S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp.

14-20

ISSN 2049-8373

Research Review

Land Use Changes in India and its Impacts on

Environment
Shashi Chawla
Department of Applied Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, Amity School of Engineering & Technology,
New Delhi, India
E-Mail: shashichawla10@gmail.com

Abstract
Land use changes result from population growth and migration of poor rural people to urban areas for economic
opportunities. Changes in land use directly influence the regional air quality, energy consumption and climate at global,
regional and local scales. Controlled, coordinated and planned urbanization is a gift to the human society. However,
unplanned urbanization can be a disaster. Urban sprawl refers to some types of uncoordinated land use resulting from lack
of integrated and holistic approach in regional planning. Information related to the rate of growth, pattern and extent of
sprawl is required by urban planners to provide basic amenities such as water, sanitation, electricity, etc. Urban sprawl
increases traffic problems, depletes local resources and destroys open space. Thus, it is very important to examine causes of
urban spread out, its associated problems and possible solutions in India. This paper provides a valuable basis to understand
the major issues faced by urban citizens in India as a consequence of land use changes. The suggested solutions are very
helpful for the strategic planning in future.
Keywords: Land Use Changes, India, Environmental Impact, Pollution

1. Introduction
Agriculture, industry, energy production, urban
development, grazing, logging, mining and other
land uses relate to human activity or economic function
associated with a specific piece of land. Generally land
use is constrained by soil characteristics, topography,
vegetation, climate, and other such environmental
factors. But it also reflects the importance of land as a
crucial and finite resource for most human activities.
Land use is a product of interactions between
cultural backgrounds, state and physical needs of the
society with the natural potential of land (Karwariya &
Goyal, 2011).
Often improper land use is responsible for various forms of
environmental degradation. It is essential to know the
natural characteristics, extent and location, its quality,
productivity, suitability and limitations of various land

uses for sustainable utilization of the land ecosystems. The

need for new housing, schools, industries, transportation
and other civic amenities increases with increase in
population. Earlier this was considered as a development,
advancement or urbanization. However, urban dispersion
processes in various Indian cities have led to patterns of
uncontrolled suburbanization. Sprawl is defined as the
uncontrolled spreading out of a given city and its suburbs
over more and more semi-rural land at the periphery of an
urban area. The sprawling process of expansion is
disordered, unplanned, leading often to inefficient and
unsustainable urban expansion patterns (Travisi and
Camagni, 2005).
Urban sprawl is characterized by four dimensions
i.e. widely dispersed population in low-density
development; sharply separated homes, stores, and

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

14

S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 14-20

workplaces; poorly connected network of roads, marked

huge superblocks and lack of well-defined activity
centres and downtowns (Camagni et al, 2002 and Wright,
2005).
Sprawl can be measured by using an integrated sprawl
index containing configuration (density and scatter) as well
as composition (mixed land use). The following indicators
are used for measurement of sprawl (Frenkel & Ashkenazi,
2005):

Growth rates are measured by the ratio between

the growth rate of built-up areas and the
population growth rate (sprawl quotients).

Urban activity is residential units, number of

residents and employees.

Density is ratio between a certain urban activity

and the area in which it exists.

ISSN 2049-8373

2. DPSIR Framework for Urban Sprawl

In Section 2, DPSIR framework is presented. The driving
forces of environmental change; pressures on the environment; the state of the environment; impacts on the
population; and the response of the society is described in
this conceptual framework.
2.1. Driving Forces (D)
Income, wealth and car use provide the framework for land
consumption of households, companies, and public spaces
such as parks. However location choices are made based
on the comparison of costs and utility effects (Siedentop,
2005). The lack of consistent and coherent urban
development policy, faulty and improper urban planning,
poor implementation and inefficient regulation are some of
the important causes of urban sprawl in India (MHUPA,
2011).
2.2. Pressures (P)

Spatial geometry is measured using leapfrog and

continuity to quantify scattering and fragmentation of the urban landscape.

Accessibility is measured using road length, road

areas and travelling times of households. In
general, the condition of poor accessibility is
followed by the higher use of private vehicles.

Aesthetic measures are difficult to measure as

sprawl is a boring, homogenous form of development.

