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CHAPTER V

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Locale
This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in brief the place where
the study is to be conducted. Only important features which have bearing on the proposed
study are to be included. It should show the target population.
B. Research Design
This describes the research mode whether it is a true experimental, quasiexperimental design, descriptive or survey research, historical research, qualitative research,
ethnographic and other research methods.
Basic Classifications of Research Studies
1. Exploratory conducted when little is known about the phenomenon of interest;
qualitative studies
e.g. Study that examines the needs of family members of a patient who will be
receiving antibiotics at home by IV push method.
2. a. Descriptive- normative - data are gathered by asking questions related to the
issue of interest and provides information of the demographic nature of
population (e.g. births, deaths, age, income, sex, IQ, civil status, etc).
b. Descriptive-Correlational - describes the relationship between variables
3.Explanatory Studies searches for causal explanations and are much more rigorous
than exploratory or descriptive; experimental studies
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
A. Experimental Research Designs
- concerned with cause-and-effect relationships
Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research
The basic idea underlying all experimental research is really quite simple: try
something and systematically observe what happens. Formal experiments consists of two
conditions:
1)
At least two (but often more) conditions or methods are compared to assess
the effects(s) of particular conditions on treatments (the independent
variable); and
2)
The independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher.

Change is planned for an deliberately manipulated in order to study its


effect(s) on one or more outcomes (the dependent variable).
1.

2.

3.

Comparison of groups or Control


- An experiment usually involves two groups of subjects, an
experimental group and a control or a comparison group.
- The control or comparison group is crucially important in all
experimental research, for it serves the purpose with determining
whether the treatment had an effect or whether our treatment is
more effective than another.
Manipulation of the independent variables
Involves doing something to study participants
The experimenter manipulates the independent variable by
administering a treatment to some subjects and withholding it from
others
- In social research, some independent variables cannot be
manipulated (e.g. gender, age, religion etc).
-

Randomization
- placing the subjects in groups at random or giving every subject an
equal chance of being assigned to any group.
- an important aspect of many experiments is the random
assignments in which random assignment is not possible, researchers
try to use randomization whenever, feasible.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS


1. Basic Experimental Designs
1.1.Post-Test Only or After Only design/ Post-test Control Group Design
In this design the data are on the dependent variable are collected only once after
random assignment is completed and the experimental treatment has been
introduced.

Example:

A study on the effect of an educational intervention relating to urinary incontinence


on the subsequent help-seeking behavior of older adults. One group received
individualized instruction and written information, and the other received written
information alone. Two months later, the researcher determined how many subjects
sought professional help for urinary incontinence.
Symbolic Representation
R
X
O
R
O
1.2.Pretest Posttest or Before After Design
It has two measurement points, before and after the intervention or treatment is
done. It is effective in measuring change.

Example:

The study sought to determine which of the two types of blankets, convective
airflow blanket or conducive water-flow blanket, is more effective in cooling critically
ill patients with fever. Patients were randomly assigned to two types of blankets
(independent variable) and measuring the dependent variable (body temperature)
twice, before and after the intervention.
Symbolic Representation:
R
O1
X
O2
R
O1
O2
R= Randomization
O= Observation or measurement
X= Treatment or intervention
2. Solomon Four-Group Design
This involves two experimental groups and two control groups. This design is effective
to eliminate the possible influence of pre-testing on the results of the study.

Group
Experimental- w/ pretest
Experimental-w/o pretest
Control w/ pretest
Control w/o pretest

Data
Collection
Befor
After
e
X
X
X
X
X
X

3. Factorial Design
This design permits the testing of two or more hypothesis or the manipulation of two or
more independent variables. It does not only determine the main effects but also the
interaction effects (effects resulting from combining treatments).
Example: A study will be undertaken in order to compare two therapeutic strategies
for premature infants: tactile stimulation versus auditory stimulation. At the same time,
the researchers are interested in learning if daily amount of stimulation (15, 30 or 45
minutes) affects infants progress. The dependent variable is the measure of infant
development based on the weight gain. (2 X 3 design)

15 Mins.
B1
30 mins.
B2
45 mins.
B3

Auditory
A1

Tactile
A2

A1 B1

A2 B1

A1 B2

A2 B2

A1 B3

A2 B3

4. Randomized Block Design


In this design there are two factors (independent Variables) but one factor is not
experimentally manipulated. Suppose that you are interested in comparing the effects of
tactile versus auditory stimulation for male versus female infants. This is structured as
2X2 experiment, with type of stimulation as one factor and gender as the other. The
variable gender which cannot be manipulated is known as blocking variable.
5. Crossover Design
This is also known as repeated measures design. This involves the exposure of the
same subjects to more than one experimental treatment.
II. Quasi-Experimental Designs
They are like true experiments, but some characteristics of a true experiment are not
met such as randomization, control, or validity.
1. Nonequivalent Control Group
1.1.Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Involves an experimental treatment and two groups of subjects observed before
and after its implementation but no randomization.
Symbolic Representation:
O1
X
O2
O1
O2
1.2. Nonequivalent Control Group Only Posttest Design
Symbolic Representation:
X
O
O
2. Time Series Design
A quasi-experimental design involving the collection of data over an extended time
period, with multiple data collection points both prior and after an intervention. Can
forecast short term trends and can be interpreted easily.
Example: Customer satisfaction rate, Graduation rates
Symbolic Representation:
O1
O2
O3
O4

O5

O6

O7

O8

III. Pre-Experimental Designs: Is needed because there are many independent


variables (IV) that cannot be manipulated. The researcher investigates condition that
naturally occur or that have already occurred. The researcher studies how variables are
related. Example of categorical variables that cannot be manipulated: gender, parenting
styles, learning styles, ethnicity, personality type, drug use, retention in grade
Example of quantitative variable that cannot be manipulated:

1.1 Post-test Design or After only Design


Symbolic Representation:
x

Time

O (Observation/ Testing/ Survey)

