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Modern Physics
(Freeman 6e, 2012)
Chapter 03 - Compton Effect
(a)
(b)
141
8
L series
I() (relative)
I () (relative)
7
K series
5
4
2
K
3
V = 80 kV
1
0
0.2
0.4
m
0.6
0.8 1.0
,
1.2
1.4
V = 40 kV
1.6
V = 35 kV
0
0.2
0.4
m
0.6 0.8
,
1.0
1.2
Figure 3-15 (a) x-ray spectra from tungsten at two accelerating voltages and (b) from
molybdenum at one. The names of the line series (K and L) are historical and explained in
Chapter 4. The L-series lines for molybdenum (not shown) are at about 0.5 nm (5 ). The
cutoff wavelength lm is independent of the target element and is related to the voltage on the
x-ray tube V by lm hc>eV. The wavelengths of the lines are characteristic of the element.
becomes eV hf hc>lm or lm hc>eV 1.2407 106 V1 m 1.24 103 V1
nm. Thus, the Duane-Hunt rule is explained by Plancks quantum hypothesis. (Notice
that the value of lm can be used to determine h>e.)
The continuous spectrum was understood as the result of the acceleration (i.e.,
braking) of the bombarding electrons in the strong electric fields of the target
atoms. Maxwells equation predicted the continuous radiation. The real problem for
classical physics was the sharp lines. The wavelengths of the sharp lines were a function of the target element, the set for each element being always the same. But the
sharp lines never appeared if V was such that lm was larger than the particular line,
as can be seen from Figure 3-15a, where the shortest-wavelength group disappears
when V is reduced from 80 keV to 40 keV so that lm becomes larger. The origin of the
sharp lines was a mystery that had to await the discovery of the nuclear atom. We will
explain them in Chapter 4.
Compton Effect
It had been observed that scattered x rays were softer than those in the incident
beam, that is, were absorbed more readily. Compton16 pointed out that if the scattering process were considered a collision between a photon of energy hf1 (and
momentum hf1 >c) and an electron, the recoiling electron would absorb part of the
incident photons energy. The energy hf2 of the scattered photon would therefore be
less than the incident one and thus of lower frequency f2 and momentum hf2 >c. (The
fact that electromagnetic radiation of energy E carried momentum E>c was known
from classical theory and from experiments of Nichols and Hull in 1903. This relation is also consistent with the relativistic expression E2 p2c2 + (mc2)2 for a particle
with zero rest energy.) Compton applied the laws of conservation of momentum and
energy in their relativistic form (see Chapter 2) to the collision of a photon with an
isolated electron to obtain the change in the wavelength l2 l1 of the photon as a
TIPLER_03_119-152hr2.indd 141
Well-known applications
of x rays are medical
and dental x rays (both
diagnostic and treatment)
and industrial x ray
inspection of welds and
castings. Perhaps not so
well known is their use in
determining the structure
of crystals, identifying
black holes in the cosmos,
and seeing the folded
shapes of proteins in
biological materials.
8/22/11 11:33
142
function of the scattering angle u. The result, called Comptons equation and derived
in a More section on the home page, is
l2 - l 1 =
h
11 - cos u2
mc
3-25
(a)
Scattered by
graphite at
45
(b)
Scattered
at 90
(c)
135
(d )
630
7
730
Angle from calcite
TIPLER_03_119-152hr2.indd 142
lc =
h
hc
1.24 * 103 eV # nm
=
=
= 0.00243 nm
2
mc
mc
5.11 * 105 eV
S1
R
Defining
slit
Calcite
S2
crystal
Shutter
X-ray tube
(Mo target)
Bragg
spectrometer
Ionization
chamber
Figure 3-16 Schematic sketch of Comptons apparatus. x rays from the tube strike the
carbon block R and are scattered into a Bragg-type crystal spectrometer. In this diagram,
the scattering angle is 30. The beam was defined by slits S1 and S2. Although the entire
spectrum is being scattered by R, the spectrometer scanned the region around the Ka line of
molybdenum.
8/22/11 11:33
143
More
More
Questions
6. Why is it extremely difficult to observe the Compton effect using visible light?
7. Why is the Compton effect unimportant in the transmission of television and
radio waves? How many Compton scatterings would a typical FM signal have
before its wavelengths were shifted by 0.01 percent?
l2 - l1 = l =
TIPLER_03_119-152hr3.indd 143
8/31/11 10:13
144
2. That the scattered wavelength l2 is shifted by 1.5 percent from l1 means that
Dl
= 0.015
l1
3. Combining these yields
0.0024311 - cos 1202
Dl
=
0.015
0.015
= 0.243 nm
l1 =
4. Question (b) is also solved with the aid of Equation 3-25, rearranged as
l2 = l1 + 0.0024311 - cos u2
5. Substituting u 75 and l1 from above yields
l2 = 0.243 + 0.0024311 - cos 752
= 0.243 + 0.002
= 0.245 nm
A Final Comment
In this chapter together with Section 2-4 of the previous chapter we have introduced
and discussed at some length the three primary ways by which photons interact with
matter: (1) the photoelectric effect, (2) the Compton effect, and (3) pair production.
As we proceed with our explorations of modern physics throughout the remainder of
the book, we will have many occasions to apply what we have learned here to aid in
our understanding of a myriad of phenomena, ranging from atomic structure to the
fusion furnaces of the stars.
Summary
TOPIC
1. J. J. Thomsons experiment
e 1.60217653 1019 C
3. Blackbody radiation
Stefan-Boltzmann law
Plancks constant
4. Photoelectric effect
5. Compton effect
6. Photon-matter interaction
TIPLER_03_119-152hr2.indd 144
R sT4
3-4
8phcl
e hc>lkT - 1
h 6.626 1034 J # s
u(l) =
eV0 hf
l2 - l1 =
h
11 - cos u2
mc
3-5
3-18
3-19
3-21
3-25
The (1) photoelectric effect, (2) the Compton effect, and (3) pair
production are the three ways of interaction.
