democratic
Islam and the works of John Esposito, Hamza Yusef, Fazlur Rahman, and
Khaled Abou Al-Fadl). Only groups with Modernist related precepts are
regarded as normal like the Murjii (who believe faith is only in the
heart)14 (Wheeler, 2003, p.114). A wellread Muslim can differentiate
between these Sunni sects, who are only about 5% of the world population
of Muslims, but the average reader in the West cannot, hence the long
digress on this issue. The deliberate disregard to much of mainstream
Islamic scholarship in the theological sciences and blind eye turned towards
achievements in the empirical sciences have been integral factors of the
Modernist discourse and the main causes behind the very distorted image of
Islamic education as a whole in the West.
Why have certain orientalists wasted so many precious years of their
lives trying to disprove the Quran and Sunnah? Such programs of research
are not merely an offense to the consciences of millions of Muslims, but are
also misleading and thus unworthy to be considered as scholarship as
Martin affirms (Martin, 1985, p.187). The politically charged attempts to
forcefully re-write Islam into conformity with Western ideals merely serves
to alienate and dehumanize the vast majority of Muslims on the planet15,
while deliberately or not, selectively humanizing the elite authoritarian
classes (with Western cultural capital) that dominate most Muslim countries
(thereby implicitly justifying violence against the other as can be seen on
the world stage). While such wishful thinking on the part of Western
academics may fool the majority of Americans in the U.S. who are rarely
22
www.alhassanain.org/english
23
www.alhassanain.org/english
PRESENTATION OF DATA
Knowledge in Islam
What is knowledge (ilm in Arabic) in Islam? The first words revealed of
the Quran to Prophet Muhammad in the seventh century C.E. were, what
means16, Read/Recite! In the name of your Lord, who has created all that
exists (Quran, 96:1). The word ilm is mentioned 750 times in the
Quran, ranking it third behind Allah (2,800 references), and Rubb (which
is usually translated as Lord, but has wider pedagogical connotations as
will be explained) at 950 references (Boyle, 2006, p.484).This is the essence
of Islam, knowledge; but what kind and for what purpose?
Knowledge has been defined by Arab linguists as the opposite of
ignoranceanything that can be conceived of or known... [and] more
obvious than to need to be defined (Mutawalee, 2005, p.177).
There are two types of knowledge in Islam, that which is known-what
humans have the ability to comprehend in this worldly life-and that which
is hidden (Al-Ghayb). Regarding both types there are also two
subdivisions, that which benefits (helps one to worship God better) and that
which does not (Uthaymeen, 2004, p.33). Regarding knowledge that which
is hidden but mentioned by name in revelation, either in the Quran or
Sunnah, (i.e.: the true nature of God, the angels, heaven, hellfire, etc.),
Muslims are still obligated to believe in it-the first characteristic mentioned
of the characteristics of the believers in the beginning of the Quran is that
they believe in the hidden (Quran, 2:2). Some knowledge might be
unbeneficial or could even harm humans. For example, when some
polytheists from prophet Muhammads tribe came to ask him about when
the Final Hour (Judgment day) would be, Allah (Arabic for God) told him
to say the knowledge thereof is with my Lord (alone). None but He can
reveal as to when it will occur-Allah goes on to explain that humans
knowing when judgment day would be would be a huge burden on them
(Quran, 7:187). Allah kept this knowledge hidden so that humans would
keep competing in righteousness till death, because in reality it is
unbeneficial knowledge since a persons opportunity to perform good deeds
will end at death and they wont be resurrected till judgment day. Similar in
meaning is when prophet Muhammad was asked by a Bedouin about the
appointment of judgment day saying, When will The Hour be ?" The
prophet replied to him, "What have you prepared for it? The man said,
"The love of Allah and His Messenger." The Prophet replied, "You will be
with those whom you love"" (Al-Qarnee, 2000, pgs.19-22). Well mention
three points of benefit from this hadeeth: one of prophet Muhammads
teaching techniques when responding to questions, was to direct the
questioner to the more beneficial question they should be asking as seen
here (Al-Shareef, 2010). The second point that the ulamaa have commented
on, is that knowing how to ask the appropriate question at the appropriate
time is half of all knowledge (not literally, but just to emphasize the point)
(Mekki, personal correspondence, April 10, 2010). The third benefit that the
ulamaa have highlighted is the importance of good company since one will
be with those whom he loves in the afterlife, for good or bad (Mekki,
24
www.alhassanain.org/english
25
www.alhassanain.org/english
26
www.alhassanain.org/english
27
www.alhassanain.org/english
28
www.alhassanain.org/english
These ayaat (lit: signs, proofs, verses [of the Quran], evidences) that are
mentioned in the Quran and are supposed to lead humans to acknowledge
God are of two types: things that can be sensed (i.e.: empirical science) and
textual revelation itself. The Quran that exists today, and matches all
known manuscripts around the world dating as far back as the seventh
century, describes with intricate detail:
human embryonic development (stage by stage), how the mountains
serve as pegs in the earth so that it doesnt shake, the origins of the universe,
functions of the cerebrum, the zone of separation between fresh and salt
water in the pacific ocean, the internal waves of the ocean, and the
precipitation process-details and processes that we did not discover or fully
comprehend until the modern science of the 20th century (Ibrahim, 1997,
pgs. 5-27). This raises an important question; why would such things be
mentioned which no one would be able to prove till hundreds of years later?
At the same time, there are countless Quranic injunctions rhetorically
questioning humans, after mentions of Allahs signs, do they not listen/
ponder/see/reflect (yasmaoon, yatafakuroon, yubsiroon, yatadabbaroon)
on these signs? One cannot go more than five pages without coming across
such verses. In one chapter, Allah mentions that some of his signs are in AlAfaaq (depths of space) (Quran, 41:53), which we havent been able to
even get a glimpse of till modern technology was developed. Without a
doubt, if humans were not to use their senses to discover the world around
them, they would never have realized these amazing miracles/signs all
around them. Throughout most of history since the Qurans revelation,
most of the aforementioned scientific phenomena would have been taken at
face value to be true as part of believing in the Quran, but not empirically
proven until the work of various Muslim scientists much later. No one
would have benefited from these particular signs of Gods existence (and for
Muslims, additional scientific evidence of the Qurans divine origin)
without empirical research. Evidence that Muslim ulamaa responded to the
aforementioned exhortations to research, inquire, and examine the universe
is seen in the many scientific contributions in Muslim societies throughout
history.
Empirical science was never a shunned endeavor in the Muslim world.
One could cite numerous cases in the fields of History like that of Ibn Athir
and Ibn Kathir, in Ophthalmology like Ibn Al-Haytham, in Sociology like
Ibn Khaldun (who is considered the founder of modern Sociology), in
Medicine, like Al-Nafisi, or Al-Jabbar, who invented Algebra. In fact,
ulamaa would rarely specialize in just one field of the empirical sciences,
but rather many, unlike the Renaissance Man of the Renaissance. A
perfect example is Abu Biruni who specialized in Chemistry, Physics, and
Astronomy (and was one of the leading ulamaa to invent the scientific
method)-Muslim ulamaa even constructed the first public hospitals during
the Baghdad caliphate (Berkey 1992; Najeebabadi, vol.1, 2000).
However, in general, the Quran and Sunnah are not particularly worried
with ensuring humans seek empirical knowledge because it is taken for
granted that humans will not forget or neglect worldly issues since they are
all around them. As prophet Muhammad mentioned, I dont fear for you
29
www.alhassanain.org/english
poverty, but rather I fear for you that worldly issues would overwhelm you
(Muslim, vol.4B, 1990, pgs. 738-740). Hence, the Quran and Sunnah focus
on teaching proper moral conduct as a universal constant, so that humans
will use any other types of knowledge they acquire throughout time for
societal benefit.
As supportive evidence to the aforementioned perspective toward the
empirical and scriptural forms of knowledge is the principle in Islamic Fiqh
(Islamic jurisprudence) known as maa laa ya tim Al waajib illaa bihi fahuwa
waajib (lit: whatever obligatory deed cannot be accomplished except
through a particular method, then that method also becomes
obligatory21There is no way to establish rule of law and the social services
that Islam guarantees to people in Muslim societies-like for example free
education and healthcare, Zakah (an obligatory form of charity for the poor),
etc.-without Muslims who care about these moral issues and then take the
means to develop them. This would not contradict the research previously
cited on Higher Education today in the Muslim world which showed that
students become more Islamically oriented upon entering Higher education
(which is almost universally secular), the complete opposite pattern of what
happens in the West (Cook, 2001, p. 382). One hypothesizes that the
deliberate and obvious removal of Islamic theology and any other related
material by most authoritarian regimes in the Muslim world, particularly
over the last 20 years, forces students to have to learn Islam on their own,
while still pursuing the societal capital of a university education to achieve
their professional objectives and social reform efforts. It would seem
cognizance of the inherent complimentary nature between theological and
empirical knowledge in Islam is already evident to many youth in the
Muslim world, and accordingly would not be difficult to employ in
motivating students to utilize both in working towards social reform in
Muslim countries.
