Install and maintain substation DC

systems (UETTRDSB03A)

SA

M
PL

Certificate IV in ESI Substation Resources (UET40206)

Learner Guide

State Training Services

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SA

M
PL

Using this Learner Resource..........................................................................................5

Use as Refresher Training .......................................................................................5
Mapping to Training Package........................................................................................5
Essential Knowledge and Associated Skills ..........................................................6
Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................6
Pre-Requisite Knowledge ......................................................................................6
Assessment.................................................................................................................7
Recognition of Prior Learning/Current Competence.................................................7
Introduction....................................................................................................................8
Hazards Associated with DC Systems...........................................................................8
Environmental Considerations.......................................................................................9
Performance Characteristics of DC Systems .................................................................9
Storage Battery Principles..............................................................................................9
Primary Cells .............................................................................................................9
Secondary Cells .......................................................................................................10
Lead Acid Batteries..................................................................................................10
Sulphation ............................................................................................................11
Terminal Corrosion..............................................................................................11
Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) Batteries...........................................................................12
Nickel Iron/ Nickel Alkaline....................................................................................12
Nickel Cadmium Cells.............................................................................................12
Identification of Battery Type..................................................................................13
Student Activity: Comparing Cell Type, Physical Size and Capacity.................13
Internal Resistance ...................................................................................................13
Battery Capacity.......................................................................................................14
Voltage Curves.........................................................................................................15
Lead Acid Discharge Curve.................................................................................15
Nickel Cadmium Discharge Curve ......................................................................15
Specific Gravity of Lead Acid Batteries..................................................................16
Specific Gravity Testing ..........................................................................................17
Student Activity: Using a Hydrometer ................................................................17
Batteries and Cells ...................................................................................................18
Student Activity: Constructing a Battery Bank ...................................................19
Battery Maintenance ................................................................................................20
Lead Acid Battery Maintenance ..........................................................................20
Alkaline (Nickel Cadmium / Nickel Iron) Batteries ............................................20
Student Activity: Battery Maintenance................................................................20
Replacing Defective Cells........................................................................................21
Student Activity: Replacing Defective Cells .......................................................21
Battery Charging......................................................................................................21
Lead Acid Charging.............................................................................................21
Nickel Cadmium / Nickel Iron Charging.............................................................22
Stratification of battery cells................................................................................22
Discharge Testing ....................................................................................................23
Quick Discharge Test...............................................................................................23
High Current Discharge Test ...................................................................................24
Capacity Testing ......................................................................................................24
Impedance Testing ...................................................................................................25

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SA

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PL

Principle of Impedance Testing ...........................................................................25

Student Activity: Discharge and Impedance Testing...........................................26
Recycling Secondary Battery Cells .............................................................................26
DC Testing ...............................................................................................................27
Student Activity: DC Testing...............................................................................27
DC Lighting Systems...................................................................................................27
First Aid ...................................................................................................................28
DRABC................................................................................................................28
Electric Shock ......................................................................................................29
Acid and Alkali Spills..........................................................................................29
Muscle Strain .......................................................................................................30
Learning Tasks and Practical Exercises.......................................................................31

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Introduction
DC systems are installed in substations to supply power for control, protection,
alarms, communications, and other critical auxiliary circuits where maximum
reliability of supply is essential.
AC supplies can be unreliable, whether it is obtained from the local supply or from
on-site alternator sets. In the event of AC supply failure, DC electricity is stored in
batteries with sufficient capacity to provide enough power until the AC supply
becomes available again.

Different DC voltages are used within substations depending upon equipment

requirements. Common voltages are 50, 120 and 400.
The storage batteries may be of a few main types: lead-acid, alkaline, and nickelcadmium; each type with its own characteristics.

M
PL

Substation staff need to have an understanding of how batteries are maintained, the
principles of charging and discharging of batteries, how to recognise and diagnose
battery faults, and how to diagnose faults which may occur in the DC distribution
network. Installation in the context of this Learning Module refers to replacement
of defective units. (Installation and commissioning of battery banks will be generally
performed by contractors from the supplier.)
The principles contained within this module are also appropriate to other electrical
and electronic fields that use DC storage systems, including telecommunications,
security, computer and renewable energy.

Hazards Associated with DC Systems

There are a number of hazards that may be present when working with DC systems in
electrical substations. These include:
Electrical shock DC voltages and large currents may be high enough to cause
severe burns or electrocution.

Acids and alkalis Can burn skin and eyes.