The design is also called as One Shot Survey. This design is used when the study objective
is to describe a situation/ condition of a study population as it exist, or to describe/
determine the characteristics of a population/ respondents. There is no baseline data.
1.2 Pretest- Posttest design or Before- After Survey
Symbolic Representation:
O1
Observation/ Survey
(Before X)

X (Intervention)

O2
Observation/ Survey 2
(After X)

This design is used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics (e.g.
knowledge, attitude, practices) of the study population (students, nurses, managers, clients,
etc) in a given area. A survey, observation or testing is conducted before an intervention is
introduced (O1). After a period of time the survey, observation, or testing is repeated (O2)
and the results of the pretest (before) and the posttest (after) are compared to determine
change/s.
For example: Comparing grades prior to gaining the work experience to the grades after
completing a semester of work experience.
1.3Static Group Comparison
Symbolic Representation:
Experimental Group
Control Group

Time

O1
O2

In the static group design, there are two groups involved, an experimental and a control
group. The experimental group receives or is exposed to the intervention/ treatment (x).
This is followed by a measurement (O1), the result of the measurement/ observation from a
control group (O2) that did not receive the intervention. The random process, however,
was not used in the assignment of subjects to the experimental and control group (indicated
by a broken line).
Validity of Experimental Designs
In experimental studies, as well as in other types of research, the researcher is
interested in controlling extraneous variables, those variables that the researcher is not able
to control, or does not choose to control and that may influence the results of a study.

Internal Validity refers to the extent to which it is possible to make an inference


that the independent variable is truly causing or influencing the dependent variable and that
the relationship between the two is not the spurious effect of an extraneous variable.
External Validity- refers to the generalizability of the research findings to other
settings or samples.
Threats to Internal Validity
1. History this refers to the occurrence of external events that take place concurrently
with the independent variable that can affect the dependent variable.
2. Selection encompasses biases resulting from preexisting differences between groups.
3. Maturation refers to the processes occurring within subjects during the course of the
study as a result of the passage of time rather than as a result of a treatment or
independent variable. (e.g. physical growth, emotional maturity, fatigue, etc)
4. Testing refers to the effects of taking pretest of subjects performance on a posttest.
5. Instrumentation reflects changes in measuring instruments or methods of
measurement between two points of data collection.
6. Mortality the threat that arises from differential attrition in groups being compared.
Threats to External Validity
1. Expectancy Effects. Subjects may behave in a particular manner largely because they
are aware of their participation in a study (Hawthorne Effect/Reactive Effect).
2. Novelty Effects. When a treatment is new, subjects and research agents alike might
alter their behavior in various ways. People may be either enthusiastic or skeptical about
new methods of doing things.
3. Interaction of History and Treatment Effect. The results may reflect the impact of the
treatment and some other events external to the study.
4. Experimenter Effect. Subjects behavior may be affected by characteristics of the
researchers.
5. Measurement Effects. Researchers collect a considerable amount of data in most
studies, such as pretest information, background data, etc. The results may not apply to
another group of people who are not also exposed to the same data collection
procedures.
6. Halo Effect. Tendency of a researcher to rate subjects high or low because of
impression
7. Specificity of variables concerned with extent to which the variables of the study are
adequately described and operationally defined.
8. Multiple treatment Interference. Due to multiple spurious variable that were taken by
the respondents.
III. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
III.A. Survey Method. It is a research method in which data are gathered by asking
questions related to the issue of interest. This is also known as Descriptive-Normative
Survey and provides information of the demographic nature of population (e.g. births,
deaths, age, income, sex, IQ, civil status, etc). It is a systematic and organized
collection, analysis, and reporting of primary data.

The statistical tools to be used in this type of research are descriptive statistics of
frequencies, proportions, or percentages, means, standard deviations.
Three major characteristics that all surveys possess:
- Information is collected from a group of people in order to describe some
aspects or characteristics of the population of which that group is a part.
- The main way in which the information is collected is through asking questions
by the members of the group constitute the data of the study.
- Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the
population.
Purpose of Conducting Surveys
- Describe the characteristics of a population. Population as a whole is rarely
studied. Instead, a carefully selected sample of respondents is surveyed and a
description of the population is inferred from what is found out about the
sample.
Major Types of Surveys
1. Cross-sectional survey-collects information from a sample that has been drawn
from a predetermined population. Census- when an entire population is surveyed
Studies a phenomena as it occurs at one time; examines current attitudes, beliefs,
practices, measure needs, problem or assess large scale data.
Compares 2 or more groups to investigate possible developmental differences or
relationships.
Example: A study is conducted on the amount of nursing care a patient receives on
certain days according to categorization of needs and problems.
2. Longitudinal survey- collects information at different points in time in order to
study changes over time. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study
developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events
throughout lifetimes or generations.
Forms/ Characteristics:
1.1
Trend Studies. In trend studies, different samples from the same
population are surveyed at different points in time. The researcher would
then examine and compare responses from year to year to see if any
trend is apparent.
Example: Performance pay among nurse educator and nursing student
outcomes from different schools
1.2
Prospective. A specific population taken from the sample population is
followed over a period of time whose number does not change over the
course of the study.
Example: What will happen to cancer patients who are discharge from
the hospital after six months?
1.3
Panel studies. The researcher selects a sample right at the beginning
of the study and surveys the same individuals at different times during
the course of the survey.
Example: Nurses turnover

1.4

Retrospective studies. Collect data after event.


Example: Patients notes were examined for information in relation to a
specific treatment and recovery.

