Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Locale
This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in brief the place where
the study is to be conducted. Only important features which have bearing on the proposed
study are to be included. It should show the target population.
B. Research Design
This describes the research mode whether it is a true experimental, quasiexperimental design, descriptive or survey research, historical research, qualitative research,
ethnographic and other research methods.
Basic Classifications of Research Studies
1. Exploratory conducted when little is known about the phenomenon of interest;
qualitative studies
e.g. Study that examines the needs of family members of a patient who will be
receiving antibiotics at home by IV push method.
2. a. Descriptive- normative - data are gathered by asking questions related to the
issue of interest and provides information of the demographic nature of
population (e.g. births, deaths, age, income, sex, IQ, civil status, etc).
b. Descriptive-Correlational - describes the relationship between variables
3.Explanatory Studies searches for causal explanations and are much more rigorous
than exploratory or descriptive; experimental studies
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
A. Experimental Research Designs
- concerned with cause-and-effect relationships
Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research
The basic idea underlying all experimental research is really quite simple: try
something and systematically observe what happens. Formal experiments consists of two
conditions:
1)
At least two (but often more) conditions or methods are compared to assess
the effects(s) of particular conditions on treatments (the independent
variable); and
2)
The independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher.
2.
3.
Randomization
- placing the subjects in groups at random or giving every subject an
equal chance of being assigned to any group.
- an important aspect of many experiments is the random
assignments in which random assignment is not possible, researchers
try to use randomization whenever, feasible.
Example:
Example:
The study sought to determine which of the two types of blankets, convective
airflow blanket or conducive water-flow blanket, is more effective in cooling critically
ill patients with fever. Patients were randomly assigned to two types of blankets
(independent variable) and measuring the dependent variable (body temperature)
twice, before and after the intervention.
Symbolic Representation:
R
O1
X
O2
R
O1
O2
R= Randomization
O= Observation or measurement
X= Treatment or intervention
2. Solomon Four-Group Design
This involves two experimental groups and two control groups. This design is effective
to eliminate the possible influence of pre-testing on the results of the study.
Group
Experimental- w/ pretest
Experimental-w/o pretest
Control w/ pretest
Control w/o pretest
Data
Collection
Befor
After
e
X
X
X
X
X
X
3. Factorial Design
This design permits the testing of two or more hypothesis or the manipulation of two or
more independent variables. It does not only determine the main effects but also the
interaction effects (effects resulting from combining treatments).
Example: A study will be undertaken in order to compare two therapeutic strategies
for premature infants: tactile stimulation versus auditory stimulation. At the same time,
the researchers are interested in learning if daily amount of stimulation (15, 30 or 45
minutes) affects infants progress. The dependent variable is the measure of infant
development based on the weight gain. (2 X 3 design)
15 Mins.
B1
30 mins.
B2
45 mins.
B3
Auditory
A1
Tactile
A2
A1 B1
A2 B1
A1 B2
A2 B2
A1 B3
A2 B3
O5
O6
O7
O8
Time
The design is also called as One Shot Survey. This design is used when the study objective
is to describe a situation/ condition of a study population as it exist, or to describe/
determine the characteristics of a population/ respondents. There is no baseline data.
1.2 Pretest- Posttest design or Before- After Survey
Symbolic Representation:
O1
Observation/ Survey
(Before X)
X (Intervention)
O2
Observation/ Survey 2
(After X)
This design is used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics (e.g.
knowledge, attitude, practices) of the study population (students, nurses, managers, clients,
etc) in a given area. A survey, observation or testing is conducted before an intervention is
introduced (O1). After a period of time the survey, observation, or testing is repeated (O2)
and the results of the pretest (before) and the posttest (after) are compared to determine
change/s.
For example: Comparing grades prior to gaining the work experience to the grades after
completing a semester of work experience.
1.3Static Group Comparison
Symbolic Representation:
Experimental Group
Control Group
Time
O1
O2
In the static group design, there are two groups involved, an experimental and a control
group. The experimental group receives or is exposed to the intervention/ treatment (x).
This is followed by a measurement (O1), the result of the measurement/ observation from a
control group (O2) that did not receive the intervention. The random process, however,
was not used in the assignment of subjects to the experimental and control group (indicated
by a broken line).