While we are on the point of motivations for seeking knowledge in
Islam, it would be opportune to highlight to teachers and students the
importance that Islam puts on Commanding the Good and Forbidding the
Evil-the Islamic analogue to social activism. Allah says You Muslims
are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind; you enjoin goodness and
forbid evil, and you believe in Allah (Quran, 3:110). Linguistically,
according to the science of Balaagha mentioned earlier, by citing the
commanding of good and forbidding of evil as the first characteristics of
such Muslims, these become the defining characteristics of Muslims who
can earn the title of best of peoples ever raised up for mankind. God
doesnt have a chosen people according to Islam by virtue of the mere name
they ascribe to themselves, color or ethnicity (Quran, 49:13). Muslims only
earn the mercy of God, which allows them to enter paradise, through their
actions. For example, even Muslims can be punished through billions of
years in hellfire to be purified of their sins before eventually entering
paradise, if they sincerely believed in the testimony of faith (the belief that
no one has the right to be worshipped except Allah and Muhammad is His
messenger). Proving ones sincerity to God requires action. Exegesis ulamaa
have highlighted how this characteristic is so important that Allah has
30
www.alhassanain.org/english
31
www.alhassanain.org/english
children spend the most time with teachers and peers at school. We are
lacking role models and leaders all around the world, and as is being argued
here, teachers are one of the most direct opportunities to establish such role
models who will offer students practical examples of not only academic
content and morals, but how to utilize them to be an active participant in
society. Muslim societies will not change by themselves, and teachers are in
a pivotal position to be Muslihoon and create others who will change
society through their education as well. Now that we have discussed the
different types of knowledge in Islam and their purpose, lets see how some
scholars have proposed to teach that knowledge; what is Islamic pedagogy?
32
www.alhassanain.org/english
we could roughly date as starting way before colonization in the early 15th
century-with major setbacks occurring at pivotal moments like the loss of
the final part of Spain in 1492 and the colonization of most parts of the
Muslim world in the 18th and 19th centuries (particularly cultural/political
centers like the subcontinent and Egypt), by Western European powers.
Although the Ottoman caliphate still preserved some remnants of Muslim
identity up until the formal collapse at WWI, the power and influence of the
Islamic world was waning much before this. With the loss of political and
military power in the region (for various reasons outside the scope of this
paper), the Muslim empire had also long since begun to decline in academic
scholarship (Daly, 1998). However, Farhan is correct in asserting that the
more official secularization process that took hold after WWI severely
intensified this process. Theres no concept of secularism in Islam; the
longest verse in the Quran for example (an entire page long), details the
conditions for conducting business transactions (Quran, 2:282). Secularism
did add an identity crisis to an already worsening situation. As Al-Ghazali
notes, education starts at home-with the mother at its foundation-the
school, the mosque, the street, and the state (Al-Ghazali, 2010, p.44).
Contemporary ulamaa such as Shaykh Bin Baz have outlined similar visions
of Islamic pedagogy (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.229).
Regarding the notion of Islamizing the discipline of education Farhan
understandably stresses the importance of the Islamic belief that seeking
knowledge is an act of worship and a responsibility placed on intellectuals
to use it for societal good as is mentioned in the Quran (Quran, 33:72), but
he does not specifically define what Islamic education is (Farhan, 1989,
p.308). Farhans suggestion of providing all students with a minimum basic
working knowledge of the various branches of Islamic theology (Farhan,
1989, p.312) is commendable and integral to the vision of Islamic pedagogy
in this paper as well. In fact, such has already been in practice throughout
most of Islamic history, raising practicing Muslims who can employ
whatever knowledge they gain for the advancement of society no matter
what their field. Throughout Islamic history, once students mastered
foundational texts in theology, they would either specialize in a particular
branch of the Islamic sciences or delve into the empirical sciences and
become full-fledged ulamaa so that they could contribute to the
development of entire sciences that pragmatically corresponded to their
local needs (thereby fulfilling the communal obligation, fard kifaaya, in
knowledge production). There was never an artificial barrier constructed
between empirical sciences and revelation because Islam legislates that two
Truths cannot contradict each other-and that Tawheed (the belief that no one
has the right to be worshipped but Allah) implies a certain unity and
intrinsic harmony in the universe due to the oneness of the creator
(Halstead, 2004, p.526). Subsequently, in this sense I would agree with
Farhan on this aspect of his definition of Islamic education.
However regarding Farhans suggestion of Islamizing disciplines, then
for most fields, this has no practical or theological justification. What would
be Islamic biology, chemistry, or nuclear physics?
33
www.alhassanain.org/english
34
www.alhassanain.org/english
35
www.alhassanain.org/english
that they would contribute to society for the pleasure of God (not fame,
material wealth, etc.) in whatever they undertook. The pedagogy used
throughout most of Islamic civilization was that of prophet Muhammad, one
of a caring teacher leading by example and teaching a customized
curriculum in a dialectical manner. This curriculum emphasized a
foundation of moral character and application of knowledge in ones
behavior for the benefit of society (Berkey, 1992, pgs. 1-38,). Similarly
throughout Islamic history, quality Islamic education was a communal
activity that hinged less on books or institutions than on who one actually
learned and received an ijaza from (authorization to pass on their
knowledge); education was a very personal experience (Neill, 2006,
pgs.484-485) (Berkey, 1992, pgs. 16, 18). Students of Islamic knowledge
used to spend their whole lives traveling to sit with the greatest of ulamaa
and learn from them how to live by what they learned and practically apply
it to become more God conscious (Berkey, 1992, pgs.22-38,). Such a
pedagogy was necessary because possessing true Islamic knowledge meant
living by it; after all, what good is knowledge that doesnt benefit? Allah
says, Do you enjoin Al-birr (piety and righteousness) on people while you
forget to practice it yourselves, despite that you are of those who recite the
scripture; have you then no sense? (Quran, 2:44). Hence, when students
received an ijaza from ulamaa, it was for how much they knew and applied.
This was only earned after years of this apprenticeship type relationship
where ulamaa had watched them grow and assessed their behavior in
various communal settings (i.e.: with the general public and fellow students)
(Neill, 2006, pgs. 484-485). As Islamic ulamaa modeled the moral behavior
they wanted to develop in their students, education became an active
reflective process. The ulamaa are the inheritors of the prophets, meaning
they acquired proper moral conduct through their knowledge of the
scriptures, but more importantly through daily practice with their mentors
(Uthaymeen, 2004, p.3). In the Quran, this is actually the reason that
messengers were sent, to bring their respective books of revelation, and set
the example of how to apply them, thereby purifying people from lowly
behavior (in Arabic tazkiyah) (Quran, 2:151). Allah mentions in the Quran
and We have sent down to you (O Muhammad) The Remembrance, so that
you may clearly explain to mankind what has been revealed to them, and so
that they may give thought (Quran, 16:44) and Indeed in the Messenger
of Allah (Muhammad) you have a good example to follow (Quran, 33:21).
Those who learn Islamic knowledge after them continue this legacy by
acquiring proper morals from righteous people who model them.
Actions speak louder than books. This is the importance of modeling the
values one aims to teach in Islamic pedagogy and it applies whether this
content is theological or empirical. Application allows for deeper processing
of content as is well known; therefore, Islamic pedagogy must consistently
allow application of knowledge in the classroom.
Given the importance of the alim in Islamic education historically, a
student was often expected to take up to two months in choosing a teacher,
choosing on the basis of the alims own teachers reputation, age, and
character. The centrality of the teacher was evident in the fact that
36
www.alhassanain.org/english
37
www.alhassanain.org/english
38
www.alhassanain.org/english
39
www.alhassanain.org/english
40
www.alhassanain.org/english
41
www.alhassanain.org/english
they hold as divine, they utilize their faculties (the senses and personal
reasoning that Allah has given them) to ascertain how best to apply Allahs
commandments (not whether or not to) and expand on existing empirical
knowledge.but not to put themselves ahead of Allah and His
messenger, meaning obeying oneself instead of God (Quran, 49:1). This is
how Islam prioritizes revelation in comparison to personal reasoning and the
senses.
Getting past the politics of Boyles initial argument about knowledge in
Islam, she proceeds to strangely champion memorization as a learning
method as it relates to the Quran, countering those who claim memorizing
the Quran indoctrinates children since most children dont understand what
theyre memorizing at such an age. She even cites how it acts as a moral
compass later on for those who do understand it (Boyle, 2006, p. 486-494).