Prospective and Panel studies are both a Cohort studies meaning a study that focuses on
a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period
(e.g., are born, are exposed to a drug or vaccine or pollutant, or undergo a certain medical
procedure).
Steps in Survey Research
1. Problem Definition
2. Formulating hypotheses
3. Identification of target population - Targeting
4. Mode of data collection
5. Selection of the Sample
6. Preparation of the instrument
7. Preparation of the cover letter
8. Training of interviewers
9. Data gathering
10. Processing and analyzing data collected
11. Writing and publishing the report
Mode of Data Collection
- Direct administration to a group the instrument is administered to
all members of the group at the same time and usually in the same
place.
Mail survey the questionnaire is sent to each individual in the
sample by mail with a request that it be completed and then
returned in a given date.
- Telephone surveys the researcher asks questions of the
respondents over the telephone
- Personal interview the researcher conducts a face-to-face
interview with the respondents.
Selection of Sample
The subject to be surveyed should be selected from the population of
interest. Researchers must ensure, however, that the subjects they intend to
question possess the information the researcher wants to obtain and they will be
willing to answer these questions. Individuals who possess the necessary
information but who are uninterested in the topic of the survey are unlikely to
respond. Accordingly, it is often a good idea for researchers to conduct
preliminary inquiry about the potential respondents to assess their receptivity
Preparation of the Instrument
Types of instruments

Questionnaire self-administered by the respondents

Interview Schedule administered verbally by trained researchers


III.B. Correlational Studies. Correlational research is also called descriptive
research. It describes the degree to which two or more quantitative variables are related,
and it does so by use of a correlation coefficient. This is also known as DescriptiveCorrelational Survey. It investigates possible positive or negative relationship among
variables without trying to influence those variables. It cannot determine the cause of
relationship but can suggest them.
The statistical tools to be used in this type of research are correlation and
association measures, such as Pearson r, rho, chi-square, etc.
Purposes of Correlational Research
- helps explain important human behavior
- predict likely outcomes
For example: Relationship between body image perceptions of post-partum
African-American women and their weight.
III.C. CausalComparative Research (CCR). It is a research method which
allows researchers to investigate the possibility of accusable relationship among variables
that can not, as in experimental research, be manipulated. It attempts to determine the
cause or consequences of differences that already exist between and among groups of
individuals. As a result it is sometimes viewed along with correlational research. CCR is
implemented as ex post factor (after the fact) manner/ Case control studies.
For example: Cigarette smoking and lung cancer
HPV Exposure and cervical cancer
Childrens behavior confronting health practitioners
This is also known as Descriptive-Comparative Survey, wherein the statistical tools to be
used are t-test for independent samples, f-test, z-test, chi-square, ANOVA.
IIII.D. Causal- Explanatory. Going beyond a topic or providing a picture of a
certain issue or phenomena. They are built on exploratory and descriptive research to go
on to identify the reasons why something occurred or happened. Answering the `why'
questions involves developing causal explanations.
For example: People are more likely to be apprehended and convicted of crimes,
Gender affects choice of field of training which in turn affects occupational
options, which are linked to opportunities for promotion, which in turn affect
income level
IV. Evaluation Studies. This is directed towards making decisions about the
effectiveness or desirability of a program with the purpose of making judgment about
alternatives in decision making situations . It is also conducted to assess performance
outcome or impact of a set of variables on another one. This design considers an adequate
time span to pinpoint the effects accurately of a certain program, activity, curriculum and
etc.
Evaluation Models:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Objective Based Model


IPO Model ( Input, Process, Outcome)
CIPP Model ( Context, Input, Process, Product)
DEM Model ( Discrepancy Evaluation Model)
Kerrigan Model
ABCD Model

For Example: Botika sa Barangay: A CIPP Model


An Evaluative study of Takakura Composting
V. Exploratory Studies. Is undertaken to gather initial data patterns or
characteristics of variables in a situation where studies have not been done or
minimal data are available to establish significant pattern or relationship of variables
in a specific scope. In this study, the statement of hypothesis is not present
because one of the purpose of this study is to recommend possible hypothesis which
can be tested in the future studies- explore a new topic or issue in order to learn
about it with the purpose of formulating more precise questions that future research
can answer.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Qualitative Research.
Research studies that investigate the quality of
relationship, activities, situations or materials are frequently referred to as qualitative
research.
Greater emphasis is on holistic description that is describing in detail all of what goes
on in a particular activity or situation rather than on comparing the effects of a particular
treatment (as in experimental research), say, or on describing the attitude or behavior of
people (as in survey research).
General Characteristics
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The natural setting is the direct source of data, and the researcher is the key
instrument in qualitative research.
Data are collected in the form of words, or pictures rather than numbers/from
interview transcripts, field notes, photographs, audio recordings, videotapes,
diaries, personal comments, memos, official records, etc.
Concerned with process as well as product (in how things occur e.g. how people
interact with each other, how certain kinds of questions are answered.
Analyze data inductively (logically). -Researchers are constructing a picture that
takes shape as they collect and examine the parts.
How people make sense of their lives is the major concern. Researchers does
his or her best to capture the thinking of the participants from the participants
Perspective (as opposed to the researcher merely reporting what he or she
thinks) as accurately as possible.

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Steps in Qualitative Research


1. Identification of the phenomenon to be studied.
For example, a researcher wishes to conduct a study to investigate the
interaction between minority and non-minority students in an inner city high school.
The phenomenon of interest is student interaction.
2. Identification of the participants in the study
The participants are the samples of the study (purposive sample).
3. Generation of hypotheses
Hypothesis not posed at the beginning, instead, they emerge from the data
as the study progresses.
4. Data Collection.
There is no treatment in a qualitative study, nor is there any manipulation of
subjects. Collection of data is on-going.
5. Data Analysis
Involves synthesizing the information the researcher obtains from various
sources (e.g. observations, interviews, document analysis) into a coherent
description of what he or she has observed or otherwise discovered.
6. Drawing conclusions
Conclusions are drawn continuously throughout the course of the study.
Qualitative researchers tend to formulate their interpretations as they go along.
Techniques in Qualitative Research
1.

2.

Observation knowing how people act or how things look.


The degree of observer participation can vary considerably ranging
on a continuum from complete participant to complete observer.
a. Complete participant his identity is not known to any of the individuals
being observed.
b. Participants as observer he participates fully in the activities in the
group being studied, but also makes it clear that he is doing research
c. Observer as Participants identifies herself straight off as a researcher,
but makes no pretense of actually being a member of the group she is
observing.
d. Complete observer researcher observes the activities of a group without
in any way becoming a participant in those activities.
Interviewing check the accuracy of to verify or refute the impression he
or she has gained through observations. The purpose of interviewing people
is to find out what is on their mind what they think or how they feel about
something. In qualitative research, the use of five ws (what, where, when,
who, why) and one h (how) is very necessary.