Validity of Experimental Designs
In experimental studies, as well as in other types of research, the researcher is
interested in controlling extraneous variables, those variables that the researcher is not able
to control, or does not choose to control and that may influence the results of a study.
The statistical tools to be used in this type of research are descriptive statistics of
frequencies, proportions, or percentages, means, standard deviations.
Three major characteristics that all surveys possess:
- Information is collected from a group of people in order to describe some
aspects or characteristics of the population of which that group is a part.
- The main way in which the information is collected is through asking questions
by the members of the group constitute the data of the study.
- Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the
population.
Purpose of Conducting Surveys
- Describe the characteristics of a population. Population as a whole is rarely
studied. Instead, a carefully selected sample of respondents is surveyed and a
description of the population is inferred from what is found out about the
sample.
Major Types of Surveys
1. Cross-sectional survey-collects information from a sample that has been drawn
from a predetermined population. Census- when an entire population is surveyed
Studies a phenomena as it occurs at one time; examines current attitudes, beliefs,
practices, measure needs, problem or assess large scale data.
Compares 2 or more groups to investigate possible developmental differences or
relationships.
Example: A study is conducted on the amount of nursing care a patient receives on
certain days according to categorization of needs and problems.
2. Longitudinal survey- collects information at different points in time in order to
study changes over time. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study
developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events
throughout lifetimes or generations.
Forms/ Characteristics:
1.1
Trend Studies. In trend studies, different samples from the same
population are surveyed at different points in time. The researcher would
then examine and compare responses from year to year to see if any
trend is apparent.
Example: Performance pay among nurse educator and nursing student
outcomes from different schools
1.2
Prospective. A specific population taken from the sample population is
followed over a period of time whose number does not change over the
course of the study.
Example: What will happen to cancer patients who are discharge from
the hospital after six months?
1.3
Panel studies. The researcher selects a sample right at the beginning
of the study and surveys the same individuals at different times during
the course of the survey.
Example: Nurses turnover
1.4
Prospective and Panel studies are both a Cohort studies meaning a study that focuses on
a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period
(e.g., are born, are exposed to a drug or vaccine or pollutant, or undergo a certain medical
procedure).
Steps in Survey Research
1. Problem Definition
2. Formulating hypotheses
3. Identification of target population - Targeting
4. Mode of data collection
5. Selection of the Sample
6. Preparation of the instrument
7. Preparation of the cover letter
8. Training of interviewers
9. Data gathering
10. Processing and analyzing data collected
11. Writing and publishing the report
Mode of Data Collection
- Direct administration to a group the instrument is administered to
all members of the group at the same time and usually in the same
place.
Mail survey the questionnaire is sent to each individual in the
sample by mail with a request that it be completed and then
returned in a given date.
- Telephone surveys the researcher asks questions of the
respondents over the telephone
- Personal interview the researcher conducts a face-to-face
interview with the respondents.
Selection of Sample
The subject to be surveyed should be selected from the population of
interest. Researchers must ensure, however, that the subjects they intend to
question possess the information the researcher wants to obtain and they will be
willing to answer these questions. Individuals who possess the necessary
information but who are uninterested in the topic of the survey are unlikely to
respond. Accordingly, it is often a good idea for researchers to conduct
preliminary inquiry about the potential respondents to assess their receptivity
Preparation of the Instrument
Types of instruments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The natural setting is the direct source of data, and the researcher is the key
instrument in qualitative research.
Data are collected in the form of words, or pictures rather than numbers/from
interview transcripts, field notes, photographs, audio recordings, videotapes,
diaries, personal comments, memos, official records, etc.
Concerned with process as well as product (in how things occur e.g. how people
interact with each other, how certain kinds of questions are answered.
Analyze data inductively (logically). -Researchers are constructing a picture that
takes shape as they collect and examine the parts.
How people make sense of their lives is the major concern. Researchers does
his or her best to capture the thinking of the participants from the participants
Perspective (as opposed to the researcher merely reporting what he or she
thinks) as accurately as possible.
10
2.
11
Interview
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Behavior
Respect the culture being studied.
Respect the individual being interviewed
Be natural.
Ask the same questions in different ways during the interview.
Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is
some doubt about the completeness of the remark.
6. Control the flow of communication
7. Learn how to wait.
3.