Consequences of urban sprawl can be positive and

negative. Increased satisfaction of housing preferences,
the convenience of car travel, the filling in of leapfrogging
land, lower crime rates and better public schools
in suburban local governments are some of the
positive effects of sprawl. However, a shortage of
functional open space, car and its polluting
effects, air and water pollution, loss of farmland,
tax money spent on duplicative infrastructure,
concentrated
poverty,
racial
and
economic
segregation, a shortage of employment accessibility etc.
are some of the negative effects of sprawl (Wassmer,
2005).
Urban sprawl lead to shift towards more personal vehicle
use and is thus responsible for more pollution, higher road
accidents and an ever-increasing demand for petroleum.
Auto-catalysts in catalytic converter play a key role in
automotive emissions control because of their
extraordinary and sometimes exclusive properties. Thus,
they play an important role in building a more sustainable
society (Christian, 2011).

Car ownership numbers in families residing in the new

dispersed suburbs are much higher than those residing in
high density spaces. This is because separation and
differentiation of land use intensifies mobility. Pressures in
future will increase as projections suggest that India will
have more than 700 million urban persons by the 2040s
(MHUPA, 2011).
Slump has been criticized for eliminating permeable area.
Increase in the paved area severely reduces the
groundwater recharge potential, leading to situations which
may truly be potential catastrophes (Farooq & Ahmed,
2008).
2.3. State (S)
In Delhi, India built-up area witnessed an overall
increment of 16.86% of the total city area of 1490 km2
during 1997 to 2008. This area mainly came from
agriculture land, waste land, scrub-land, sandy areas and
water bodies. In comparison the increment in forest cover
of 0.5% is very small. Total area of water bodies has
reduced by 52.9% in the same period. To increase the
quality of life in an urban environment, it is essential to
preserve and manage natural land use classes through
appropriate urban planning (Manju et al, 2011).
Along the Mangalore-Udupi highway in India, it was
found that the percentage change in built-up area over a
period of nearly thirty years was 145.68% and by 2050 the
built-up area in the region would rise to 127.7 km2, which
would be about 106% growth in the change in built-up
area to the current sprawl of 61.7 km2 over the region
(Ramachandra et al, 2004).

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

15

S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 14-20

Sprawls change in Salem city situated in Salem District of

Tamilnadu, India was identified and quantified for 19732010. It was found that the Old Suramangalam Cluster or
North West Cluster extends from Andipatti to Burns
Colony. The Kalarampatti to NGGO Colony/ Chinna
Kollapatti extensions is the Second Cluster which occupies
in the north-eastern part of the corporation. This implies
that by 2020 and 2050, the built-up area in the region
would rise beyond the corporation limits and hence the
corporation limit will be extended (Tamilenthi et al, 2011).
With the expansion of the urban expansion and the
increasing population in Lucknow, India, there has been an
excessive pressure on natural and built drainage systems
and surface/subsurface hydrological storage units. Changes
in land use and land cover were estimated with respect to
urban sprawl and methodology is suggested during the
design of the master plan with focus on surface and subsurface water integrity of Lucknow (Dutta et al, 2010).
Assessment of Raichur City located in the state of
Karnataka, India, revealed that the city is under imminent
threat from the rapid urbanization. As per the present
trend, by 2021, nearly 27% of the agricultural land would
be converted to settlements resulting in shortage of the
surface and ground water resources which, in turn, would
further impact agriculture (Basawaraja et al, 2011).
Urban sprawl is consuming agricultural land and
threatening ecologically sensitive areas. It also
significantly increases the cost of providing infrastructure
(MHUPA, 2011).
In India, there were five cities with a population greater
than 1 million and much of humans effectively lived in
0.56 million villages in 1951. There are, however, 53 cities
with population greater than 1 million and 3 cities with
population greater than 10 million in 2011. The census
figures of 2011 reveal that the process of urbanization has
accelerated from an increase from 25.5% to 27.8% to
31.2% of total population in decades ending in 1991, 2001,
and 2011 respectively. Number of Rural and Urban
Settlements and their Population in India are summarized
in Table 1. Over the next 50 years, India will experience
the second largest Urban transformation in history,
involving approximately 5 mega-urban regions, seventy
plus million cities and over 0.5 million villages across a
diverse sub-continental landscape. India will thus make a
historic transition from a largely rural and agricultural
society to one that is predominantly urban (IIHS, 2012).
2.4. Impacts (I)
Shifting to a car-dependent lifestyle has caused an everincreasing demand for petroleum. The higher rates of
vehicle use lead to higher road accidents. Less walking and