Four types of interview:

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Structured and semi-structured are verbal questionnaires. They are designed


to elicit specific answers on the part of the respondents.
Informal interviews tend to resemble casual observations. Probably the
most difficult of all interviews to do well.
Retrospective interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or informal.
Retrospective interview tries to get a respondent to recall and then
reconstruct from memory something that has happened in the past.

Interview
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Behavior
Respect the culture being studied.
Respect the individual being interviewed
Be natural.
Ask the same questions in different ways during the interview.
Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is
some doubt about the completeness of the remark.
6. Control the flow of communication
7. Learn how to wait.

3.
Document Analysis
the analysis of the written or visual contents of a document. The job of
document analysis is to define as precisely the possible aspects of a documents
contents that researcher wants to investigate and then formulating relevant
categories that are so explicit that another researcher who uses them to examine
the same material would find essentially the same proportion of topics emphasized
or ignored.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS:
1. Ethnographic Research paint a portrait of a school or classroom (or any other
educational setting) in as thorough, accurate and vivid a manner as possible so that others
can also truly see that school or that classroom and its participants and what they do.
-

is particularly appropriate to behaviors that are kept understood by observing


them within their natural settings.
- The limitation is that it is highly dependent on the particular researchers
observations, and since numerical data are rarely provided, there is usually no
way to check the validity of the researchers conclusions.
- Major advantage of the ethnographic approach is that it study people in their
natural habitat in order to see things that otherwise might not even be
anticipated.
- combines participant observation and many of the characteristics of non-participant
observation studies in an attempt to obtain as holistic a picture as possible of a
particular society, group, institution, setting or situation.
Emphasis is on documenting, or portraying the everyday experiences of
individuals by observing and interviewing and continual on-going participant
observation of a situation. Researchers try to capture as much of what is going on

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as they can the whole picture, H.R. Bernard described the process briefly, but
well:
It involves establishing rapport in a new community; leaning to act so that
people go about their business as usual when you show up; and removing yourself
everyday from cultural immersion so you can intellectualize what youve learned; put
it into perspective, and write about it convincingly. If you are a successful participant
observer you will know when to laugh at what your informants think is funny; and
when informants laugh at what you say, it will be because you meant it to be a
joke.
An example of a question that might be investigated through ethnographic research
would be the following: What are the experiences of people with multiple chemical
sensitivity?
Field Notes
The quality of the field notes checks on the accuracy of an ethnographers
observations. Field notes notes researchers take n the field. They are the researchers
written account of what they hear, see, experience, and think in the course of collecting and
reflecting on their data.
Field notes can be distinguished from three other types of writing:
Field jottings refer to quick notes about something the researcher wants
to write all about later.
Field diary a personal statement of the researchers feelings, opinions
and perceptions about others with whom the researcher levels in contact during the
course of his or her work.
Field log sort of running account of how researchers plan to spend their
time compared to how they actually spend it.
Field notes consist of two kinds of materials:
1. Descriptive field notes attempt to describe the setting, the people and what
they do according to what the researchers observes. They include like portrait of
the subjects, reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical setting, accounts
of particular events, depiction of activities and the observers behavior.
2. Reflective field notes present more of what the researcher himself or herself
is thinking about as he or she observes. They include reflections on analysis,
reflections on methods, reflections on ethical dilemmas and conflicts, reflections
on the observers frame of mind and powers of clarification.
2. Grounded Theory is an approach to collecting and analyzing qualitative data that
aims to develop theories and theoretical propositions grounded in real-world observations.
Glasses and Strauss (generation of explanatory theory linking related concepts)
Strauss and Corbin ( Full conceptual description)
This focuses on the discoveries of a basic social psychological problems that a defined group
of people experiences.

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Types:
1. Substantive Theory. Grounded in data on a specific substantive topic.
2. Grounded formal theory. A higher, more abstract level of theory based on
substantive grounded theory studies.
For Example: (1) The experience of caring for a woman with high-risk pregnancy, during
which the theory of Newman (1986) is developed, with the nurse and the client as partners
in a relationship of care, characterize by negotiation, reciprocity, and empowerment.
(2) Cutting Back After A Heart Attack,
(3) Stepfather Families: Integration Around Child Discipline.
3. Phenomenology is an approach to discovering the meaning of peoples life
experiences. It asks the questions: What is the essence of this phenomenon as
experienced by these people and what does it mean?
Two types:
3.1. Descriptive Phenomenology. It describes human experience, basing
on the philosophy of Husserl
Steps:
a. Bracketing refers to the process of identifying and holding in abeyance
preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study.
b. Intuiting researchers remain open to the meanings attributed to the
phenomenon by those who have experienced it.
c. Analyzing- extracting significant statements and making sense of the meanings
of the phenomenon
d. Describing when the researcher comes to understand and define the
phenomenon.
3.2. Interpretative Phenomenology. Emphasize on interpreting and
understanding experience, not just describing I, based on the philosophy of
Heideggar: Heideggerian hermeneutics, bracketing does not occur, utilizes
supplementary data sources: text, artistic expression
Ten Themes:
1. Naturalistic
2. Inductive
3. Holistic
4. Thick description
5. Personal contact
6. Dynamic
7. Unique case selection
8. Context sensitivity
9. Empathic
10. Flexible design

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4.Case Study in-depth investigation of a single entity or a small number of entities.