Document Analysis
the analysis of the written or visual contents of a document. The job of
document analysis is to define as precisely the possible aspects of a documents
contents that researcher wants to investigate and then formulating relevant
categories that are so explicit that another researcher who uses them to examine
the same material would find essentially the same proportion of topics emphasized
or ignored.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS:
1. Ethnographic Research paint a portrait of a school or classroom (or any other
educational setting) in as thorough, accurate and vivid a manner as possible so that others
can also truly see that school or that classroom and its participants and what they do.
-
12
as they can the whole picture, H.R. Bernard described the process briefly, but
well:
It involves establishing rapport in a new community; leaning to act so that
people go about their business as usual when you show up; and removing yourself
everyday from cultural immersion so you can intellectualize what youve learned; put
it into perspective, and write about it convincingly. If you are a successful participant
observer you will know when to laugh at what your informants think is funny; and
when informants laugh at what you say, it will be because you meant it to be a
joke.
An example of a question that might be investigated through ethnographic research
would be the following: What are the experiences of people with multiple chemical
sensitivity?
Field Notes
The quality of the field notes checks on the accuracy of an ethnographers
observations. Field notes notes researchers take n the field. They are the researchers
written account of what they hear, see, experience, and think in the course of collecting and
reflecting on their data.
Field notes can be distinguished from three other types of writing:
Field jottings refer to quick notes about something the researcher wants
to write all about later.
Field diary a personal statement of the researchers feelings, opinions
and perceptions about others with whom the researcher levels in contact during the
course of his or her work.
Field log sort of running account of how researchers plan to spend their
time compared to how they actually spend it.
Field notes consist of two kinds of materials:
1. Descriptive field notes attempt to describe the setting, the people and what
they do according to what the researchers observes. They include like portrait of
the subjects, reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical setting, accounts
of particular events, depiction of activities and the observers behavior.
2. Reflective field notes present more of what the researcher himself or herself
is thinking about as he or she observes. They include reflections on analysis,
reflections on methods, reflections on ethical dilemmas and conflicts, reflections
on the observers frame of mind and powers of clarification.
2. Grounded Theory is an approach to collecting and analyzing qualitative data that
aims to develop theories and theoretical propositions grounded in real-world observations.
Glasses and Strauss (generation of explanatory theory linking related concepts)
Strauss and Corbin ( Full conceptual description)
This focuses on the discoveries of a basic social psychological problems that a defined group
of people experiences.
13
Types:
1. Substantive Theory. Grounded in data on a specific substantive topic.
2. Grounded formal theory. A higher, more abstract level of theory based on
substantive grounded theory studies.
For Example: (1) The experience of caring for a woman with high-risk pregnancy, during
which the theory of Newman (1986) is developed, with the nurse and the client as partners
in a relationship of care, characterize by negotiation, reciprocity, and empowerment.
(2) Cutting Back After A Heart Attack,
(3) Stepfather Families: Integration Around Child Discipline.
3. Phenomenology is an approach to discovering the meaning of peoples life
experiences. It asks the questions: What is the essence of this phenomenon as
experienced by these people and what does it mean?
Two types:
3.1. Descriptive Phenomenology. It describes human experience, basing
on the philosophy of Husserl
Steps:
a. Bracketing refers to the process of identifying and holding in abeyance
preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study.
b. Intuiting researchers remain open to the meanings attributed to the
phenomenon by those who have experienced it.
c. Analyzing- extracting significant statements and making sense of the meanings
of the phenomenon
d. Describing when the researcher comes to understand and define the
phenomenon.
3.2. Interpretative Phenomenology. Emphasize on interpreting and
understanding experience, not just describing I, based on the philosophy of
Heideggar: Heideggerian hermeneutics, bracketing does not occur, utilizes
supplementary data sources: text, artistic expression
Ten Themes:
1. Naturalistic
2. Inductive
3. Holistic
4. Thick description
5. Personal contact
6. Dynamic
7. Unique case selection
8. Context sensitivity
9. Empathic
10. Flexible design
14
15
16
Example:
All 2,100 (or whatever total number) of students at Cebu Normal
University, constitute a population; 150 of those students constitute a sample.
Two Types of Sampling Methods:
1.
2.
Non-probability sampling not all the elements in the population are given
the chance of being included.
Kinds of Probability Sampling
1.
