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Literature Review
Although a small number of studies
have examined sleep in youth during
non-intensive care hospitalizations
and reported shortened sleep duration,
increased night wakings, and greater
daytime fatigue, most of these studies
have been limited by methodology
(single-item question) and/or sample
(limited age range, single disease).
Hagemann (1981a, b) used an inroom observer in a small sample of
young children (N = 34, 3 to 8 years) to
determine every five minutes if the
child was awake or asleep. White,
Powell, Alexander, Williams, and
Conlon (1988) measured only selfsoothing bedtime behaviors related to
sleep onset latency, also in a small sample of young children (N = 40, 3 to 8
years). In a study of 27 youth with sickle cell disease, Jacob and colleagues
(2006) measured sleep with a single
question (How much sleep did you
have last night?) that relied on a 10point Likert scale (no sleep at all to
slept a lot). Finally, Franck and colleagues (2007) used three single-item
questions to measure tiredness in the
morning, tiredness in the evening, and
sleep quality. Only Hinds and colleagues (2007) used a more comprehensive approach (actigraphy, diary,
entry checklist on door) to study sleep
during hospitalization in youth with
pitalized child, but also for their parents (such as decreased parent/child
stress and anxiety, and increased
parental self-confidence in their parenting abilities and roles) (Smith,
Hefley, & Anand, 2007). It has become
standard practice to allow parents to
stay at their childs bedside overnight,
particularly on medical and surgical
units (Stremler et al., 2008). Despite
the known benefits of constant
parental presence, little research has
focused on the impact of rooming-in
on parental sleep.
Only one study examined sleep in
rooming-in parents of hospitalized
youth, reporting an average total sleep
time of only 4.6 hours (McCann,
2008). Via an open-ended question,
parents reported sleep disruptions due
to noise from other children in the
room, medical equipment, or conversations in the hallway, as well as an
uncomfortable sleeping arrangement
(for example, a chair). The authors
noted that the shortened total sleep
time is similar to that found in laboratory-based studies, resulting in negative changes to mood, performance,
and physical well-being (Dinges et al.,
1997; Haack & Mullington, 2005).
Each of these outcomes is important
for parents who are trying to provide
emotional and physical support to
their hospitalized child, as well as
make important decisions about their
childs medical care.
A negative relationship between
sleep loss and daytime functioning
has been documented in parents of
children with chronic illnesses (Diette
et al., 2000; Meltzer & Mindell, 2006;
Moore et al., 2006) but has not been
studied during times of hospitalization. Therefore, although parental
presence during hospitalization is
emotionally beneficial for the parent
and child, ultimately, parental health,
well-being, and the ability to function
as an advocate for the child may be
negatively impacted (Dudley & Carr,
2004; Hopia, Tomlinson, Paavilainen,
& Astedt-Kurki, 2005). Thus, more
information is needed about roomingin parents sleep during pediatric hospitalization.
Study Objectives
To address the gaps in the existing
literature related to sleep in pediatric
patients and their parents during hospitalization, the goal of this study was
to capture multiple aspects of sleep for
patients and parents during a night in
a childrens hospital. The first aim was
to examine whether the previous
night of sleep in the hospital differed
Methods
Measures
Participants and Procedure
Participants were drawn from a
large (over 400 inpatient beds), tertiary
care childrens hospital in the midAtlantic region of the United States.
Families were eligible to participate if
the child/adolescent was 1) 8 to 21
years of age (inclusive), 2) had been
admitted to the hospital no later than
4:00 p.m. the previous day (ensuring at
least 24 hours of hospitalization), 3)
did not have surgery in the previous 24
hours, and 4) did not have sedation for
a medical procedure (such as an MRI)
in the previous 24 hours. Parents of
patients were eligible to participate if
1) their child met the above criteria,
and 2) the parent had stayed with the
child the previous night (roomed-in).
Participation by both the patient and
the parent was not required (for example, the adolescent participated but the
parent did not room-in the previous
night).
This study was approved by the
hospitals Institutional Review Board.
Parent written consent and youth verbal assent were obtained for all participants. During a one-week period, the
charge nurse for each non-critical care
inpatient unit in the hospital identified potential participants using the
inclusion criteria described. Participation rates were 78% for patients and
79% for parents. The two primary reasons given for not wanting to participate included 1) not interested and 2)
Statistical Analyses
Descriptive statistics (means, frequencies) were used to describe the
study sample. Reported sleep variables
included bedtime (time attempted to
fall asleep), sleep onset latency (SOL)
(minutes to fall asleep at bedtime),
night waking frequency, and wake
time. Total sleep time (TST) was calculated (time from bedtime to wake
time, less SOL). Because developmental differences in sleep may be masked
by examining averages for the entire
sample, paired t-tests were used to separately examine differences in sleep in
hospital and sleep at home for schoolaged children (8 to 12 years; n = 33)
and adolescents (13 to 21 years; n =
39). Descriptive statistics were used to
report the most common noises, wor66
Figure 1.