Attempt to shed light- on a phenomena by studying in-depth single case example. It can be
an organization, individual person, a group or an institution. Data includes clients history,
growth and development patterns and circumstances affecting the client under study. This
eventually leads to formulation and implementation of the nursing care plan specific to the
case being studied.
For example: Case study of Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
5.Historical Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past
occurrences in order to test hypothesis concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events
that may help to explain and anticipate future events.
For example: The Lifestyle. Beliefs, and Health Habits of the Aetas of Mt. Pinatubo
The Parental Style, Attitudes and Child Rearing Practices of the Mangyans in
Oriental Mindoro
6. Participatory action research is a recognized form of experimental research that
focuses on the effects of the researcher's direct actions of practice within a participatory
community with the goal of improving the performance quality of the community or an area
of concern. It involves utilizing a systematic cyclical method of planning, taking action,
observing, evaluating (including self-evaluation) and critical reflection prior to planning the
next cycle.
For example: reducing the illiteracy of students through use of new strategies or improving
communication and efficiency in a hospital emergency room.
It is a collaborative method to test new ideas and implement action for change. It involves
direct participation in a dynamic research process, while monitoring and evaluating the
effects of the researcher's actions with the aim of improving. At its core, action research is a
way to increase understanding of how change in one's actions or practices can mutually
benefit a community of practitioners.
Action Research Process:
1. Plan
2. Act
3. Observe
4. Reflect
7. Feminist research- Focuses on how gender domination and discrimination shape
womens lives and their consciousness.
For Example: Experiences among Battered Wife in the Pink Room of VSMMC
8.Field Studies- These consist of the natural investigations done in the community such
as in nursing homes, housing projects, and clinical wards, among others.
For example: A Field Study on Constructing Satellite Campus of University of San JoseRecoletos at Balamban , Cebu
9.Biographies- These studies explore the life of an individual. Data come from collection
of life documents in the life of an individual .
For example: (1) The Life and Ideals of Dr. Jose Rizal

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(2) Benigno Aquino, A Portrait of a True Filipino


Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research
1. Using variety of instrument to collect these data.
2. Checking one informants description of something
3. Learning to understand, and where appropriate, speak the vocabulary of the group
being studied.
4. Writing down the questions they ask (in addition to the answers they receive to these
questions).
5. Recording their own thoughts as they go about their observations and interviews.
6. Documenting the bases for inferences they make.
7. Describing the context in which questions are asked and situations are observed.
8. Using audio-tapes and videotapes when possible and appropriate.
9. Drawing conclusions based on ones understanding of the situation.
10. Interviewing individuals more than once.
11. Observing the setting or situation of interest over a period of time.
Generalization in Qualitative Research
A generalization statement or claim of some sort that applies to more than one
individual, object or situation. Thus, when a researcher makes statement, based on a
review of literature; that there is negative correlation between age and amount of interest
in school (older children are less interested in school than younger children) he or she is
making a generalization.
In quantitative research, the researcher generalizes from the sample under
investigation to the population of interest. Note that it is the researcher who does the
generalizing. He or she is likely to suggest to practitioners that the findings are of value and
can (sometimes they say should be applied in their situations).
In quantitative studies, on the other hand, the researcher may also generalize, but it
is more likely that any generalizing to be done will be by interested practitioners be
individuals who are in situations similar to the ones investigated by the researcher. It is the
practitioner, rather than the researcher, who judges the applicability of the researchers
findings and conclusions, who determines whether the research findings fit his or her
situation.
C. POPULATION SAMPLING
This describes the target population and the sample frame. It specifies the sampling
technique to be used and how the sample size will be determined.
Population (or universe). The entire set of individuals (or objects) having some
common characteristics.
Sample. A subset of population selected to participate in the study.

16

Example:
All 2,100 (or whatever total number) of students at Cebu Normal
University, constitute a population; 150 of those students constitute a sample.
Two Types of Sampling Methods:
1.

Probability sampling every element is given a chance of being selected or


included (result is called probability samples).

2.

Non-probability sampling not all the elements in the population are given
the chance of being included.
Kinds of Probability Sampling

1.

Simple random sampling each and every member of the population has an

2.

Stratified random sampling is a process in which certain subgroup, or

equal and independent chance of being selected. For example, the Dean of a
school of education in a large mid-western university writes to find out how
her faculty feel about the sabbatical leave requirements currently in
operation at the university. She places all 150 names of the school faculty in
a hat, mixes them thoroughly and then draws out the name of 25 individuals
to interview.
A table of random numbers can also be used to obtain a simple
random sample. For example, to obtain a sample of 200 from a population
of 2000 individuals, open the book to any page, select a column of numbers,
start anywhere in the column, and begin reading four digit numbers. Why
four digits? Because the final number 2000 consists of four digits, and we
must always use the same number of digits for each person. Person 1 would
be identified as 0001; person 2 as 0002; person 635 as 0635; and so forth).
The researcher would then proceed to write down the first 200 numbers in
the column that has a value of 2000 or less.
strata, are selected for the sample in the same proportion as they exist in the
population. For example: Suppose the director of research intends to
compare the achievement of student using a general science textbook with
that of students using the more traditional text the district has purchased in
the past. Since she has reason to believe that gender is an important
variable that may affect the outcomes of her study, she decides to ensure
that the proportion of males and females in the study is the same as in the
population. The steps would be as follows:
(1)

She identifies the target population:


All 365 ninth-grade students enrolled in general science courses in the
district.

(2)

She finds that there are 219 females (60 percent) and 146 males (40
percent) in the population. She decides to have a sample made up of

17

30 percent of the target population (more on sample size in a


moment)
(3)

Using a table of random numbers, she then randomly selects 30


percent from each strata of the population, which results in 66 female
(30 percent of 219) and 44 male (30 percent of 416) students being
selected from these subgroups. The proportion of males and females
is the same in both the population and sample 40 and 60 percent.

3.

Systematic random sampling - this is suitable when we have a list of name

4.

Cluster sampling the population is grouped into clusters or small units

5.

Multi-stage - used when there is no detailed or accurate listing of units

of the universe of population and the names are numbered consecutively.