Simple random sampling each and every member of the population has an
2.
equal and independent chance of being selected. For example, the Dean of a
school of education in a large mid-western university writes to find out how
her faculty feel about the sabbatical leave requirements currently in
operation at the university. She places all 150 names of the school faculty in
a hat, mixes them thoroughly and then draws out the name of 25 individuals
to interview.
A table of random numbers can also be used to obtain a simple
random sample. For example, to obtain a sample of 200 from a population
of 2000 individuals, open the book to any page, select a column of numbers,
start anywhere in the column, and begin reading four digit numbers. Why
four digits? Because the final number 2000 consists of four digits, and we
must always use the same number of digits for each person. Person 1 would
be identified as 0001; person 2 as 0002; person 635 as 0635; and so forth).
The researcher would then proceed to write down the first 200 numbers in
the column that has a value of 2000 or less.
strata, are selected for the sample in the same proportion as they exist in the
population. For example: Suppose the director of research intends to
compare the achievement of student using a general science textbook with
that of students using the more traditional text the district has purchased in
the past. Since she has reason to believe that gender is an important
variable that may affect the outcomes of her study, she decides to ensure
that the proportion of males and females in the study is the same as in the
population. The steps would be as follows:
(1)
(2)
She finds that there are 219 females (60 percent) and 146 males (40
percent) in the population. She decides to have a sample made up of
17
3.
4.
5.
18
Prepared By:
Tonette M. Villanueva RN, MN
Research Instructor
19
20
Informational Format
How much money do you think that Pres. Clinton spends every
year to provide police protection for its citizens?
____a. less than P100 per person a year
____b. P100 or more but less than P200 a person per year
____c. P200 or more but less than P300 a person per year
____d. P300 or more a person per year
2.
21
4. Scaling Format
Likert: Pres. Clinton is spending too much money to provide housing for
the elderly.
___a. strongly agree
___b. agree
___c. not sure
___d. disagree
___e. strongly disagree
Semantic Differential (bipolar)
Nurse Practitioner
Competent
5
4
3
2
1
incompetent
5. Ballot Format
Please put an X next to the service you feel is the biggest waste of
money:
____a. police
____b. fire department
____c. parks and recreation
____d. garbage collection
____e. housing for the elderly
6. Ranking Format
Of these services, which do you think is the most important for the
city to provide? Which do you think is the second most important?
And so on.
____ Police
____ Fire Department
____ Parks and Recreation
____ Garbage Collection
____ Housing for the Elderly
Pilot testing the Questionnaire
Pilot testing trying sample respondents to verify the appropriateness of the
instrument. Pre-test reveal ambiguities, poorly worded questions, questions that are
not understood and unclear choice and can also indicate whether the
instrumentation to the respondents are clear.
22
Reasons
Convenience of transportation
Advice of a friend
Reputation of institution
Expense factor
Scholarship aide
Others (kindly specify)_____________________
Rank
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
23
CHAPTER VI
RESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION
Survey Research Implementation
Let us assume you have already made up your mind to use the personal interview
technique in gathering your data.
Say, you also have prepared your interview schedule.
What to do next?
24
II.
Personal services
Salaries and wages
Honoraria/Professional fees
SSS/GSIA contribution
Others
25
26
Sample techniques:
Repeating the question,
An expectant pause,
Repeating the reply while recording,
Reassure the respondent if hesitant,
Neutral questions like anything else?
What do you mean? Why? How?
provide logical reason for collecting personal data
record the data as required for accurate interpretation of
the encoders.
27
CHAPTER VII
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
BASIC FEATURES, FORMAT AND STYLE
A research report is a written account describing original results. Its function is not
only to relay findings but also to link those findings directly to a theoretical model or to one
or more empirically testable hypotheses. A research report is often organized using the
IMRAD format. IMRAD is an acronym which stands for Introduction, Methods, Results and
Discussion. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in question form:
What question (problem) was studied? The answer is the Introduction.
How was the problem studied? The answer is the Methods.
What were the findings? The answer is the Results.
What do these findings mean? The answer is the Discussion.
Using this approach, a report would have these components:
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods
Subjects or Participants
Apparatus
Design
Procedure
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. References
8. Other Sections (Tables, Figure Captions, Figures)
WRITING THE ABSTRACT
The abstract must be short because it should give a summary of your research. An
abstract should briefly:
Give the research problem and/or main objective of the research (this usually comes
first).