ISSN 2049-8373

more usage of personal vehicles led to higher incidence of

obesity and high blood pressures in owners. All the
driveways, highways, parking lots associated with urban
sprawl lead to a significant increase in runoff, resulting in
increased flooding and erosion of stream banks. Water
quality is degraded by the runoff of fertilizer, pesticides,
oil that drips from engines, etc. In addition, sprawling
development is also responsible for loss of agricultural
land, landscapes and wildlife. Various Indian cities are
suffering from untidy informal irregular growth, huge
urban land shortages, growth of slums, chaotic transport,
insufficient municipal finances, inefficient governance,
water logging, damaging diseases, huge infrastructure and
housing shortages (Figure 1) (MHUPA, 2011).
The agricultural space is used, connected agricultural land
is destroyed, natural potential of soils is indirectly lost and
the endangered animals and plants are eliminated
(Ecological Impacts). Inhabitants of densely built cities
have to bear lower traffic costs. As households and firms
suburbanize, radial commuting to the city centre is more
and more replaced by cross-commuting within the urban
area. Even in a more decentralized structure, transportation
costs may actually be lower with jobs nearby. The time
cost of commuting would have increased even more
without suburbanization (Traffic Impacts).
Sprawl leads to an erosion of functioning urban cores. This
results in reduction in degree of social interactions and
cultural diversity (Social and health impacts) (Siedentrop,
2005).
The rapid growth of population has brought about
extensive land-use changes in the Himalayas, mainly
through the extension of cultivation and large-scale
deforestation. The irrational land transformation process
has not only disrupted the ecological balance of the
Himalayan watersheds through reduced groundwater
recharge, increased run-off and soil erosion, but has also
adversely affected the economy and ecology of the
adjoining Indo-Gangetic plains by frequent floods and
reduced irrigation potential (Tiwari, 2000). The agroecosystems of Central Himalayan villages are under
enormous pressure due to industrialization and
commercialization of agriculture. The production and
suitable management of resources is necessary to save
these natural ecosystems from further decline (Chandra et
al, 2011).
As the number of cars on the road increases, a number of
harmful pollutants are emitted as vehicular exhausts. These
pollutants include carbon monoxide gas, nitric oxide,
hydrocarbons and particulates. Carbon monoxide (CO)
reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen and
extended exposure to CO can contribute to heart disease.
Nitric oxide product is precursor for atmospheric

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

16

S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 14-20

generation of nitric acid-one of the constituents of acid rain

and is also an essential component in photochemical smog
formation which intensifies breathing problems.
Hydrocarbons have an unpleasant smell and they are also
involved in the formation of smog. Particulate matter
interferes with normal respiratory functions and is
associated with emphysema, asthma and bronchitis
(VanLoon & Duffy, 2011).

ISSN 2049-8373

A pioneering program by New Delhi, Indias 2003

conversion of 90,000 buses, taxis and auto-rickshaws to
compressed natural gas (CNG) has not significantly
improved harmful vehicle emissions. The study finds that
as much as one third of CNG is not properly burned in
two-stroke engines, producing high emissions of methane
that contributes to climate change. CNG use also produced
substantial emissions of high particulate matter from

Table 1. Number of Rural and Urban Settlements and their Population in India (IIHS, 2012)

Settlements

Population (%)

Year
Rural
1991
2001
2011

Urban

Rural

Urban

3,351
5,161
7,935

74.5
72.2
68.8

25.5
27.8
31.2

634,321
638,588
640,867

Vehicular pollution is increasing in Indian cities and has a

deleterious effect on various systems of the body. This was
found through a study in two areas of Delhi (India); one
highly polluted and the other low polluted area
(Bhattacharya et al, 2007).

unburned lubricating oil (UBC, 2011).