This is done by determining first the sample needed in a given universe.
Once the sample is set, the person which will represent the sample are
determined. Let us assume that the total universe is 5,000 and we decide to
get 10 % sample. This means that we have to get 500 respondents. To get
the sample, we should divide 5,000 by 500 which is 10. Our first sample
then should be drawn at random from the numbers 1 to 10, then we get
every 10th. For example, if our first sample is 5 we get every 10th person in
the list, e.g. 15, 25, and 35 and so on until we get 500.
composed of population elements, and a number of these population clusters
is chosen either by simple random sampling or by systematic sampling with a
random start.
For example, the superintendent of Cebu Division,
Department of Education wants to obtain some idea of how elementary
schools, and there are 50 schools distributed over a large area. Instead of
randomly selecting a sample of teachers from every school, therefore, he
decides to interview all the teachers in selected schools. Each school, then,
constitutes a cluster. The superintendent assigns a number to each school
and then uses a table of random numbers to select 10 schools (20 percent of
the population). All the teachers in the selected schools then constitute the
sample.

(frame) available. Sampling is done in stages. The population elements are


grouped into hierarchy of units and sampling is done successively.
Example:
Socio-economic characteristics of Philippine Rural Households.
First Stage: 10 provinces maybe chosen out of the total provinces in the
country.
Second Stage: 10 municipalities maybe chosen from the 10 provinces.
Third Stage:
Sample barrios are to be chosen from a list of barrios in each
of the sample municipalities.
Fourth Stage: Sample households will then be chosen.
Note: Sample units in the different stages are chosen using the simple random sampling
technique.

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Kinds of Non-Probability Sampling


1. Convenience Sampling a process of getting a sample who (conveniently) are available
for study.
1.1. Accidental Sampling - selection of most readily available people for a
particular study
1.2. Snowball Sampling or Network Sampling the selection of participants
through referrals from earlier participants
Example : A researcher might decide to study the third grade classes at nearby
elementary school because the principal asks for help in evaluating
the effectiveness of a new spelling textbook.
2. Purposive the researcher use their judgment to select a sample which they believe,
based on prior information, will provide the data they need.
Example: The President wants to know how his junior faculty feel about a new
promotion policy, which he has recently introduced. He selects a
sample of 30 from the total faculty of 1000. To talk to these
faculty are chosen on the basis of the following criteria: have
taught for less than 5 years, they are non-tenured, etc.
3. Quota Sampling the researcher identifies population strata and determines how many
participants are needed from each stratum.

Prepared By:
Tonette M. Villanueva RN, MN
Research Instructor

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D. DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND RESEARCH INSTRUMENT


This describes the specific type of research instrument to be used such as
questionnaires, checklists, questionnaire-checklists, structured or unstructured interviews,
teacher-made tests, standardized instruments which are adopted or borrowed with
permission from authors or from other sources.
Each part of the instrument should be explained in detail and what bits of
information will be derived.
The establishment of validity and reliability should be explained and only experts
should be chosen to validate such instruments.

20

Data Gathering Instruments and Their Characteristics


1. Questionnaire list of planned, written questions indicating response to each
question.
Classification:
a. Yes or No Type answerable by yes or no
b. Recognition Type checking or underlining the best answer
c. Coding Type assigning of numbers to names, answers to questions, and other
data Ex. BS = 1
MA/MS = 2
Ed.D./Ph.D. = 3
d. Completion Type filling the blanks
e. Subjective Type giving opinion about events
f. Combination Type yes or no, completion, subjective, etc.
Preparation of the Instrument
Appearance of the instrument is very important (in the case of self-administered) to
the overall success of the study. It should be attractive and not too long and the question
should be easy to answer as possible. The questions in a survey, and
the way they are asked, are of crucial importance.
Wording the Questions
-Questions must be simple, direct and familiar to all the respondents (No highly
technical terms)
- Is the meaning of the question clear and as specific as possible? (Note:
Not just because you know what you want to say doesnt mean that your respondents will.
- Is the questions double barreled?
Poor: Do you think the service you received from the motor vehicles
licensing bureau was courteous and efficient?
Better: Do you think the service you receive from the motor vehicles
licensing bureau was courteous?
- Is the question leading or loaded? (Loaded question is one that presumes a
past action or attitude by the respondent)
- Is the question short and direct to the point?
Formatting the Answers: Types
1.

Informational Format
How much money do you think that Pres. Clinton spends every
year to provide police protection for its citizens?
____a. less than P100 per person a year
____b. P100 or more but less than P200 a person per year
____c. P200 or more but less than P300 a person per year
____d. P300 or more a person per year

2.

Simple Yes/No Format

21

Do you think that Pres. Clinton should decrease the amount


of money it spends each year on city parks?
____a. Yes
____b. No
3. Forced Choice Format
Pres. Clinton must cut back on services. Would you prefer a
cutback in police services or fire department services?
____a. Police services

____b. Fire department services

4. Scaling Format
Likert: Pres. Clinton is spending too much money to provide housing for
the elderly.
___a. strongly agree
___b. agree
___c. not sure
___d. disagree
___e. strongly disagree
Semantic Differential (bipolar)
Nurse Practitioner
Competent
5
4
3
2
1
incompetent
5. Ballot Format
Please put an X next to the service you feel is the biggest waste of
money:
____a. police
____b. fire department
____c. parks and recreation
____d. garbage collection
____e. housing for the elderly
6. Ranking Format
Of these services, which do you think is the most important for the
city to provide? Which do you think is the second most important?
And so on.
____ Police
____ Fire Department
____ Parks and Recreation
____ Garbage Collection
____ Housing for the Elderly
Pilot testing the Questionnaire
Pilot testing trying sample respondents to verify the appropriateness of the
instrument. Pre-test reveal ambiguities, poorly worded questions, questions that are
not understood and unclear choice and can also indicate whether the
instrumentation to the respondents are clear.

22

Other Classification: Closed and Open Form


Example of Closed form:
Why did you choose to do your graduate work at SLSCST? Kindly indicate
three reasons in order of importance.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Reasons
Convenience of transportation
Advice of a friend
Reputation of institution
Expense factor
Scholarship aide
Others (kindly specify)_____________________

Rank
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________

Example of Open form:


State the reasons why you chose to take your graduate work at SLSCST.