This first argument is quite correct; most Muslims are not Arabs, and
therefore wouldnt understand what theyre memorizing25. Subsequently,
this makes Boyles claim that Quranic memorization is conceived of as a
manifestation of reason (Boyle, 2006, p. 489) unlikely. While such an
argument attempts to defend what Boyle perceives to be Islamic pedagogy,
it seems very antithetical to her argument to claim that memorizing
unknown words and phrases is a method for youth in the Muslim world to
reason with the world.
This second argument however is suspect. Due to the political situation
in the world, many Western governments are trying to promote institutions
where the Quran is memorized to satisfy increasing local demand for
Islamic knowledge-based services (as a concession to Islamic identity),
while simultaneously continuing to increase government control/closure of
institutions that actually discuss what the Quran and Sunnah means. Quite
bluntly, rising demand for Sharia, the application of the political and socioeconomic aspects of Islam, has the potential to be very detrimental to
Western economic interests in the Muslim world (IIIT, 1989, ix). This is
because the values that would be propagated would be very much in
contention with those of modern day Western Capitalism like boundary-less
consumerism (which is disproportionately of Western services and products
due to structure adjustment policies which are pre-requisites for Western
funding26). The Western cultural invasion needs to have a very culturally
pliable consumer population to adapt to the ever-changing demands of
Western products. When Muslims are Islamically conscious and are living
Islam publically and privately, there are limits to the cultural changes
available due to the implementation of Sharia as a way of life (IIIT, 1989,
x)-not to mention the natural resources that would be re-directed to the
needs of native populations instead of exported at drastic losses to their
owners (Blum, 2000) (Chomsky, 2002).
Nonetheless, to not be too cynical and entertain the second argument,
that Boyle is defending memorization of the Quran for its moral virtues,
then yesAllah says, and whosoever is Godconscious, then Allah will
make for them a furqan (a criterion to judge/distinguish between things
(Quran, 8:29). And most certainly having over 6,000 verses of Gods words
always with a person, would act as a moral compass and divine guidance to
42
www.alhassanain.org/english
43
www.alhassanain.org/english
44
www.alhassanain.org/english
45
www.alhassanain.org/english
46
www.alhassanain.org/english
Scaffolding in Islam
One of the main reasons that the Quran was revealed piecemeal over 23
years is specifically because changing human behavior is a gradual process;
Allah was very compassionate in His wisdom of gradually scaffolding the
Arabs at the time, not placing a burden on them larger than they could
handle as Allah promises humankind (Quran, 2:286). The Arabs in preIslamic Arabia were living in complete savagery; they would bury their
children and sell women as property, have random sexual relations, drink
extremely heavily, and other crude behavior (Al-Fawzaan, 2005). They were
not spiritual people and people do not generally dramatically change
overnight. Therefore, Islamic legislation took them step by step scaffolding
them through moral refinement. Verses revealed in Mecca when Muslims
were still oppressed and persecuted focused on attaching peoples hearts to
the fundamental beliefs of Islam and contained little legislation of specific
duties and laws. Verses discussed Tawheed-that since there is only one God,
only He has the right to be worshipped and Gods attributes-and the Day of
Judgment, when humans would be held accountable for their deeds and
accordingly granted paradise or hellfire. As Muslims developed deeper
knowledge of the faith and corresponding conviction, they increased in
numbers and emigrated to Medina, establishing a society there. During this
process, verses were revealed which increased acts of worship to their final
amounts and outlined the laws for the finer details of day to day societal
interaction (like political, social, and economic legislation). A comparative
analysis of the Meccan and Medinan verses will highlight this gradual
pattern to the reader. The order of revelation was best described by Aisha,
the wife of prophet Muhammad, who said If the first verses to be revealed
were regarding prohibition of zinaa (adultery/fornication) and alcohol, they
would have swore By Allah, we will never stop committing zinaa and
drinking alcohol; but the first verses that were revealed were about
Tawheed, paradise, and hellfire. It was not until the hearts were firmly
attached to and loving their Lord that came down the verses with the
commandments about the permissible and prohibited (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1,
1997, pgs.45-50). The issue of scaffolding has been touched on repeatedly
throughout this paper so well transition to how we do that.
Case-based learning, but what do we mean by cases?
47
www.alhassanain.org/english
Regarding the structure of the Quran; the Quran is not compiled in the
order it was revealed in since different verses were revealed at different
times throughout prophet Muhammads life; rarely were entire chapters
revealed all at once. This concept is expressed in the way the Quran is
described as being revealed: nazzalnaa or nazzala (meaning piece by
piece) as opposed to the other divine books of the past which are described
as being anzalnaa or anzala (all at once) (Quran, 3:3-4). Each time a
verse or set of verses were revealed, this was a real live case scenario
opportunity for prophet Muhammad to explain these verses; this is why the
entire Quran can be thought of as an entire collection of case scenarios
where practical application of verses was taught live, on the spot. The
details of these cases are found in the Sunnah or Seerah (biography of
prophet Muhammad). Each time a concept would be revealed, the context
and teachings/sayings of prophet Muhammad in response to it would
explain it, An example of this teaching method in practice can be seen in the
first chapter in the Quran, Al-Fatiha (the opening).
Abu Said bin Al-Mualla, a companion of prophet Muhammad, was
once praying in the mosque, and Allahs messenger called him to come, but
he didnt respond (Muslims are not suppose to turn away from or interrupt
their prayer once they enter into a mode of prayer, except for an
emergency).
Later Abu Said told prophet Muhammad why he had not responded,
since he was praying. Prophet Muhammad responded Didnt Allah say,
Answer Allah (by obeying Him) and His messenger when one of them calls
you to that which will give you life (Quran, 8:24)? Prophet Muhammad
then told him, I will teach you a chapter, which is the greatest chapter in the
Quran before you leave the mosque.
Prophet Muhammad later on took hold of his hand, and headed to leave
the mosque, so Abu Said asked him, didnt you say to me, I will teach
you a chapter which is the greatest chapter in the Quran? So, prophet
Muhammad taught him the beginning of the first chapter starting with All
praises and thanks be to Allah, the Rub (Lord) of the Alameen (lit:
anything that is possible to be known, the universe) (Ibn Kathir, vol. 1,
2000, pgs. 41-58).
There are a couple of points of benefit here. First is that prophet
Muhammad, by purposely calling Abu Said during his prayer, a time when
normally one would not respond, has used the opportunity to teach him the
meaning of another verse (8:24), which has an even wider concept behind it
mentioned in verse 150 of chapter four, do not differentiate between Allah
and His messengers when it comes to obedience.The one you are praying
to right now, is the same one that has commanded you to obey the
messenger. Allah says in another verse, Say oh Muhammad to mankind, if
you really love Allah, then follow me (follow the Quran and Sunnah) and
Allah will love you and forgive you your sins (Quran, 3: 31). Then
prophet Muhammad proceeds to caringly take him by the hand and teach
him a new chapter of the Quran. Prophet Muhammad has accordingly, not
only re-emphasized and explained to Abu Said the extent to which a person
responds to the messenger, but that the implementation of the knowledge
48
www.alhassanain.org/english
49
www.alhassanain.org/english
(Quran, 21:25). "And to the people of 'Ad, We sent their brother Hud. He
said, O my people, worship Allah Alone, you have no deity other than Him.
Will you not, then, fear Him?'" (Quran, 7:65). This is not only a comfort to
prophet Muhamamad as God is essentially telling him that hes merely one
in a long chain of prophets, whose people also put them through trials and
sometimes never believed in them: "Therefore, be patient oh Muhammad as
did the Messengers endowed with firmness of heart before you bore
themselves with patience. And be in no haste about the disbelievers"
(Qur'an, 46:35); but these stories are also recalling the memory of these
widely known tribes of the past in the minds of the Arabs prophet
Muhammad was speaking to. The verses are igniting the previous
knowledge that the Arabs had of these peoples that came before them and
using the fact that they all called to the same thing that prophet Muhammad
is calling to as rapport to scaffold them into following him. Allah says,
undoubtedly, in the stories of the prophets there are lessons for those with
sound intelligence and comprehension and He commands prophet
Muhammad and everyone who reads the Quran after him, tell these stories
so that perhaps they would ponder and reflect (Quran, 12:111,
11:176).The lesson is not just for those present during these events, but also
to those witnessing them by reading/hearing about them in the chapter. This
is even more obvious in the story of Moses and Pharaoh when the pronoun
changes from addressing Moses and Pharaoh specifically to a general one
that addresses all of humanity (Quran, 7:103-156). As Shaykh Bin Baz
notes, the use of stories is one of the most effective methods for teaching
because it causes the listener to commit until its resolution and maintains
their attentionbecause phrases (or pieces of information) are forgotten, but
powerful events that have happened are rarely forgotten (Al- Khattaabi,
2006, p.292). Shaykh Bin Baz even explicitly recommends using stories of
current events as opportunities by which concepts can be taught (AlKhattaabi, 2006, p.302). Again, conceiving of stories as cases and
opportunities for learning, are an excellent way that the Quran utilizes real
life experiences to teach certain concepts. Such case studies and examples in
the classroom will flesh out the concepts being taught. This has been in
regard to the method of stories as a teaching technique in Islamic pedagogy.