Particulate matter: Fine, ultrafine and black carbon
particles are associated with respiratory, heart diseases and
premature death. Their concentrations in Delhi auto-

Figure.1. DPSIR Framework for Urban Sprawl (Wright, 2005)

As roadways choke on traffic, researchers suspect that the

tailpipe exhaust from trucks and cars-especially tiny
carbon particles already implicated in cancer, respiratory
ailments and heart disease- may also injure brain cells and
synapses key to learning and memory (Robert, 2011).

rickshaws are about 2-10 times higher than measured in

other megacities around the world. Pollution is 35-55%
less in AC cars with windows closed. Short-term peak
concentrations in auto-rickshaws are about 6-50 times
higher than ambient levels. Thus it is crucial to reduce
emissions of vehicle fleet (Apte et al, 2011).

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

17

S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 14-20

ISSN 2049-8373

Air pollution due to road traffic is a serious health hazard

and thus the persons, who are continuously exposed, like
traffic policemen, are at an increased risk. The effect of
pollution by vehicular exhausts may be responsible for
impairment in lung function in traffic policemen (Gupta et
al, 2011).

Exhaust Gas Recirulation (EGR) works by recirculating

some of the exhaust gas back into the engine. This reduces
the amount of NOx formed by lowering the temperature of
combustion. Various technologies used in India for
controlling pollution are summarized in Table 2 (Kapoor,
2012)

Levels of ambient air pollution uniformly exceed the

recently revised WHO air quality guideline (AQG) levels
across most cities in India, with almost 80 nonattainment
cities and towns and 24 critically polluted hotspots
identified by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
An estimated 120,600 deaths are attributed to outdoor air
pollution each year in India (Balakrishnan et al, 2011).

Thus, the platinum group metals are increasingly important

as auto-catalysts for pollution control. They reduce the
pollutants in diesel exhaust by converting 30 to 40% of
particulates and 90% of hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide into carbon dioxide and water vapour
respectively. They also convert over 90% of carbon
monoxide and oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons from
gasoline engines into less harmful carbon dioxide, nitrogen
and water vapour (VanLoon & Duffy, 2011).

2.5. Responses (R)

Indian government is trying to control pollution by
implementing strict emission control laws. Ministry of
Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of
India has started Urban Strategic Planning for the 12th
Five-Year Plan (MHUPA, 2011).

3. Discussion
3.1. Vehicular Pollution Control using Auto-Catalyst
The chemistry of platinum group metals (pgms), namely,
platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium and
osmium, is dominated by the catalytic properties of the
metals. Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) uses a Platinum
Group Metal (PGM) catalyst. Diesel Particulate Filter
(DPF) may also be catalysed by pgms to aid regeneration.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) absorbers based on pgm, hold
NOx until the downstream Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) or NOx trap catalysts are warm enough to remove
NOx. Reformer catalyst containing rhodium converts some
of the fuel into CO, CO2 and H2 in reforming process. This
H2 is introduced into the engine alongside the fuel. This
helps combustion and can also reduce emissions of NOx
and particulate matter (PM). Three-way catalyst (TWC),
combination of platinum, palladium and rhodium, removes
hydrocarbons, CO and NOx and help in deodorisation of
the exhaust gases in motor vehicles (Millington & York,
2012).

Indian Government continues to apply increasingly stricter

emissions standards to cut in pollution per vehicle which is
needed to keep improving air quality. India has already
implemented Bharat IV emission standards in thirteen
cities and the number of cities will increase in future.
Clean air legislation results in catalytic converters being
fitted to petrol and diesel cars and heavy trucks. This has
and will continue to drive greater use of the catalytic
converter (Kapoor, 2012).
3.2. Smart Growth
The continued use of more and more cars by rapidly
increasing urban population is not sustainable given the
combination of environmental consequences of fossil-fuel
usage, congestion caused by use of more cars, potential
disruptions to fuel supplies etc (Chin, 2010).
To be more responsive to the changing needs and demands
of the citizens, the urban planning process must combine
environmental planning, transportation planning with land
use and spatial planning with socio-economic and financial
planning. Planning should concentrate growth in selective
city centres to avoid urban sprawl. Smart growth advocates
compact, transit-oriented, walk-to-work, bicycle-friendly
land use to the extent possible, including neighbourhood
schools, streets and amenities that are suitable for
everyone. Planning as per smart growth principle

Table 2. Emission Control Technologies used for Various Classes of Diesel Commercial Vehicles in India (Kapoor, 2012)

Emission Control Technology Used in India (2011)

Diesel Commercial Vehicle Class
Light
Medium
Heavy

Size (Tones)
3.5 to 7.5
7.5 to 12
>12

EGR

EGR+DOC

EGR+DOC+DPF

SCR

Yes
Yes
-

Yes
Yes
-

Yes
Yes
-

Yes
Yes

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

18

S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 14-20

advocates mixed-use development with a range of housing

choices and focus on public transport. Such compact cities
are more efficient and sustainable than cities that are
sprawled over large areas (MHUPA, 2011).