2. Observation direct means of studying people.


Observation should be:
a. specific
b. systematic
c. qualitative
d. noted at once
e. needs expertise
f. checked and substantiated
Recording Observation
a. check list
b. rating scale qualitative description
c. score card combination of score card and rating scale
3. Interview oral type of questionnaire or use of interview schedule.
a. Unstructured when researchers proceed without preconceived view of the
content or flow of information to be gathered.
b. Semi-structured an interview in which the researcher has listed topics to cover
rather than specific questions to ask.
c. Structured - the researcher determines response categories in advance
d. Focus Group an interview with a group of individuals assembled to answer
questions on a topic.
4. Psychological Test describing a sample of certain aspects of human behavior of two
or more persons.
Classification
a. Performance test and paper-and-pencil tests
b. Teacher-made test and standardized tests (essay, completion, selection type)

23

5. Library Technique - preparation of a working bibliography.


Criteria For Selecting Instruments:
1. Administrability
2. Validity
3. Reliability
E. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
This part explains the statistical test to be used in the treatment or analysis of data.
If the research instrument includes options which are scaled, how each scale will be
weighed, its interval and class limits should be explained.

CHAPTER VI
RESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION
Survey Research Implementation

Let us assume you have already made up your mind to use the personal interview
technique in gathering your data.
Say, you also have prepared your interview schedule.

What to do next?

24

Decide who will do the job.


own organization?
Contract research organization?
If own organization, then
- Plan field operations.
- Field work
- Clean up.

PLANNING FIELD OPERATIONS


The phase of the project during which the researchers make contact with the
respondents, administer the instruments, record the data and return the data for
processing.
The four common aspects of planning field operations include:
1. time schedules
2. budgets
3. personnel, and
4. performance measurement
1. Time Schedules the purpose is to accomplish the job in reasonable time and cost
without sacrificing accuracy.
- specify when the project is to begin and end
- sequence of activities within this time frame
- estimate number of days to complete
- determine overlapping activities.
2. Budget assignment of costs to specific activities identified in the schedule. The
main cost categories may include:
I.

II.

Personal services
Salaries and wages
Honoraria/Professional fees
SSS/GSIA contribution
Others

Maintenance and operating expenses


Travel
Supplies and materials
Others
III.
Capital outlay
- New equipment
- Repair of old equipment
3. Personnel the success of the field operation depends on the quality of the
personnel to execute the plan. Determine a) who are to be hired, b) what skills
are required, and c) training needed to meet the skills requirement
-

25

4. Performance measurement necessary to make sure the survey is on schedule


and within its budget. Too often only the number of interviews to be completed
is the only measure specified in the study. Other measures are:
Most research exceed their initial budgets due to:
- changes in design
- poor time scheduling
- inaccurate budget estimate
Preparatory Activities and Field Work
Initial steps in the field work normally starts during the pre testing of the survey
instruments.
1. Pre-testing normally done to detect some deficiencies in the instrument and
the extent of the training required by the interviewer
2. Evaluate pre test results
3. Finalize the survey forms
4. Select interviewers a difficult task.
what job qualification?
from what geographic location
is further training needed?
5. Training of interviewers to establish a high degree of commonality in the data
collection process. May include coverage as:
purpose of the study
how to carry out sampling plan
approaching respondents
establishing rapport
@ recording the respondents
@ ending the session
@ editing the instrument
Training must be conducted by the supervisor in person and if possible followed by
actual supervision during the initial stage of the interview proper.
Before going to the field, however, other preparatory activities must have been
already accomplished such as;
- prior arrangements and communications to cooperating agencies if
any
- letter of introductions and permits from concerned local government
units.
- Sufficient copies of the final version of the instrument.
In most instances, making arrangements, securing permits and other
communications are done also in the pre testing stage to cut cost.
6. Interviewing remember your job is to collect accurate and complete data. This
must be done carefully and delicately. Interviewer must be receptive of the
feelings and mood of the respondents and establish effective relationships.

26

good grooming indication of persons attitude and


orientation.
always be pleasant and be patient
the more the respondents and interviewer have a common, the
greater the opportunity for rapport
familiarize the instrument, practice, conversational style.
do not rephrase questions that might alter its meaning, hence
response.
ask the question in its sequence.
use neutral probing techniques to motivate respondents to answer
difficult questions, clarify or explain or provide focus.

Sample techniques:
Repeating the question,
An expectant pause,
Repeating the reply while recording,
Reassure the respondent if hesitant,
Neutral questions like anything else?
What do you mean? Why? How?
provide logical reason for collecting personal data
record the data as required for accurate interpretation of
the encoders.

27

CHAPTER VII
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
BASIC FEATURES, FORMAT AND STYLE
A research report is a written account describing original results. Its function is not
only to relay findings but also to link those findings directly to a theoretical model or to one
or more empirically testable hypotheses. A research report is often organized using the
IMRAD format. IMRAD is an acronym which stands for Introduction, Methods, Results and
Discussion. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in question form:
What question (problem) was studied? The answer is the Introduction.
How was the problem studied? The answer is the Methods.
What were the findings? The answer is the Results.
What do these findings mean? The answer is the Discussion.
Using this approach, a report would have these components:
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods
Subjects or Participants
Apparatus
Design
Procedure
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. References
8. Other Sections (Tables, Figure Captions, Figures)
WRITING THE ABSTRACT
The abstract must be short because it should give a summary of your research. An
abstract should briefly:
Give the research problem and/or main objective of the research (this usually comes
first).
Indicate the methodology used.
Present the main findings.
Present the main conclusions.
Common Problems

Too long. If your abstract is too long it may be rejected. Abstracts are often too long

because people tend to count their words (remember that you can use your
word processing program to do this) and make their abstracts too detailed.

28

Too much detail. Abstracts too long often have unnecessary details. The abstract is not the

place for detailed explanations of methodology or for details about the context of
your research problem because y-ou simply do not have the space to present
anything but the main points of your research.

Too short. Shorter is not necessarily better. If your word limit is 200 words but you only

write 95, you probably have not written in sufficient detail. You should review
your abstract and see where you could usefully give more explanation
remember that in many cases readers whether to read the rest of your research
from looking at the abstract.