Large mass batteries and cells are very heavy and can cause injury if not lifted
and transferred using appropriate techniques.

Confined spaces gases from battery cells can build up and require ventilation
before battery rooms can be entered.

SA

This list is not definitive. A risk assessment should always be performed before
commencing any activity. The work method statement for your organisation can also
provide guidance about how to work safely.
Treatment of these injuries is covered in the section on First Aid later in this
Learning Guide.
For more detail on working safely in electrical substations refer to Learning Module:
UETTDRIS22A - Implement and monitor the organisational OHS policies,
procedures and programs.

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Environmental Considerations
As you will learn, battery cells may be constructed using the heavy metals of lead or
cadmium. Both of these metals are known to be detrimental to the environment, and
if absorbed by the human body they can be very detrimental to health. If nickel
cadmium cells are carelessly disposed of in landfills the cadmium eventually
dissolves and the toxic substance can seep into the water supply, causing serious
health problems.

Cells which have reached the end of their life or are faulty are returned to the
manufacturer on an exchange basis for replacement new cells, or are sent to specialist
recycling facilities where the metals are recovered and reused.

Battery rooms must be kept clean. Liquid spills or leaking electrolyte must be
cleaned up.

M
PL

Battery rooms should be bunded to prevent harmful chemicals entering the

environment. Bunding is a method of sealing the flooring and walls so that liquids
cannot escape into the environment. Any signs of damage to the proofing membrane
(cracking, flaking etc) should be reported.

All waste associated with DC Systems should be disposed of correctly, in accordance

with your organisational guidelines.
Further detail on environmental management can be found in the Learning Module:
UETTDRIS23A - Implement and monitor environmental and sustainable energy
management policies and procedures.

Performance Characteristics of DC Systems

SA

The battery is required to supply the electrical requirements of the system substation
when there is no output from the battery charger. This may be due to a loss of the
A.C. supply to the substation or a fault in the battery charger or its supply. Under
these conditions the battery is required to supply the loads it is connected to for a
period of 10 hours.
The battery should be able to be recharged from its design end-of-discharge voltage to
full charge in 5 hours.

Storage Battery Principles

Primary Cells

The simplest form of battery is non-rechargeable. These are known as primary

cells.
Without getting overly complicated, a battery is formed when two different metals
have an electrolyte (a solution that an electrical current can pass through) placed
between them. A potential difference (voltage) is developed between the two metals.
If the circuit is closed by placing a wire between the two metals then a chemical
reaction begins as electrons and ions circulate. In a primary cell a non-reversible
reaction occurs whereby the two metals are permanently changed. (This us
technically called a redox reaction, which means reduction-oxidisation, of which

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common metal rusting is a type.) The common zinc-carbon dry cell and alkaline dry
cell is an example of this type of battery. A typical voltage of such a primary cell is
1.5 volts. Lithium dry cells may have voltages higher to 3 volts due to the higher
electrochemical potential of this metal and its compounds. The name dry cell is
given because the electrolyte is in a paste-form rather than liquid form.
Primary cells must not be recharged as they may explode.

Secondary Cells

Also called storage or accumulator cells, these battery cells can be recharged because
the chemical reaction that occurs during discharge can be reversed by applying a
reverse current into the cell. The cell can be discharged and recharged many times
(often many thousand times) before it is degraded to the point where it can no longer
provide reliable service.

M
PL

Lead Acid Batteries

This is perhaps the most common type of rechargeable battery,

especially in substation environments. It is also called a wet-cell
or flooded-cell battery because the electrolyte is in a liquid form.
They are vented batteries because the charging process can
produce gasses of hydrogen and oxygen which needs to be able to
escape from the confines of the battery case.
In its charged state the cathode (positive plates) are lead peroxide,
the anode (negative plates) are lead, and the electrolyte is dilute
sulphuric acid. As the cell is discharged the plates are converted to
lead sulphate and the electrolyte becomes water. The chemical
reaction looks like this:

SA

Figure 1

Cell charged
+ve plate -ve plate

A lead acid rechargeable

cell.

Cell discharged
+ve plate
-ve plate

PbO2

+ Pb

+ 2H2SO4

PbSO4

+ PbSO4

+ 2H2O

(lead
peroxide)

(lead)

(sulphuric
acid)

(lead
sulphate)

(lead
sulphate)

(Water
peroxide)

The open circuit voltage of a fully charged lead acid cell is between 2.3 volts and 2.4
volts. Under load the voltage will typically be between 2.0 volts and 2.2 volts.
Lead acid batteries have reduced life expectancy if they are left in a discharged
condition. Ordinarily they do not deal well with deep discharge cycles, although
recent advances in design have produced lead acid batteries more suitable to such
tasks.