4. Conclusions
This paper has reviewed the key policy and governance
challenge in India originated as a result of land use
changes resulting in urban sprawl. Air legislation standards
are getting stricter day by day to cut in pollution resulted
from urban spread out. As automobiles will be driven
by an increasing number of users who live in urban areas,
so stricter emission standards will increase the demand
of auto-catalysts used in catalytic converter. In summary,
this paper provides an important insight into possible
solutions for various problems resulting from the urban
sprawl.

Acknowledgements
Author is greatly indebted to Dr Ashok K Chauhan,
founder President, Prof. B.P.Singh, Senior Director and
Prof. Rekha Agarwal, Director; Amity School of
Engineering & Technology for their continued guidance
and encouragement. He is thankful to Dr. Alok
Saklani, Prof. and Director of Apeejay School of
Management for his valuable guidance during the faculty
development course. He is also thankful to Ms Rachana
Nagal and Ms Neera Bhutani for language corrections.
A draft of this paper has been significantly
re-written and updated based on valuable reports from
unspecified referees, and their comments are gratefully
acknowledged.

References
Apte, J.S., Kirchstetter, T.W., Reich, A.H., Deshpande,
S.J., Kaushik, G., Chel, A., Marshal, J.D., and Nazaroff,
W.W. (2011) Concentrations of fine, ultrafine and back
carbon particles in auto-rickshawas in New Delhi, India.
Atmospheric Environment, 45(26), pp. 4470-4480.
Balakrishnan, K., Dhaliwal, R., and Shah, B. (2011)
Integrated urban-rural frameworks for air pollution and
health-ralated research in India: They way forward.
Environ. Health Perspect., 119, pp. a12-a13.

ISSN 2049-8373

environmental costs of different patterns of urban

expansion. Ecological Economics, 40(2), pp. 199-216.
Chandra, A., Kandari, L.S., Rao, K.S., and Saxena, K.G.
(2011) Assessment of Socio-economical Status and its
Impact on Management in Central Himalaya. Asian
Journal of Agricultural Research, 5, pp. 234-242.
Chin, R. (2010) Sustainable Urban Mobility in 2020.
The Futurist July-August [Internet]. Available from:
<http://www.wfs.org/Jul-Aug2010/Chin.htm> [Accessed
19 May 2012].
Christian, H, (2011) Sustainable resource management in
the production chain of precious and special metals.
International Economics of Resource Efficiency, 5, pp.
357-369.
Dutta, V., Singh, A., and Prasad, N. (2010) Urban sprawl
and water stress with respect to changing landscape: study
from Lucknow, India. Journal of Geography and
Regional Planning, 3(5), pp. 84-105.
Farooq, S., and Ahmad, S. (2008) Urban Sprawl
Development around Aligarh City: A Study Aided by
Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS. Journal of India
Society of Remote Sensing, 36, pp. 77-88.
Frenkel, A., and Ashkenazi, M. (2005) Measuring urban
sprawl- how can we deal with It? [Internet]. ERSA
Conference Papers ersa05p50, European Regional
Science Association. Available from: <http://www-sre.wuwien.ac.at/ersa/ersaconfs/ersa05/papers/50.pdf> [Accessed
30 May 2012].
Gupta, S., Mittal, S., Kumar, A., and Singh, K.D. (2011)
Respiratory effects of air pollutants among nonsmoking
traffic policemen of Patiala, India. Lung India, 28(4), pp.
253-257.
IIHS (2012) Urban India 2011: Evidence Report from
the Indian Institute for Human Settlements [Internet].
Available from: <http://www.iihs.co.in/wp-content/themes
/education/resources/Urban-Dynamics.pdf/> [Accessed 30
May 2012].
Kapoor, M. (2012) Diesel Emissions Conference India
2011. Platinum Metals Review, 56(1), pp. 36-39.