Failure to include important information. You need to be careful to cover the points listed
above. Often people do not cover all of them because they spend too long
explaining, for example, the methodology and do not have enough space to
present their conclusion.

PRESENTING THE RESULTS


Purpose: to present the results and make them meaningful to the reader.
What the Results section include:

Statement of results: the results are presented in a format that is accessible


tot he reader (e.g. in a graph, table, diagram, or written text).
Explanatory text: all graphs, tables, diagrams, etc. should be accompanied by
text that guides the readers attention to significant results. The text makes the
results meaningful by pointing out the most important results, simplifying the
results (e.g. nearly half instead of 48.9 %), highlighting significant trends or
relationships (e.g. the rate of oxygenation decreases as the temperature
decreases), and perhaps commenting on whether certain results were expected
or unexpected.

Common Problem

The text includes too much detail that simply repeats data presented in graphs,
tables, etc. without making the results meaningful.
Solution: remember that tables, etc. are used to present a lot of information efficiently,
but that your job is to direct the readers attention to significant parts of this information.
Organization
There are two basic ways of organizing the results:
Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in different section).
Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part
then giving a discussion, etc.

29

WRITING THE DISCUSSION


Purpose: To comment on and explain the results.
What the discussion section includes:
1. Explanation of results: the writer comments on whether or not the results were
expected, and presents explanations for the results, particularly for those that
are unexpected or unsatisfactory.
2. References to previous research: comparison of the results with those reported
in the literature, or use of the literature to support a claim, hypothesis or
deduction.
Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more generally (a
conclusion based on reasoning from the results, e.g. we fed fish a new feed, all
the fish gained weight, therefore the new feed causes the fish to gain weight).
Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results
(which will be proved or disproved in later research).
Common Problem: The discussion does not discuss; instead it simply supplies more detail
about the results obtained.
Solution: Remember that the discussion should explain the results.
Organization:
There are two basic ways of organizing the results and discussion:
1. Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a different
section).
2. Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part
then giving a discussion, etc. The method of organization you use will depend
on the quantity and type of results you obtain from your research. You should
look for a method of presentation that makes the information and and ideas you
are presenting as clear as possible to the reader.
CONCLUSION
Purpose: To give summary of

What was learned (this usually comes first)


What remains to be learned (directions for future research)
The shortcomings of what was done (evaluation)
The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of the research
(breakthroughs)
Recommendations

30

Common Problems

Too long. The conclusion section should be short. Often the conclusion section is as little
as 2.5% of an entire piece of published research.

Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long have unnecessary detail. The conclusion

section is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should
give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be short
since the emphasis in the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations, etc. that
you make.

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues. Whereas in the introduction your

task was to move from general (your field) to specific (your research), in the concluding
section your task is to move from specific (your research) back to general (your field, how
the research will affect the world). In other words, in the conclusion you should put your
research in context.

Failure to reveal the complexities of a conclusion or a situation. Negative aspects of your


research should not be ignored. Problems, drawback, etc. can be included in summary in
your conclusion section as a way of qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out the
negative aspects, even if they are outweighed by the positive aspects).

Lack of a concise summary of what was learned. In order to be able to discuss how your
research fits back into your field of study (and the world at large) you need to summarize it
very briefly. Often the summary is only a few sentences.

Failure to match the objectives of the research. Often research objectives change while the

research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and
rewrite your original objectives in your introduction so that accurately reflect what you were
trying to accomplish in your research (not what you thought you might accomplish when
you began).
Example
Here is an example of an objective and conclusion that do not match:
Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of road building on
villages on rural communities.
Conclusion: The model produced in this study can accurately predict the social and
economic impact of road building on villages in northern Laos.

If we rewrite the objective to match what we actually did (we developed a model), it
will fit the conclusion:
Rewritten Objective: The main objective of this study was to develop a model to predict the
social and economic impact of road building on rural communities.

31

Bibliography
This should include all materials used and reviewed by the researcher, such as
books, magazines, periodicals, journals, theses, dissertations (published or unpublished),
monographs, speeches, modules, web page or internet and many more.
In the choice of bibliographic materials, the following should be considered:
1. Relatedness to the research problem
2. Inclusion of recent publications
WRITING THE REFERENCES OR LITERATURE CITED
OR BIBLIOGRAPHY SECTION
1. All the authors and articles that are used in the study, i.e., in the whole text or body of
the manuscript (from the proposal stage to report writing stage) must be given due
credit by listing them completely under this section.
2. These reference materials must be classified according to types in this order: Books,
Periodicals, and Unpublished Materials.
3. These should be arranged alphabetically, with the senior author as reference.
4. Each classification of materials has different format.
5. For Books, the following information are needed

Last name, initials.


Year.
Title of Book (italicized) or Title of Book
(underlined). Edition number, if there is. Address of Publication: Publication
Company.

If the succeeding list contains the same author(s), do this way:

_______________. Year.
Title of Book (italicized) or Title of Book
(underlined). Edition number, if there is. Address of Publication: Publication
Company.
6. For Periodicals this format is followed:

Last name, initials. Title of Article. Name of Periodical or Name of Periodical.


Volume (number: pages where article was taken). Month, year of publication.
7. For Unpublished Materials, the format below is followed:
Last name, initials. Year. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Unpublished
Undergraduate, Masters Thesis, or Dissertation.
Name of College or
University, Address.

32

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burns, Nancy & Susan K. Grove. 1995. Understanding Nursing Research. Philadelphia: W.B.
Saunders Company.
David, Fely P. 2002. Understanding and Doing Research: A Handbook for Beginners. Iloilo
City: Panorama Printing, Inc.
Macnee, Carol L. 2004. Understanding Nursing Research. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Nieswiadomy, Nora.2002. Fundamentals of Nursing Research.
Polit, Denise and Bernadette Hungler. 1999. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. 7th
Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Polit, Denise and Cheryl Tatano Beck. 2004. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. 7th
Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Wilson, Holly Skodol. 1990. Research in Nursing. 2nd Ed. New York: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc.

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