The other half of the Quran is about the future-descriptions of the Day
of Judgment and the events that happen on it, paradise and hellfire, etc. In
both the stories and descriptions about the events of the future, there is
countless use of debate and dialogue between God, angels, humans, and
others.
Rarely are things merely summarized; rather the various actors are
actively expressing their thoughts to the reader so that one can envision the
scene of events that are taking place clearly. Dr. Afsaruddin has highlighted
how debate and dialogue (munaazara) was a core teaching method used
among Jurisprudence ulamaa for sharpening students analytical skills
(Afsaruddin, 2005, pgs. 148, 151). This competitive aspect of Islamic
pedagogy will be highlighted in a later hadeeth. Allah commands prophet
Muhammad many times to use questioning while calling people to Islam,
saying say to them [the polytheists] oh Muhammad, who is the Rub of the
50
www.alhassanain.org/english
heavens and the earth? Say it is Allah. Say Have you then taken for worship
Auliyaa(protectors/guardians) other than Him that have no power either to
benefit or harm themselves (Quran, 13:16)? Such questions were meant to
make the idol worshippers ponder and question the logic of worshipping
their statues. Challenging students to participate in their education ensures
that teachers and students are on the same page. Questions get students
involved and engaged in the learning process.
Other than these two broad strands of content regarding the past and
future (about 6,000 verses total), there are also about 500 or so verses of
direct laws in the Quran.
There are also some pedagogical methods to be derived from the order
that the Quran was compiled into. Accordingly one finds that the first
chapter in the Quran, Al-Fatiha, is called the opening chapter and
essentially summarizes Tawheed (that no one has the right to be worshipped
except Allah-the central belief in Islam) and the relationship between God
and humankind as an introduction of sorts (Ibn Kathir, 2000, vol.1, pgs. 4158). The second chapter, which we could consider the first main chapter, is
considered by Tafseer (exegesis) ulamaa as the summary of the Quran; for
example it is the only chapter to contain all five pillars of Islam in one
chapter, the best verse, and the longest verse in the Quran (Ibn Kathir,
2000, vols.1 and 2). The last three chapters of the Quran (AlIkhlaas, Al-Falaq, and Al-Naas) all also deal specifically with Tawheed
in a very simple fashion (they are three of the shortest chapters in the
Quran). Usually when we listen to a lecture or read a book, we might doze
off throughout the middle, but we usually remember the main points that
were mentioned in the beginning and the end; this is not necessarily due to
lack of interest on the part of the reader, but could just be a natural human
reaction to absorbing large amounts of information at one time. On the next
level down, at the level of the chapter, the structure of individual Quranic
chapters also reveals that they usually begin and end with pivotal moral
lessons related to the chapter. This is seen in the end of chapter AlFurqaan which describes the ideal Muslim, or in the fact that the vast
majority of chapters start with a specific statement about the veracity,
authenticity or greatness of the Quran, Tawheed, and occasionally
paradise/hellfire-essentially the main aspects of Islam. The details of what
belief entails will be explained throughout the chapter, but the reader is
given an overall abstract of what is to come or how it should affect them.
Similarly, when teachers are giving lectures or talks, they should make sure
that they do not dwell too long on explanations or examples without
recalling the audiences attention to the main topic and purpose of the study.
While on the theme of the ordering of the Quran, we will present a case
study of the first verses revealed of the Quran.
As was mentioned, the first words revealed of the Quran to Prophet
Muhammad in the seventh century C.E. were, what means, Read/Recite! In
the name of your Lord, who has created all that exists (Quran, 96:1).
Out of all the different words that Allah chose to begin his last revelation for
mankind, (and Arabic is a vast language) Allah chose the word Iqra,
which can be translated as read or recite in English and actually comes
51
www.alhassanain.org/english
from the same root as Quran (lit: something which is recited, which
highlights the importance of oral transmission of knowledge and not just
books in Islamic pedagogy). This first chapter is titled Iqra or Al-'Alaq
(many chapters have more than one name depending on the content). The
first word as we have mentioned means to read or recite, while the second
the 'alaq (lit: blood clot) actually refers to the external appearance of the
embryo and its sacs during embryonic development when the presence of
large amounts of blood in the embryo prevent blood flow29 (Ibrahim, 1997,
p.8). The context for this first revelation is that prophet Muhammad (in
Mecca), prior to receiving revelation at the age of 40, would have many
dreams that would come true so he would travel to the Hira cave and spend
many days at a time in seclusion to worship God30 In these first verses of the
Qur'an, Allah sends angel Gabriel to command prophet Muhammad to read,
but prophet Muhammad was illiterate31 so he replies that he is not of those
who read. Also significant, is that there is no tablet or anything for him to
read, so how can he read? The exegesis ulamaa said regarding this, that it is
as if he is telling him to read in the ayaat of Allahs creation since the word
ayah has multiple meanings of proofs, evidences, signs, and verses (AlQarnee, 2000, pgs. 114-115). Allah is determined to show prophet
Muhammad that the One who created him is capable of anything, so three
times Gabriel commands him to read, and squeezes him tightly; every time
prophet Muhammad says he cant. The fourth time, Gabriel says to him to
read in the name of your Rub who created you. If your Rub can create you,
then if you say In the name of God, believing in Gods ability to help you
do what seems impossible, and try your best out of obedience to Him, He
will make you able to read. Allah emphasizes this point about His power,
commanding prophet Muhammad to read in the name of the One who
created humankind from a mere 'alaq. Read/recite and your Rub is the most
generous. He is the one who has taught with the pen, has taught mankind
that which they did not know (Quran, 97:1-5).
Unquestionably, the one who created man and his speech can make them
compatible at His will. This is an excellent example of how teachers should
similarly teach their students to do their best, and then rely on God for the
results. Furthermore, Allah specifically mentions teaching mankind with the
pen here; as the exegesis ulamaa have mentioned, this is the main way
knowledge has been passed down throughout history, even though it was
not so much during prophet Muhammads time. Writing traps knowledge
onto a material substance so that it can be built upon and developed over the
ages (Al- Bukhari, vol.1, 1997, pgs. 118-122). Allah is teaching prophet
Muhammad that any knowledge we have is ultimately from Allah and proof
of his majesty. Allah says and of all things He hath perfect knowledge
(Quran, 2:29). This helps one maintain humility since as is mentioned a
couple verses later, humankind gets arrogant and transgresses the bounds
when they feel self-sufficient (Quran, 97:6-7).
The importance of being humble as an educator is seen even in the
example of the prophets, who were all shepherds without any royal or
kinglike status in society; even after their prophethood, they still maintained
these simple lifestyles. This aspect of humbleness was highlighted in the
52
www.alhassanain.org/english
53
www.alhassanain.org/english
which Allah has sent me and learns and teaches it to others. The last is the
36 Many ulamaa have also discussed how to properly use modern
technology such as projectors and computers to use images (Al-Khattaabi,
2006, p.161) as prophet Muhammad use to use drawings and and diagrams
to explain concepts to his companions (Al-Shareef, 2010) example of the
person who pays no attention to it and does not accept the guidance with
which I have been sent" (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.124).
Here the prophet has drawn a similitude between peoples hearts and
their response to Allahs revelation and different types of ground, with the
revelation being like the water that rains down from the sky to bring the
earth to life. The first type of person is one who comprehended the
revelation, lived by it, and taught it to others. They dont only hold the
knowledge but teach others and help them to benefit from it and grow as
well (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.126). The second type of person is one who
merely memorizes the knowledge, but maybe doesnt quite understand it;
nonetheless, they are able to pass on this knowledge to someone who will
benefit from it. Prophet Muhammad has still commended such people as
well in another hadeeth saying, May Allah illuminate the person who hears
a hadeeth from me and memorizes it until he conveys it. Perhaps a person
who has memorized a hadeeth (lit:
fiqh) conveys it to someone with more Fiqh than themselves [so that
the latter would comprehend it and benefit from it], even though the
[original] carrier of this hadeeth was not a Faqeeh [someone who
understood it] (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.127). Imam Al-Nawawi, a
Hadeeth/Exegesis alim, comments on this hadeeth saying this first type of
soil does not benefit from the rain directly, but holds it and its benefits for
someone else (human or creature). This is similar to the second type of
human who memorizes the hadeeth in their heart even though they dont
fully comprehend it themselves and dont have the critical thinking skills to
derive the various rulings and full meanings from it. Nonetheless, when this
person comes across a thirsty searcher [sic], they will benefit the latter with
this knowledge (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.128). The third type of person is one
who does not respond to the revelation at all nor do they relay the message
to others and this type is portrayed as barren land which does not benefit
themselves or others. Such a person might even theoretically believe in the
revelation through their lips, but not actually live by it (Al-Majeed, 1992,
p.128-129).