Sample Items from the Sleep in a Childrens Hospital Survey
A. Typical Sleep Questions Weekday
The next set of questions has to do with your usual schedule on days when you are
at home and you go to school.
1. What time do you usually go to bed on school nights?
(List ONE time, not a range)
____:____
PM
AM
2. Once you turn your light off on school nights, how long
_________ Minutes
does it usually take you to fall asleep?
3. After you have gone to sleep, how many times do you
usually wake up during the night?
_________ Times
____:____
PM
AM
____:____
2. Once you turn your light off, about how long did it take
you to fall asleep last night?
_________ Minutes
3. After you went to sleep last night, how many times did
you wake up during the night?
_________ Times
____:____
PM
PM
AM
AM
C. Noises and Worries that May Have Bothered Participants the Previous Night
Some kids find it hard to sleep in the hospital, while others do not. Please think about
LAST NIGHT when answering the following questions about things that may have
made it hard for you to fall asleep or stay asleep. Please circle one answer for each
question.
Last night, how bothered were you by the following noises
1. People talking outside your room
A lot
A lot
A lot
A lot
D. Specific Sleep Disruptors that May Have Disturbed Sleep Onset or Sleep
Maintenance
Last night, in the middle of the night, were you bothered by
1. Pain
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
ries, and other causes of sleep disruptions. T-tests were used to examine
differences in sleep variables for
patients and parents who did and did
not experience the most common
sleep disruptors. Finally, analysis of
covariance (controlling for age) was
used to examine differences in sleep
for both reason for hospitalization and
first night effect.
Results
Sample Demographics
The final sample included 72 children and adolescents (50% female,
68% Caucasian) ages 8 to 21 years
(mean = 13.1 years, SD = 3.1) and 58
parents who roomed in with their
child the previous night (89% female,
Table 1.
Means, Standard Deviations, and Paired t-Test Results for Sleep in the
Hospital and at Home
Hospital
Mean (SD)
Home
Mean (SD)
Bedtime
22:38 (98)
21:05 (46)
4.82
Wake time
7:32 (73)
6:49 (36)
2.87
24.1 (37.6)
18.9 (18.5)
0.80
2.7 (1.7)
0.82 (1.0)
6.12
ES
Children (8 to 12 years)
2.70
<0.001 1.22
0.02
0.74
0.43
0.18
<0.001 1.35
0.01
0.70
0.27
0.20
22:49 (92)
22:32 (76)
1.12
Wake time
7:42 (83)
6:32 (64)
4.19
25.7 (33.0)
24.5 (21.4)
0.18
0.86
2.7 (2.2)
1.2 (1.6)
3.48
0.001 0.78
515.3 (95.2)
460.3 (93.9)
2.54
0.02
0.58
Bedtime
23:03 (83)
22:46 (66)
1.49
0.14
0.22
Wake time
6:38 (77)
6:17 (73)
1.86
0.07
0.28
23.0 (20.6)
17.7 (8.9)
1.41
0.16
0.33
4.7 (3.6)
2.0 (1.5)
5.53
<0.001 0.94
0.04
Parents
0.02
<0.001 0.98
0.98
0.003
Note: Bedtime and wake time expressed by 24-hour clock; SD expressed in minutes.
Effect size is Cohens d.
78% Caucasian; mean age = 41.9, SD
7.1; 48% high school/some college,
50% college degree or higher). Fortynine percent of youth were in the hospital due to a chronic illness that
required treatment (such as asthma,
cancer, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease), and 21% were in the hospital for
surgery. Other reasons for hospitalization included medical tests, infections,
flu, stomach pain/virus, and blood
transfusion. This was the first hospitalization for 36% of the youth, with the
median length of hospitalization of 3
days (range 1 to 150 days). Thirteen
children (18%) reported taking a medication to help them sleep the previous night during hospitalization
(including diphenhydramine, benzodiazepines, zolpidem, and morphine)
compared to 2 children (3%) who
took a medication to help them sleep
at home.
Table 2.