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M
PL

Figure 2
A number of cells
can be combined to provide a
battery of greater voltage and
energy capacity.

Often a number of cells are packaged together in one case to give a battery of higher
terminal voltage. Other common voltages for lead acid batteries are 6 volts and 12
volts.

Sulphation

Sulphation is a natural occurrence in all lead/acid batteries including sealed and gelcel batteries. It the prime cause of early battery failure and is when the sulphur in the
sulphuric acid forms sulphur crystals attach to the lead plates and then act as an
"insulation" keeping the battery from accepting a charge.

Terminal Corrosion

SA

Lead acid batteries suffer from terminal corrosion because of the corrosive
atmosphere created by the misting of sulphuric acid which is vented from the
battery. Most people are familiar with the corrosion that forms around the terminals
of a cars lead acid battery. The crystals that form are often yellow in colour
(sulphur) and bluish-green (copper salts). To minimise this corrosion it is common
practise to use petroleum jelly to create a barrier between the sulphuric acid and the
metal terminals and connectors.

Figure 3

Terminal corrosion on a lead acid battery.

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Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) Batteries

M
PL

This is a particular type of lead acid battery which is becoming more common
because of the reduced maintenance requirements. More correctly, they should be
called a valve regulated lead-acid battery, because they do have a valve to release
internal gas build up which can result from overcharging. The electrolyte has been
jellified making the battery more resistant to
extreme temperatures, vibration and shock.
This is also why they are sometimes called
Gel Cells. They also have calcium included
in the plate construction which reduces the
gassing effects, minimising loss of electrolyte.

Figure 4

A valve-regulated lead acid

(VRLA) battery.

Nickel Iron/ Nickel Alkaline

Also abbreviated to NiFe cell (or simply written as Nife). This type of battery cell is
becoming far less common, however can still be found in some older substations.
Manufacturing of this type of battery has almost ceased.
It uses a nickel oxide (Ni2O3) cathode, an iron anode, and an electrolyte of potassium
hydroxide, which is alkaline.
NiFe cells have a nominal voltage of 1.2 volts (1.4 volts open circuit).

They have advantages of being very robust, lifetimes in excess of 30 years are
possible, and can be deep cycled.

SA

Disadvantages include excessive weight, steep voltage drop off with state of charge,
high self-discharge rates, can only be charged slowly, and are only able to be
discharged slowly.

Nickel Cadmium Cells

Most of us are aware of the round sealed nickel cadmium rechargeable batteries used
in many of todays consumer items. Although they appear very physically different
they use a similar chemical reaction to the
vented stationery batteries used in
substations and other standby power
arrangements. Sometimes referred to by
the abbreviation NiCad, although strictly
speaking this is a copyrighted name to one
particular manufacturer.
Nickel cadmium cells cost as much as five
times more than lead acid batteries,
however they have the advantage of large
capacities and discharge rates. Vented

Install and maintain substation DC systems Learner Guide

Figure 5

Vented wet cell nickel

cadmium cells.

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NSW DET 2009

nickel cadmium cells are not normally damaged by excessive rates of overcharge,
discharge or even reverse charging. Oxygen and hydrogen are released through the
vent, and this explains the need to top up the water levels of vented nickel cadmium
cells. (Note: Sealed nicads are damaged by such adverse actions.)
The nominal voltage of a nicad cell is 1.2 volts.

Can deliver very high currents.

They can be left for long periods in a discharged state without damage (unlike
lead acid cells).

The electrolyte in a nicad is potassium hydroxide (alkaline - similar to the nickel

iron cell), and cross contamination from sulphuric acid must be avoided. It does
not change

(Like nickel iron cells) the specific gravity of nickel cadmium cells is unchanged by
the charging-discharging process.

M
PL

Identification of Battery Type

The external appearance of lead acid and alkaline (nickel cadmium or nickel iron)
batteries can be very similar. However the electrolyte is not interchangeable, and it is
important that when doing any testing or servicing that correct identification of
battery type is undertaken. Generally a label will be placed on the battery container to
indicate its type.