Interestingly, the first two types of people are presented as those with
some type of understanding, be that as it may at different levels; even the
one who merely memorized at least comprehended that the material was
important enough to concern oneself with to begin with. There was some
benefit to memorization since here it was something considered an
unquestionable Truth of life: revelation. However, the third type of person is
the one that is presented as blameworthy since they had none of these
qualities. An analogy could be drawn between this and some empirical
knowledge as well; some empirical knowledge is necessary to know within
and of itself. As was discussed earlier, there are some types of basic
knowledge that simply must be memorized as they are fundamental to being
54
www.alhassanain.org/english
55
www.alhassanain.org/english
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Islamic Pedagogy as it Relates to the Western Analogue of Ethical
Caring Correcting Mistakes and Offering Advice on the Path to Acquiring
Wisdom It should be mentioned upfront that the following comparison
between elements of Islamic pedagogy and elements of Ethical Care are not
presented with the intention to demonstrate that the use of one teaching
method in the former or latter justifies or proves the effectiveness of the
other. Rarely, the following analysis is meant to merely highlight parallels
between the two pedagogical approaches- particularly regarding the nature
of the caring student/teacher relationship-for the sake of drawing
connections between ideas that have been perceived as pedagogically
effective in the East and West.
As has been discussed, the nature of Quranic revelation was conducive
to scaffolding a people from practically non-existent moral standards to very
high ones. Similarly, children are like blank slates;
we cannot assume that they should know better, because for many things
they do not and have not been taught, so one must take their time and
caringly show them appropriate behavior. When done at a young age, such
caring instruction is like etching these values into the childs memory as an
old Arab proverb goes. A young boy, Anas, was once eating with prophet
Muhammad, but he was not doing so according to Islamic etiquette; he was
not eating from his side of the plate, but rather sticking his hand all over it.
The prophet said to him Oh, young boy (a term of endearment in the
Arabic yaa bunay!)! Say Bismillah (in the name of God), eat with your right
hand, and eat from what is directly in front of you.
The boy commented later, This remained my way of eating from that
time on (Bukhari, 5376 in USC).
Prophet Muhammad did not scold him for what he was doing wrong, but
rather immediately proceeded to simply instruct him what the correct way
was, an approach to correcting mistakes that has also been promoted by
Bailey. The effect of how Anas was taught is what made the new knowledge
stick with him and change his future behavior.
Bailey also suggests not focusing on what children are doing wrong as to
damage their selfesteem, but to rather simply tell them how they can do it
correctly. This is a much more positive approach to correcting mistakes.
Dont just say dont do this or that, but rather educate children on the
important part, what they should be doing (Bailey, 2000, pgs.55-73). Ethical
Care and the Islamic pedagogy being outlined here have promoted a
forgiving, optimistic approach to teaching children.
Prophet Muhammad is quoted as saying he is not of us who does not
show mercy to our younger ones
(Abu Dawud 764 in USC). Children are very sensitive in their early years
and need sympathetic guidance that corresponds to their mental and
emotional capabilities.
The expression yaa bunay! used above is actually the same expression
that Lukman (an Abyssinian slave) uses with his son in the chapter of the
Quran named after him. Lukmans classic advice to his son combines
scaffolding/prioritizing knowledge and presenting it in a caring manner as
56
www.alhassanain.org/english
57
www.alhassanain.org/english
717, 4992 & Al-Nisaai, 4999 in USC), many times offering them more
appropriate alternatives (Al-Nisaai, 1119 in USC). One bedouin man had
once urinated in a mosque, because he had not realized that it was a sacred
place and the companions of prophet Muhammad were outraged and were
going to grab him, but prophet Muhammad amazingly commanded his
companions to not even interrupt him, nor yell at him, but to simply let him
finish. Acknowledging the bedouins unrefined habits compared to the city
folk at the time, prophet Muhammad explained to him that it was
inappropriate to urinate in a mosque and had the area cleaned. After this the
Bedouin was so impressed by the prophets caring attitude to a complete
stranger that he supplicated oh God, forgive me and Muhammad and no
one else-the Bedouin made such a exclusionary prayer as a slight jab at
the companions for how they were about to react to his behavior (Zino,
1995, p.75). Prophet Muhammad customized his response in dealing with
someone who would have been at a much lower level of moral refinement
(as was Bedouins reputation) then someone from the average population in
the city. Similar to Lickona (1991, pgs.55-67), prophet Muhammad has
taught that admonishment by itself is not a true learning experience; how
proper moral conduct is taught is the essence of the message. The
companions would be seen later throughout their lives imitating these
methods from their role-model, the prophet, with their own students.
Once when some young girls were eulogizing the deaths of their fathers
in a recent battle, they started praising prophet Muhammad in a way that
was not befitting of him by saying that he knew the future. Prophet
Muhammad did not prohibit them from mourning their dead fathers, but told
them to simply remove the part which exaggerated his position. In this way,
he removed the mistake they were making, but allowed them to continue
with their eulogy (Umm Qatadah, personal correspondence, April, 2, 2010).
Accordingly, teachers should not focus on the faults of students, but be
balanced in celebrating their good behavior. Educating students on how to
do things correctly instead of complaining about what they are doing
incorrectly is an approach Bailey has suggested as well (Bailey, 2000,
pgs.55-73).Compassion is key.
One of the primary goals of case based learning as it relates to moral
education, as discussed by Lickona above (Lickona, 1991, p.47), is for
students to realize when a situation requires moral action, reflect on it, and
then act upon it. By revealing the doctrines of Islam piece by piece, there
was live explanation/application of the verses by prophet Muhammad in
front of his companions so that they could see what it actually looked like to
uphold ones covenants, maintain ties of kinship, help the poor, be humble,
etc in practice. Morals as general themes always sound wonderful, but the
true task is developing the wisdom to know how to prioritize values and
contextualize them to ones situation. Most would agree that lying is wrong
for example, but would also agree that it could be commendable if it was
going to save someones life.
In Islam, developing such a discerning nature is called having (deep
understanding) of the faith, not simply knowing the dos and donts, but
truly comprehending the principles and value system of Islam to the extent
58
www.alhassanain.org/english
that one is able to do the best most beloved act to God contextual to the time
and place. Prophet Muhammad described this when he stated that whoever
Allah desires good for, he gives him deep understanding of Islam and the
insight of how to apply it properly (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, pgs.98-100).
Another hadeeth states that One faqih (one with fiqh) is more powerful
against the devil than a thousand worshippers (Berkey, 1992, p.4). The
word hikma (wisdom) could also be used as a synonym for fiqh, since
prophet Muhammad said do not envy anyone, except in two cases: a person
whom Allah has given wealth and he spends it righteously and a person
whom Allah has given hikma (deep comprehension of the Quran and
Sunnah), acts according to it, and teaches it to others (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1
pgs.98-100). Interestingly, the word hikma when combined with reference
to the Quran in a verse, is used to refer to the Sunnah in the Quran. This is
an importance of case based learning that modernist and Islamic approaches
to moral education would agree on-developing critically conscience
morality. This theme applies to all knowledge, many Muslim students in
Muslim countries memorize basic content material, but knowing when and
how to apply it is the only way such information has any benefit. Students
merely memorizing the names of virtues or how many elements are in water
will not benefit them in this life or the hereafter.
59
www.alhassanain.org/english
attributes the outcome to themselves (and not to the mercy of God for
allowing them to achieve the good they did), possibly nullifying their deeds.
Furthermore, if the educator expects such reciprocity from the student, then
this makes their sincerity questionable from the beginning, because a
Muslim expects his reward solely from God.
In Islam, God has created humankind to worship Him and blessed them
with innumerable blessings, foremost of which is creating them; therefore,
they are obligated to reciprocate this bounty with obedience, and though He
is not required to, He has chosen to reciprocate to them paradise for their
obedience. This issue of maintaining sincerity is so crucial in Islam that one
is expected to choose their company on the basis of those who they believe
to be sincere (Quran, 18:28). If one ponders this, what would happen if
classes and schools in the Muslim world were constructed with the explicit
intention of providing environments conducive to good moral character and
not merely sorting the population into schools by their various socioeconomic brackets? This would have a profound effect on inequality if
teachers can group students together on this basis of being sincerely
committed to social change and yet everyone in the classroom comes from
all degrees of SES. This is why the teachers function as a role model is so
important. As Ibn Khaldun affirms students will often emulate their teacher
as part of learning (Halstead, 2004, p.525); hence, students can also serve as
peer role models in cooperative group tasks with other students. Creating
good company and a moral environment in the classroom minimizes the
need for repetition of the teachers efforts. An assertion Vygotsky would
wholeheartedly agree with since he acknowledges the contagious nature of
behavior between people (Goldstein, 1999, pgs.648-654). Education is a
broad endeavour, and as is being realized, it cannot be narrowly viewed
from a psychological lens. Humans are social creatures.