Basawaraja, R., Chari, K.B., Mise, S.R., and Chetti, S.B.

(2011) Analysis of the impact of urban sprawl in altering
the land-use, land-cover pattern of Raichur City, India,
using geospatial technologies. Journal of Geography and
Regional Planning, 4(8), pp. 455-462.

Karwariya, S., and Goyal, S. (2011) Land use and land

cover mapping using digital classification technique in
Tikamgarh district, Madhya Pradesh, India using Remote
Sensing. International Journal of Geomatics and
Geosciences, 2(2), pp. 519-529.

Camagni, R., Gibelli, M.C., and Rigamonti, P. (2002)

Urban mobility and urban form: the social and

Manju, M., Subhan, K.P., Kolli, N., Anurag, K., and

Sucheta, P. (2011) Dynamics of urbanization and its

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

19

S. Chawla / Journal of Environment (2012), Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 14-20

ISSN 2049-8373

impact on land-use/land-cover: A case study of megacity

Delhi. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2, pp.
1274-1283.

Vehicle Engines [Internet], Science Daily. Available

from:
<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/
110301122045.htm> [Accessed 31 May 2012].

MHUPA (2011) Report of the Working Group on

Urban Strategic Planning: 12th Five-year Plan
[Internet], Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
Alleviation,
Govt. of India.
Available from:
<http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrk
grp12/hud/wg_rep_Urban_WG.pdf> [Accessed 20 May
2012].

VanLoon, G.W., and Duffy, S.J. (2011) Environmental

Chemistry a global perspective. 3rd ed. Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 2011, pp 93, 151.

Millington, P.J., and York, A.P.E. (2012) Opportunities

for Platinum Group Metals in Future Emissions Control
Technology. Platinum Metals Review, 56(1), pp. 58-60.
Robert, L.H. (2011) The Hidden Toll Of Traffic Jams.
Scientists Increasingly Link Vehicle Exhaust With
Brain-Cell Damage, Higher Rates of Autism [Internet].
The
Wall
Street
Journal
Available
from:
<http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203733
504577024000381790904.html> [Accessed 31 May 2012].

Wassmer, R.W. (2005) Causes of Urban Sprawl

(Decentralization) in the United States: Natural
Evolution, Flight from Blight, and the Fiscalization of
Land Use [Internet]. Available from: < http://localgov.fsu.
edu/readings_papers/Growth%20Manag/WassmerEdwards
CausesSprawl.pdf> [Accessed 03 June 2012].
Wright, R.T. (2005) Environmental Science. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 640.

Bhattacharya, M., Sagar, A., and Joon, V. (2007) A

comparative study of air pollution-related morbidity
among exposed population of Delhi. Indian Journal of
Community Medicine, 32(4), pp. 268-271.
Siedentop, S. (2005) Urban Sprawl- Verstehen, Messen,
Steuern. Zurich, DISP 160. pp. 23-35.
Ramachandra, T.V., Sudhira, H.S., and Jagadish, K.S.
(2004) Urban sprawl: metrics, dynamics and modeling
using GIS. International Journal of Applied Earth
Observation and Geoinformation, 5, pp. 29-39.
Tamilenthi, S., Punithavathi, J., Baskaran, R., and
Chandra, M.K. (2011) Dynamics of urban sprawl,
changing direction and mapping: A case study of Salem
city, Tamilnadu, India. Scholars Research Library,
Archives of Applied Science Research, 3(1), pp. 277286.
Tiwari, P.C. (2000) Land-use changes in Himalaya and
their impact on the plains ecosystem: need for sustainable
land use. Land Use Policy, 17(2), pp. 101-111.
Travisi, C.M., and Camagni, R. (2005) Sustainability of
Urban Sprawl: Environmental Economic Indicators for the
Analysis of Mobility Impact in Italy (September 2005).
FEEM Working Paper No. 102.05 [Internet]. Available
from: < http://www.feem.it/userfiles/attach/Publication/
NDL2005/NDL2005-102.pdf> [Accessed 02 June 2012].
UBC (2011) Report of University of British Columbia
on Clean Fuel Worsens Climate Impacts for Some

Available online at www.scientific-journals.co.uk

20