8/22/11 11:33
Notes
145
General References
The following references are written at a level appropriate for
the readers of this book.
Millikan, R. A., Electrons (1 and ) Protons, Photons, Neutrons, Mesotrons, and Cosmic Rays, 2d ed., University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1947. This book on modern
physics by one of the great experimentalists of his time
contains fascinating, detailed descriptions of Millikans
oil-drop experiment and his verification of the Einstein
photoelectric-effect equation.
Mohr, P. J., B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, The Fundamental Physical Constants, Reviews of Modern Physics 80,
633730 (April 2008).
Richtmyer, F. K., E. H. Kennard, and J. N. Cooper, Introduction to Modern Physics, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1969. This excellent text was originally
Notes
1. Democritus (about 470 b.c. to about 380 b.c.). Among
his other modern-sounding ideas were the suggestion that
the Milky Way is a vast conglomeration of stars and that the
Moon, like Earth, has mountains and valleys.
2. G. J. Stoney (18261911). An Irish physicist who first
called the fundamental unit of charge the electron. After
Thomson discovered the particle that carried the charge, the
name was transferred from the quantity of charge to the particle itself by Lorentz.
3. Joseph J. Thomson (18561940). English physicist and
director, for more than 30 years, of the Cavendish Laboratory, the first laboratory in the world established expressly for
research in physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1906 for his work on the electron. Seven of his research
assistants also won Nobel Prizes.
4. There had been much early confusion about the nature
of cathode rays due to the failure of Heinrich Hertz in 1883
to observe any deflection of the rays in an electric field. The
failure was later found to be the result of ionization of the gas
in the tube; the ions quickly neutralized the charges on the
deflecting plates so that there was actually no electric field
between the plates. With better vacuum technology in 1897,
Thomson was able to work at lower pressure and observe electrostatic deflection.
5. R. A. Millikan, Philosophical Magazine (6), 19,
209 (1910). Millikan, who held the first physics Ph.D.
awarded by Columbia University, was one of the most
accomplished experimentalists of his time. He received the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923 for the measurement of the
electrons charge. Also among his many contributions, he
coined the phrase cosmic rays to describe radiation produced in outer space.
6. R. A. Millikan, Physical Review, 32, 349 (1911).
TIPLER_03_119-152hr2.indd 145
7. Mohr, P. J., B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, The Fundamental Physical Constants, Reviews of Modern Physics 80,
633730 (April 2008).
8. See pp. 135137 of F. K. Richtmyer, E. H. Kennard, and
J. N. Cooper (1969).
9. John W. S. Rayleigh 18421919. English physicist,
almost invariably referred to by the title he inherited from his
father. He was Maxwells successor and Thomsons predecessor as director of the Cavendish Laboratory.
10. Max K. E. L. Planck (18581947). Most of his career was
spent at the University of Berlin. In his later years his renown
in the world of science was probably second only to that of
Einstein.
11. Heinrich R. Hertz (18571894). German physicist, student
of Helmholtz. He was the discoverer of electromagnetic radio
waves, later developed for practical communication by Marconi.
12. H. Hertz, Annalen der Physik, 31, 983 (1887).
13. A. Einstein, Annalen der Physik, 17, 144 (1905).
14. A translation of this paper can be found in E. C. Watson,
American Journal of Physics, 13, 284 (1945), and in Shamos
(1962). Roentgen (18451923) was honored in 1901 with the
first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of x rays.
15. William Lawrence Bragg (18901971), AustralianEnglish physicist. The work that Bragg, an infant prodigy,
performed on x-ray diffraction with his father, William
Henry Bragg (18621942), earned for them both the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1915, the only father-son team to be so
honored thus far. In 1938 W. L. Bragg became director of
the Cavendish Laboratory, succeeding Rutherford.
16. Arthur H. Compton (18921962), American physicist. It
was Compton who suggested the name photon for the light
quantum. His discovery and explanation of the Compton effect
earned him a share of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927.
8/22/11 11:33
MORE CHAPTER 3, #1
Derivation of
Comptons Equation
Let 1 and 2 be the wavelengths of the incident and scattered x rays, respectively, as
shown in Figure 3-18. The corresponding momenta are
p1 =
hf1
E1
h
=
=
c
c
1
p2 =
hf2
E2
h
=
=
c
c
2
and
using f c. Since Compton used the K line of molybdenum ( 0.0711 nm; see
Figure 3-15b), the energy of the incident x ray (17.4 keV) is much greater than the
binding energy of the valence electrons in the carbon-scattering block (about 11 eV);
therefore, the carbon electrons can be considered to be free.
Conservation of momentum gives
p1 = p2 + pe
or
p 2e = p 21 + p 22 - 2p1 # p2
= p 21 + p 22 - 2p1p2 cos
3-26
where pe is the momentum of the electron after the collision and is the scattering
angle of the photon, measured as shown in Figure 3-18. The energy of the electron
before the collision is simply its rest energy E0 mc2 (see Chapter 2). After the collision, the energy of the electron is 1E 20 + p 2e c 2 2 1>2.
m
E1 = hf1
p1 = h/ 1
1
pe = E 2 E02
c
E2 = hf2
p2 = h/ 2
10
More Chapter 3
or
p 2e = p 21 + p 22 - 2p1 p2 +
2E 0 1p1 - p2 2
c
3-27
hc
hc
11 - cos 2 =
11 - cos 2
E0
mc 2
or
2 - 1 =
h
11 - cos 2
mc
3-25
11