Means, Standard Deviations, and Paired t-Test Results for Sleep
Disruptions and Sleep Variables
Pain Mean (SD)
Yes
No
ES
Child
44.3 (56.5)
12.5 (11.0)
2.41a
0.91
Adolescent
22.4 (18.1)
30.7 (44.5)
-0.70
0.25
Parent
23.3 (25.1)
23.4 (18.3)
-0.01
0.00
1.02
0.40
3.2
(2.1)
2.5
(1.6)
Adolescent
3.5
(1.7)
2.4
(2.4)
1.58
0.53
Parent
4.6
(2.3)
4.8
(4.1)
-0.20
0.06
Wake Time
Child
7:55 (1:51)
7:31 (1:03)
0.69
0.32
Adolescent
7:33 (1:41)
7:54 (1:19)
-0.60
0.25
Parent
6:52 (1:25)
6:36 (1:18)
0.46
0.20
No
ES
Child
19.1 (17.6)
27.1 (45.7)
-0.55
0.21
Adolescent
22.8 (18.0)
31.3 (47.5)
-0.71
0.25
Parent
25.1 (20.4)
20.7 (20.3)
0.75
0.22
2.7
(1.2)
2.7
(2.1)
0.02
0.01
Adolescent
3.6
(2.3)
1.8
(1.6)
2.54a
0.87
Parent
4.8
(3.8)
4.7
(3.6)
0.11
0.03
Wake Time
Child
7:53 (1:33)
7:20 (0:56)
1.24
0.46
Adolescent
7:23 (1:16)
8:22 (1:21)
-2.26a
0.75
Parent
6:39 (1:21)
6:37 (1:18)
0.11
0.03
No
ES
Child
30.8 (30.8)
22.7 (38.0)
0.45
0.21
Adolescent
30.3 (21.1)
24.2 (37.9)
0.49
0.18
Parent
35.9 (23.9)
15.5 (14.3)
3.73
1.09
3.7
(2.7)
2.5
(1.4)
1.51
0.68
Adolescent
3.5
(1.4)
2.6
(2.4)
1.04
0.41
Parent
6.3
(4.9)
3.5
(1.5)
2.97
0.82
Wake Time
Child
7:05 (0:12)
7:31 (1:10)
-0.90
0.41
Adolescent
7:30 (1:32)
8:05 (1:12)
-1.30
0.43
Parent
6:24 (1:14)
6:49 (1:20)
-1.14
0.32
p < 0.05
p < 0.01
c
p < 0.001
b
Note: Wake time expressed by 24-hour clock; SD expressed in minutes. Effect size (ES)
is Cohens d.
68
Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, and Analysis of Covariance Results for Sleep and
Reason for Hospitalization and First Night Effect (Controlling for Age)
Reason for Hospitalization
Bedtime
Chronic Illness
(n = 35) Mean (SD)
Surgery
(n = 14) Mean (SD)
Other
(n = 22) Mean (SD)
Partial ETA
Squared
23:09
(1:47)
21:52
(1:11)
22:40
(1:06)
3.91
0.03
0.11
Wake time
7:55
(1:27)
7:07
(1:09)
7:38
(1:07)
2.16
0.12
0.06
23.7
(32.4)
26.4
(32.8)
26.4
(41.4)
0.04
0.96
0.001
2.7
(2.3)
3.4
(2.0)
2.5
(1.3)
0.82
0.45
0.02
507.8 (103.3)
533.1
(85.0)
497.7
(95.1)
0.51
0.60
0.02
Partial ETA
Squared
(1:27)
Wake time
7:00
21.3
(1:32)
3.73
0.06
0.05
(1:02)
7:47
(1:19)
3.64
0.05
0.05
(21.1)
25.8
(37.1)
0.15
0.70
0.003
3.0
(2.9)
2.7
(1.7)
0.19
0.67
0.003
438.7
(80.3)
523.6
(94.1)
7.85
0.007
0.11
Note: Bedtime and wake time expressed by 24-hour clock; SD expressed in minutes.
Conclusion
Nurses are well positioned to influence many of the sleep disruptors
identified in this study through small
changes in practice and advocacy for
the patient and family. In addition,
identifying families who are experiencing sleep disruptions due to worries and working with the psychosocial team may result in significant
reductions in common sleep disruptors at little to no cost in time or
money. Overall, this study demonstrates the need for additional research
examining the causes and consequences of disrupted sleep for patients
and parents in a childrens hospital.
Sleep plays an important role in the
health and well-being of patients and
their parents. For patients, sufficient
good quality sleep contributes to the
healing and immune process. For parents, sufficient good quality sleep contributes to the ability to make important medical decisions and provide
emotional support for their child.
References
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
(2003). Family-centered care and the
pediatricians role. Pediatrics, 112, 691696.
Balling, K., & McCubbin, M. (2001). Hospitalized children with chronic illness:
Parental caregiving needs and valuing
parental expertise. Journal of Pediatric
Nursing, 16, 110-119.
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