The aforementioned modeling of moral behavior in Islamic pedagogy is
what Lickona focused on as the first step to teachers teaching morals,
embodying them first, ridding themselves of their personal vices. Seeing
moral behavior, students can visualize what proper behavior looks like,
intend to live by it, and then actually start trying their best to do so. The
apprenticeship relationship that illustrates to students how to go through this
process is analogous to the case based learning methods that might be
utilized by Lickona-inspired educators in the classroom as mentioned
above-using daily incidents of life as teaching/learning opportunities.
60
www.alhassanain.org/english
from around you, so pardon them for their faults, and ask Allahs
forgiveness for them, and consult with them in affairs. Then when you have
reached a decision, place your trust in Allah; surely, Allah loves those who
put their trust in Him (Quran, 3:159). Prophet Muhammad would advise
his students, the companions, similarly, saying, Allah will not show
compassion to those who do not show compassion to people (Al-Bukhari,
1997, p.59). If one understands this, then they will see why the caring
student-teacher relationship is so important to productive educational
experiences in the classroom from an Islamic perspective.
Concerning the demeanor of an educator, the aspects most repeated even
in modern day Islamic encyclopedias on raising children, are exactly the
manners and character the teacher is supposed to be teaching. Good
character is the cornerstone of Islamic pedagogy. For example in Ahmed
Mustafa Mutawalees Maosooat Al Umm fee Tarbiyyat Al Awlaad fil
Islam (Encyclopedia of Raising Children in Islam), meticulous care is
taken to highlight all the specific references in Quran and Sunnah that refer
to the ideal character of a Muslim in general for the parent/educator and
child/student: social competence (brotherhood, righteousness to the parents,
maintaining ties of kinship, righteousness to neighbors, visiting the sick,
compassion, mercy, fairness, forgiveness, generosity, and leniency) (2005,
pgs.65-168), etiquettes of seeking in-depth Islamic theological knowledge
(2005, pgs. 217-231) (interestingly shorter since pragmatic basic khuluq are
what is required, while in-depth knowledge is recommended), psychological
well-being (courage, chastity, discipline, accountability, and love) (pgs.315375), emotional well-being (love, compassion, general tips for how to deal
with children (pgs. 376- 387), health/sexual well-being/relationships
(marriage, chastity, patience, God-consciousness, good companionship,
etiquettes for maintaining love between spouses) (pgs. 393-442), and
healthy living (exercise, nutritious diets, medical issues, etc.) (pgs. 449591).
A crucial disposition that Bailey also highlights for educators (2000,
pgs.26-30,) is the importance of maintaining composure throughout the
daily opportunities for modeling morals; this is the backbone of Islamic
pedagogy. Numerous ahadeeth (pl. of hadeeth) of Prophet Muhammad
mention the importance of maintaining ones wakaar (composure) (not to
mention being from the most often repeated characteristics of the ideal
believer at the end of chapters Lukman and Al-Furqan in the Quran). One
of the most famous examples of wakaar is when a man had come to prophet
Muhammad and kept asking him to give him an invaluable piece of advice
(expecting some long complicated response) and prophet Muhammad kept
simply telling him to not get angry in two words (Muslim, 1077 in USC ).
The man had traveled a far distance to obtain some profound wisdom from
this prophet he had heard about, and the prophet told him to not get angry.
Virtue should not necessarily be judged/valued for its complexity. Truly,
how many learning opportunities are lost when educators cannot calmly
morally reflect on a situation before acting?
In order to practically maintain ones composure, one needs to always
maintain an upbeat optimistic disposition and not be flustered easily,
61
www.alhassanain.org/english
62
www.alhassanain.org/english
trees that would have been found in the Middle East at the time. What
concerns us in this comparison is that prophet Muhammad questioned them
to test their general understanding of how a Muslim should be (to get them
thinking), gave them time to discuss the issue among themselves
collectively36, and then come up with answers. He also used an illustrative
analogy to convey his point. By having different ages of people within a
group, the experience was one that highlighted the importance of developing
assertiveness in children so that they feel comfortable voicing their opinions
and feel intellectually safe to make mistakes. Independent critical thinking
followed by cooperative discussion is an excellent strategy in the
cooperative aspects of Islamic pedagogy that allows students to practice
with peers similar to them in ability and then have an educator highlight the
points of benefit that they understood or maybe missed at the end.
63
www.alhassanain.org/english
CONCLUSION
I will end this discussion on Islamic pedagogy with an ideal case study
that represents the concept of Ihsaan in Islam. If teachers and the students
they teach can begin to live life according to the acknowledgement that
whatever social contributions they are putting forth are an act of worship,
and they live with the sincere intention that their efforts are solely for
Allahs pleasure, they can begin to develop Ihsaan-worshipping Allah as if
they see Him, and even though they dont see Him, they live according to
the acknowledgement that He sees them. The following is known as
hadeeth Jibreel (the hadeeth of angel Gabriel); Umar ibn Al-Khattab, the
companion, narrates:
While we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah one day, a man
[Jibreel in human form] came to our gathering whose clothes were
extremely white, whose hair was extremely black, upon whom traces of
travelling could not be seen, and whom none of us knew, until he sat down
close to the Prophet, may Allah bless with him and grant him peace, so that
he rested his knees upon his knees and placed his two hands upon his thighs
and said, 'Muhammad, tell me about Islam?' The Messenger of Allah, may
Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, 'Islam is that you witness that
there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah,
and you establish the prayer, and you give the Zakat [obligatory charity on
assets], and you fast Ramadan [a month of the Islamic lunar calendar], and
you perform the hajj [pilgrimage] of the House if you are physically and
financially able to.' He said, 'You have told the truth,' and we were amazed
at him asking the prophet and [then] telling him that he told the truth. The
man said, 'Tell me about iman.' He said, 'That you affirm Allah, His angels,
His books, His messengers, and the Last Day, and that you affirm the
Decree, the good of it and the bad of it.' He said, 'You have told the truth.'
He said, 'Tell me about ihsaan.' He said, 'That you worship Allah as if you
see Him, for if you don't see Him then truly He sees you.' the prophet
asked, 'Umar, do you know who the questioner was?' I said, 'Allah and His
Messenger know best.' He said, 'He was Jibreel who came to you to teach
you your deen37'." (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.80-81)).
There are entire books dedicated to this hadeeth, so we will focus
specifically on the concepts dedicated to Ihsaan and the
demeanor/appearance of an educator. Ibn Rajab Al-Hanbalee, a Medieval
alim, highlighted how, by stating that angel Jibreel had just taught them
their deen, then this hadeeth is essentially inclusive of all the individual
obligatory acts a Muslim must do, citing that Islam is more directly defined
as the physical submission of a person, Iman (faith/belief) is more directly
defined as the articles of faith with the 7 conditions mentioned previously,
and Ihsaan is the highest level of worship of a person consistently always
behaving under the acknowledgement that Allah sees them, even though
they dont see Him-this last level is impossible for regular humans to
maintain indefinitely, but they are supposed to try their best to reach this
high standard (Ibn Rajab, 2007, p. 41-69). Ihsaan is actually mentioned even
as the first chapter in raising children encyclopedias like the one
mentioned above (Mutawalee, 2005, p.11) and it is one of the behaviors that
64
www.alhassanain.org/english
65
www.alhassanain.org/english
66
www.alhassanain.org/english
Bibliography
Abdelrahman, M. (2004). Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs
in Egypt. London: I. B. Tauris.
Abou El Fadl, K., Cohen, J., & Lague, I. (2002). The place of tolerance
in Islam. Boston: Beacon Press.
Afsaruddin, A. (2005). Muslim views on education: Parameters,
purview, and possibilities. Journal of Catholic Legal Studies. Vol. 44:143.
Al-Afani, S. H. (2001). Al-Ikhlaas: Tateer al-anfaas min hadeethil
Ikhlaas. Al-Qaahirah: Maktaba Muadh Ibn Jabal.
Ashqar, U. (2003). Belief in Allah: Islamic creed series vol. 1. London:
International Islamic Publishing House.
Al-Ashqar. M.S.A.A. Al-Quran Al-Karim wa baalihaa mish zubdat altafseer min fath Al-Qadeer. Kuwait: Wizaarat Al-Awqaaf wal Shuoon AlIslaamiyya.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. (1980). The concept of education in Islam: A
framework for an Islamic philosophy of education. Kuala Lumpur; Muslim
Youth Movement of Malaysia.
Al-Bukhari, M.I. (1997). The translation of the meanings of Sahih AlBukhari: Arabic-English. (M.M.Khan, Trans.). Riyadh: Maktaba
Darussalam (Original work compiled 870).
Al-Fawzaan. S., F. (2005). An explanation of aspects of the days of
ignorance of the imaam & mujaddid Muhammad bin 'Abdil-Wahhaab.
London: Darussalam.