Indicate the methodology used.
Present the main findings.
Present the main conclusions.
Common Problems
Too long. If your abstract is too long it may be rejected. Abstracts are often too long
because people tend to count their words (remember that you can use your
word processing program to do this) and make their abstracts too detailed.
28
Too much detail. Abstracts too long often have unnecessary details. The abstract is not the
place for detailed explanations of methodology or for details about the context of
your research problem because y-ou simply do not have the space to present
anything but the main points of your research.
Too short. Shorter is not necessarily better. If your word limit is 200 words but you only
write 95, you probably have not written in sufficient detail. You should review
your abstract and see where you could usefully give more explanation
remember that in many cases readers whether to read the rest of your research
from looking at the abstract.
Failure to include important information. You need to be careful to cover the points listed
above. Often people do not cover all of them because they spend too long
explaining, for example, the methodology and do not have enough space to
present their conclusion.
Common Problem
The text includes too much detail that simply repeats data presented in graphs,
tables, etc. without making the results meaningful.
Solution: remember that tables, etc. are used to present a lot of information efficiently,
but that your job is to direct the readers attention to significant parts of this information.
Organization
There are two basic ways of organizing the results:
Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in different section).
Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part
then giving a discussion, etc.
29
30
Common Problems
Too long. The conclusion section should be short. Often the conclusion section is as little
as 2.5% of an entire piece of published research.
Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long have unnecessary detail. The conclusion
section is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should
give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be short
since the emphasis in the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations, etc. that
you make.
Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues. Whereas in the introduction your
task was to move from general (your field) to specific (your research), in the concluding
section your task is to move from specific (your research) back to general (your field, how
the research will affect the world). In other words, in the conclusion you should put your
research in context.
Lack of a concise summary of what was learned. In order to be able to discuss how your
research fits back into your field of study (and the world at large) you need to summarize it
very briefly. Often the summary is only a few sentences.
Failure to match the objectives of the research. Often research objectives change while the
research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and
rewrite your original objectives in your introduction so that accurately reflect what you were
trying to accomplish in your research (not what you thought you might accomplish when
you began).
Example
Here is an example of an objective and conclusion that do not match:
Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of road building on
villages on rural communities.
Conclusion: The model produced in this study can accurately predict the social and
economic impact of road building on villages in northern Laos.
If we rewrite the objective to match what we actually did (we developed a model), it
will fit the conclusion:
Rewritten Objective: The main objective of this study was to develop a model to predict the
social and economic impact of road building on rural communities.
31
Bibliography
This should include all materials used and reviewed by the researcher, such as
books, magazines, periodicals, journals, theses, dissertations (published or unpublished),
monographs, speeches, modules, web page or internet and many more.
In the choice of bibliographic materials, the following should be considered:
1. Relatedness to the research problem
2. Inclusion of recent publications
WRITING THE REFERENCES OR LITERATURE CITED
OR BIBLIOGRAPHY SECTION
1. All the authors and articles that are used in the study, i.e., in the whole text or body of
the manuscript (from the proposal stage to report writing stage) must be given due
credit by listing them completely under this section.
2. These reference materials must be classified according to types in this order: Books,
Periodicals, and Unpublished Materials.
3. These should be arranged alphabetically, with the senior author as reference.
4. Each classification of materials has different format.
5. For Books, the following information are needed
_______________. Year.
Title of Book (italicized) or Title of Book
(underlined). Edition number, if there is. Address of Publication: Publication
Company.
6. For Periodicals this format is followed:
32
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burns, Nancy & Susan K. Grove. 1995. Understanding Nursing Research. Philadelphia: W.B.
Saunders Company.
David, Fely P. 2002. Understanding and Doing Research: A Handbook for Beginners. Iloilo
City: Panorama Printing, Inc.
Macnee, Carol L. 2004. Understanding Nursing Research. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Nieswiadomy, Nora.2002. Fundamentals of Nursing Research.
Polit, Denise and Bernadette Hungler. 1999. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. 7th
Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Polit, Denise and Cheryl Tatano Beck. 2004. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. 7th
Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Wilson, Holly Skodol. 1990. Research in Nursing. 2nd Ed. New York: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc.
33