Al-Ghazali, M. Lecture of The Eminent and Distinguished Scholar
Sheikh Muhammad al-Ghazzali. Retrieved 1 October 2009 from: http://iepistemology.net/education/191-lecture-by-sheikhmuhammadAl-Khattaabi, A.A.M.S. (2006). Al-araa al-tirbaweeyah ind al-imam
Bin Baz. Mekkah: Dar Teebat Al- Khudraa.
Al-Jabiri, O., A., S. (1995). Facilitation by Allah in Explaining the
Evidences of the Conditions of "La ilaha ill Allah." UK: Jam`iat Ihyaa
Minhaaj al-Sunnah.
Al-Jawziyya, M.A.B.S. (2004). Al Fawaaid. Al-Qaahirah: Dar-ulAqeedah Al-Majeed, A.A.M.A.A. (1992). Natharaat fiqhiyya wa
tarbawiyya fee amthaal al-hadeeth. Taaif: Maktabat al-Sideeq.
Al-Qarnee, A. A. A. (2000). Iqra bismi Rubbik. Beiruit: Dar Ibn Hazm.
Arkahdaan, S.A. (1993). Tafseer Al-Quran Al-Karem min mahaasin altaweel. Kuwait: Dar Al-Nafaais.
Al-Shareef, M. Humanity's Teacher: 21 Teaching Techniques. Audio
Islam.
Retrieved
2
January
2010
from:
http://www.audioislam.com/?subcategory=Seerah Anscombe, F. (2007).
The politics of islam. Journal of Contemporary History, 42(3), 555-564.
Arabic Republic of Egypt Ministry of Education (AREME) (2003). The
National Plan for Education for All. Cairo : MOE. Retrieved from
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/21517/10600698961Egypt_Natio
nal_E
ducation_Plan.doc/Egypt_National%2BEducation%2BPlan.doc
Bailey, B. A. (2000). Conscious discipline: 7 basic skills for brain smart
classroom management. Oviedo, FL: Loving Guidance, Inc.
67
www.alhassanain.org/english
68
www.alhassanain.org/english
69
www.alhassanain.org/english
70
www.alhassanain.org/english
71
www.alhassanain.org/english
http://www.kalamullah.com/Books/The%20Etiquette%20of%20Seeking%2
0Knowledge.pdf Zaidan. A.K. (2006). Al Wajiz fi Sharh al Qawaid al
Fiqhiyah. Beirut: Resalah Publishers.
Zarbozo, J.A.D. Islam and Modernism [Audio Recording]. Audio Islam.
Accessed
on
9
March
2010
from:
http://www.audioislam.com/?subcategory=History
Zarbozo,
J.A.D.
Modernism (Reformation) in Islam. Islamic Network. Accessed on 8 March
2010 from: http://www.islaam.net/main/display.php?id=1386&category=19
Zuhur, S. (2007). Egypt: Security, Political, and Islamist Challenges.
Strategic
Studies
Institute
Carlisle:
www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB787.pdf
72
www.alhassanain.org/english
Notes
1The Muslim ummah refers to the Islamic belief that all humans born after prophet
Muhammads birth are considered from the ummah of Muhammad in general (ummat Al
dawa or invitation), but those who choose to believe and follow him are the more specific
ummat Al ijaaba (ummah of those who responded), who we would call Muslims today.
Muslims believe in all the prophets (ie: Adam, Abraham, Jesus, Muhammad, etc.) in the
sense that they all originally came with the same central message of Tawheed (worshipping
only One God), but different branches/details (how to pray, etc.) contextual to their
time/location; each prophet had their own branches for their particular ummah (the
ummah of the Jews, of the Christians, etc.). Prophet Muhammad is believed to be the seal
of the prophets from his time till judgment day for the entire world. Differences between
the three monotheistic religions over even the central meaning of Tawheed today (the status
of Jesus being more than a prophet, etc.) are believed to be due to tampering/alterations of
the older scriptures by various theologians and others throughout history. For a fuller
discussion, see Dr. Umar Ashqars Belief in Allah.
2- See Paulo Frieres Pedagogy of the Oppressed (2003)
3- For the often underplayed details of U.S foreign policy see Howard Zinns
Peoples History of the World or William Blums Rogue State: A Guide to the Worlds
Only Superpower.
4- Some academics label the 18th and 19th centuries the traditional period of the
Muslim world, thereby, dismissing much of pre-Western Enlightenment history as of
negligible significance (Bray, 2007). (Noddings, 1984, p.74).
5- I am purposely using academics to refer to Western scholars affiliated with
universities and academia to differentiate them from Islamic Studies scholars/theologians
(university related or otherwise) in the Muslim world who will be referred to as ulamaa (sg:
alim).
6- These ulamaa who tried to incorporate Greek philosophy into Islam as early as the
9th century, are known for placing their own reasoning over textual proofs. They include
scholars such as Al-Ghazaali, Al-Razi, and Ibn Rushd; some of them took on W.
philosophy as their own substitute belief system, such as Ibn Sina and Ibn Arabi. Ahl AlKalaam, philosophers, and Sufis are usually the few ulamaa deemed worthy of mention in
Western academia) for obvious reasons (Halstead, 2004). Fazlur Rahman and others
(Afsaruddin, 2005) go as far as to translate Mutakallimun (derivative of Ahl Al-Kalaam)
and Kalaam as Muslim theologians and theology respectively, thereby delegitimizing all
mainstream academic scholarship of Ahl Al-Sunnah over the last roughly 1400 years.
7- Muslims are encouraged to say peace be upon him at least once the first time
they mention prophet Muhammads name in a gathering or paper, etc.
8- Modern Modernists include Egypts Syed Tantawi who considered building a
gigantic wall on the Egyptian border to effectively imprison Palestinians in Gaza and cut
off their aid supplies a religious obligation (Suleiman, 2010).
9- The most common strategy of Westernizing Islam has been a conscious attempt,
particularly over the last half century, to delegitimize the Sunnah of prophet Muhammad
and his companions by various methods, like portraying it as a sort of cultural baggage left
over from the pre-Islamic era. An example is seen in Hallaqs The Origins and Evolution of
Islamic Law. Hallaq ignores any reference to tens of early works on Hadeeth, Fiqh, and
Rijaal to purportedly claim that a Qadi (lit: judge who rules by Quran and Sunnah) in
early Islam did not have to know the Quran and Sunnah or that Quranic legislation
evolved since the prohibition/punishment on/for drinking alcohol was not applied to
Tilaa (a Middle Eastern fruit drink)-which is not technically alcohol (khamr) according to
Islamic jurisprudence (Nadwi, 2005).
10- Even Seyyed Hossein Nasr (a Sufi Modernist affiliate himself of IIIT, which is a
mildly Modernist institution) notes, the prejudices that have marred the study of Islam in
the West since the time of Peter the Venerable, when the Quran was first rendered into
Latin and even beforehand, must finally be overcome if in-depth
11- The a priori suppositions of the Modernistic lens are at least acknowledged in
some of the work of academics such as Mohammad Akram Nadwi, Sherman Jackson, Talal
Asad and Sabaa Mahmood. Mahmood praises how Asad for example highlights how the
73
www.alhassanain.org/english
power of Western forms of knowledge lies not only in their ability to re-present social
reality but also to intervene and remake non-Western traditions, practices, and institutions,
[hoping to transform] what it means to live as a Muslim subject in the modern world
(Nyang, Ahmed, and Bukhari, 2009, p.11).
12- Nasr ironically notes, in many of the major centers of Middle Eastern studies,
everything is taught seriously except Islam itself. One sees often in such centers numerous
courses on history, anthropology, languages, sociology, political science, and similar
subjects pertaining to the Islamic world, but little in-depth study of Islam as the religion
There is no greater source of distortion than applying the secularist perspective of the past
few centuries in the West to a religion and civilization where it does not apply. (Nasr,
2009, pgs.19, 23).
13- Such political initiatives are highly motivated by modern attempts to spread
Western culture in the Muslim world through various methods like increasing
secularization of Muslim societies and advocating Western gender roles (Kincheloe and
Steinberg,, 2004, pgs.44-47, 161-163). One author went so far as to twist the words (relying
on an average readers ignorance of Arabic syntax and morphology) of 18th century Islamic
revivalist Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab to re-present some of his statements regarding the
rights of women as supportive of current Western conceptions of female gender roles.
Many references link to page numbers that dont even exist in the original work (see
Delong-bass Wahhabi Islam: From Revival to Reform, 2004)!
14- A common myth, which depends on absolute ignorance of the existence of Arabic
resources to refer back to, but nonetheless is mind-numbingly recycled (either explicitly or
implicitly by ignoring roughly 1400 years of Islamic scholarship that entails otherwise) is
that these aforementioned sects were the most important in Islamic history and then
somehow magically with the advent of Muslims like Abdul Wahhab in the 18th century and
Sayyid Qutb in the 20th, Islam evolved political/economic aspects. In reality, Islam has
always been practiced as a social way of life in the Muslim world up until colonization
when most aspects were effectively secularized (see History of Islam by Akbar Shah
Najeebabadi). The false notion that such revivers or reformers were bringing something
new is simply because they tried to reincorporate such aspects during/after colonization,
blasphemy to Western academia which believes that the world was created in the European
Enlightenment.
15- By no means do I intend here that Islam is now, or was ever in the past, something
with absolutely no variables. Islam, since the Qurans first verses were revealed had
variables like the different forms of recitation revealed to prophet Muhammad according to
the different dialects spoken in Arabia at the time (Martin 34, 1985). Sharia, or Islamic
Law- which is mostly a guideline for a set of objectives-only has certain constants that
dont change with time; Fiqh however, or Islamic jurisprudence, can vary depending on the
context (it gives very specific commands/prohibitions, etc.) . But, a macro level analysis of
Islamic theology will reveal about 70% of jurisprudence issues are agreed upon (and minor
issues like where to place ones hands during prayer or whether hijab should include the
face and hands or not are not pillars of Islam in the first place), because they are all due to
slightly different understandings of the Quran and Sunnah based on proof, not mere
opinion (see The Evolution of Fiqh by Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips). On the other hand, the
Modernist movements attempts to reform Islam, attack fundamental principles and
constants of the faith derived from the Quran and Sunnah that dont change with time and
are supported by about 1400 years of scholarship based on sciences which Modernists dont
even acknowledge. Without
16- The Quran is believed to be the literal speech of Allah which can not be literally
translated due to its divine origin (something will always be lost in translation); hence, any
translation is a human attempt to convey the meaning as closely as possible (Ibrahim, 1997,
p. 54). This is why I, in agreement with mainstream Islamic scholarship, have referred to
translated verses as what means here, to highlight this issue, but will refrain from
doing so the rest of the paper for space.
17- What it means to be truthful (sideeq) to Allah is a wide topic, but it can most
simply be explained as steadfastness in being sincere to Allah in all ones actions by
consistently doing the most pleasing thing to Allah particular to a time and location (see AlAfanis Al-Ikhlaas: Tateer Al-anfaas min hadeethil Ikhlaas).
74
www.alhassanain.org/english
18- Masculine pronouns such as him or he used in revelation are the default gender
used but applies to both men and women unless there is evidence to the contrary on the
issue in the Quran or Sunnah.
19- Knowledge of the testimony of faith (or shahada) is 1 of the 7 conditions
mentioned in the Qur'an needed for this shahada to be accepted, like absolute certainty in it,
sincerity to it in 1's actions, being truthful to it, love, meaning not loving any of creation
more than Allah and his messenger, full submission, and complete acceptance of every part
of the religion as it was revealed (Al-Jabiri, 1995).
20- Tafsir (exegesis) ulamaa are essentially the companions of prophet Muhammad
(since they had the Quran directly taught to them from prophet Muhammad), so all later
Tafsir Ulamaa essentially did was to use their narrations as a basis and expound upon them
in regard to whatever aspect of Tafsir they were elaborating on in their work (ie:
grammatical, historical, derivation of laws, etc.).
21- See Al Wajiz fi Sharh Al Qawaid Al Fiqhiyah by Abdul Karim Zaidan for a
concise summary of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (Usool Al-Fiqh).
22- Interestingly however, there were many books on how to seek knowledge in
treatises often called something to the effect of The Book of Knowledge(Zaid, p.75).
23- Although excellent in medicine and other empirical sciences, his writings, which
challenged the Quran and claimed it had to be verified with reason (like some of his
counterparts, Al-Farabi, Al-Arabi,etc.) have caused some ulamaa to declare such
philosophers outside the fold of Islam. It is ironic that many of the ulamaa acknowledged
and celebrated in the West were not technically considered Muslim in much of the Muslim
world (Halstead, 2004, p. 518).
24- Women had a tremendous role as ulamaa in Islamic history, but within the
guidelines of Islamic gender roles and appropriate conduct between the sexes (segregation,
etc.) (Nadwi, 2007), contrary to the revisionist history of Modern women imposed by
some Western academics (Afsaruddin, 2005, pgs.164-165). Nadwis work is actually just
the preface to an Arabic 40 volume biographical dictionary of women ulamaa).
25- Plus the Quran uses classical Arabic vocabulary, syntax, and morphology,
different from those of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which are needed to grasp the
deeper meanings of Quranwhich are rarely taught outside of Arabic Studies departments
these days.
26- For the effects of this in Egypt see Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in
Egypt (Abdelrahman, 2004, pgs. 17, 85, 102-107).
27- Allah explains many times in the Quran, that from His wisdom is that He created
everything in pairs-male/female, day/night, good/bad, etc. For example as will be seen in
chapter Iqraa, if humans, even the pious, begin to feel selfsufficient, then they will
transgress the bounds, oppressing themselves and others.
28- creatures made from a gaseous substance, from the Ghayb; the species that Satan
comes from, but they can choose obedience or disobedience like humans.
29- The Quran describes the stages of the embryonic process in certain places (like
23:12-14) which describes how the embryo matures from a nutfa (drop of semen) to the
described alaqah stage above to the mudghah (chewed substance appearance referring to
the somites at the back of the embryo (when it becomes like
30- Before revelation there was no formal form of prayer revealed yet for the Muslim
ummah so prophet Muhammad would seclude himself in the cave to meditate about the
greatness of Allah (Al-Ashqar, 1985, pgs.814-815).
31- The Quran mentions that one of the wisdoms behind choosing an unlettered
prophet for the revelation was so no one could accuse him of writing it himself (Qarnee,
2000, p. 115). In fact if he were to write it himself, it wouldnt be in his interest to write a
verse saying that God teaches with the pen since it was common knowledge among prophet
Muhammads tribe that he was illiterate (Al-Ashqar, 1985, pgs.814-815).
32- Deen is the closet word to religion in the Quran. With secularism in the Arab
world, the word has also taken on the meaning of religion in Modern Standard Arabic.
33- They cite how children are overconfident about themselves from the ages of 4-7,
when key characteristics of classroom environment are flexible grouping, evaluation
through skill mastery on report cards not grades, work is displayed, small group instruction,
75
www.alhassanain.org/english
differentiated tasks, and mistakes are valued. All of this disappears as they grow, and so
does motivation.
34- Not praying the 5 daily prayers is disbelief in Islam, hence the more severe tone;
there is some difference of opinion among theologians if one is considered a disbeliever by
abandoning them in general or out of laziness while still believing in their obligatory nature
(Ibn Rajab, 2007).
35- Ibn Sina has highly stressed the importance of students having good company in
their learning experiences as well (Gunther, 2006, p.380).
36- As a side note, the ulamaa have commented how this hadeeth shows the
desirability of creating opportunities for students to experience live dialogues (through for
example guest speakers), the importance of an educator maintaining a pleasing
appearance,(similar to how Jibreel came in this hadeeth), the close proximity in which the
learning took place between Jibreel and the prophet, and how a group of students (the
companions) should be as a family who miss each other upon each others absence and stay
abreast of each others affairs (Ibn Rajab, 2007, p. 41-69).
37- For an interesting glimpse at how the concept of Ihsaan would work in developing
grassroots educational initiatives through what Iqbal Quadir would describe as a network
effect (of the people, by the people and for the people) (Quadir, 2005), see the story of
Dhul Qarnain in the Quran, a powerful righteous ruler who historically ruled most of the
earth and his assistance of the weak in giving them greater than what they needed, but
making them assist in the effort themselves (Quran, 18:83-98; Ibn Kathir, vol. 6, 2000,
pgs. 203-209). People maintain what they work and sweat to accomplish.
76
www.alhassanain.org/english
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Mohammed Sabrin is 25 years old at the age of this work. He was born
in Cairo, Egypt to Egyptian parents and has lived in the U.S since about the
age of six. He completed his undergraduate education at The University of
Delaware majoring in English with a concentration in Ethnic and Cultural
Studies. It is during this time that he developed his deeper interest in
education and how it relates to social change due to his experience with
postcolonial literature. He is now completing his Masters in Educational
Leadership and Policy Studies with a focus of Socio-cultural International
Development Education Studies (SIDES) at Florida State University. He
hopes to continue his graduate studies during his PhD focusing on the
empirical side of pedagogy with an intent to be an Education professor in
Egypt. He also aims to develop Early Childhood Education institutions
corresponding with his immediate interest of improving the quality of ECE
in Egypt. His professional teaching experience includes working with
various underprivileged Latin American and African-American
communities academic enrichment programs in the U.S. and being a
Graduate Assistant for the SIDES program at Florida State University. He
is a stern believer in holistic education that transforms individuals and
offers pragmatic solutions to societal dilemmas.
And Allah Is The Most High And Knows Best.
77