Student Activity: Comparing Cell Type, Physical Size and Capacity

Develop a table which has three columns: type of cell, physical volume (its
dimensions) and AH capacity. Access data on batteries by looking a examples in the
field, samples provided by your trainer, and by accessing battery cell data on
manufacturers websites.

Internal Resistance

SA

Electrically a battery cell appears as a voltage source with a resistor in series. The
actual output voltage at the battery terminals will be less than the voltage source
depending upon the value of the internal resistance and the current being drawn. As
the internal resistance of the battery increases, then Ohms Law tells us that as current
(load) increases then the available terminal voltage will drop, eventually making the
battery useless for the intended purpose. However, with little to no load, the voltage
at the terminals will not be significantly different from the internal voltage source. It
can be deceptive to decide the serviceability of a battery simply by measuring its
terminal voltage it is only under load conditions that we can truly know if its
internal resistance is satisfactorily low.
The principle of internal resistance
applies to both non-rechargeable and
rechargeable batteries.
It is an
important concept and measurement
in determining whether a battery is
still serviceable or not.
Figure 6
resistance.
Install and maintain substation DC systems Learner Guide

A battery cell has internal

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NSW DET 2009

Battery Capacity
The capacity of a cell or bank of cells is quoted in amp.hours (Ah). This is the
theoretical capacity of the battery to deliver a certain current for a particular length of
time. For example, a 50Ah battery could theoretically deliver 1 amp current for 50
hours, 50 amps for 1 hour, 5 amps for 10 hours, etc. In practice, this is not the case
because of internal battery losses.

The C Rate is the charging or discharging rate of a cell or battery, expressed in terms
of its total storage capacity in Ah. So a rate of 1C means transfer of all of the stored
energy in one hour; 0.1C means 10% transfer in one hour, or full transfer in 10 hours;
5C means full transfer in 12 minutes, and so on.

M
PL

The lead acid cell does not perform well at a 1C discharge rate. To obtain a
reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate these batteries at
0.1C or less (10 hour discharge). For example, a 40Ah battery is reckoned to be able
to provide 4 amps for 10 hours. If, however, the current is doubled to 8 amps, the
time to discharge would be less than half somewhere around 4 hours. The effect
is more dramatic as the discharge current increases ten times the current (40 amps)
would reduce the capacity such that it would only supply current for 30 minutes. The
capacity would in effect have been reduced to the equivalent of 20Ah.

Capacity vs Load - Lead/Acid Cell

100

80

60

40

SA

Percentage of available capacity

120

20

0.1

10

100

1000

Multiple of discharge current

Figure 7
In the case of a lead acid cell, as the discharge rate is increased
its available capacity decreases.

Referring to the Capacity vs Load Chart for a lead acid cell we can see how the
capacity is reduced as the current drawn from the cell is increased.
This derating of lead acid battery capacity needs to be taken into consideration when
designing DC power supply systems. This is to ensure that the required capacity is
available for the expected load and duration that the cell must be able to provide
power.

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Install and maintain substation DC

systems (UETTRDSB03A)

SA

M
PL

Certificate IV in ESI Substation Resources (UET40206)

Trainer Guide

State Training Services

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SA

M
PL

Using this Trainer Resource...........................................................................................4

Modifying the Training Resources ............................................................................4
Training Learners in Specific Tasks ..........................................................................5
Use as Refresher Training .......................................................................................5
Mapping to Training Package....................................................................................5
Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................6
Further Reference Materials ......................................................................................6
Introduction....................................................................................................................9
Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................10
Topics Covered in this Learning Module ....................................................................10
Hazards Associated with DC Systems.........................................................................11
Environmental Considerations.....................................................................................11
Performance Characteristics of DC Systems ...............................................................13
Storage Battery Principles............................................................................................13
Primary Cells ...........................................................................................................13
Secondary Cells .......................................................................................................14
Lead Acid Batteries..................................................................................................14
Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) Batteries...........................................................................15
Nickel Iron/ Nickel Alkaline....................................................................................16
Nickel Cadmium Cells.............................................................................................16
Identification of Battery Type..................................................................................17
Internal Resistance ...................................................................................................18
Battery Capacity.......................................................................................................19
Voltage Curves.........................................................................................................21
Specific Gravity of Lead Acid Batteries..................................................................22
Specific Gravity Testing ..........................................................................................24
Batteries and Cells ...................................................................................................25
Battery Maintenance ................................................................................................27
Replacing Defective Cells........................................................................................28
Battery Charging......................................................................................................30
Discharge Testing ....................................................................................................33
Quick Discharge Test...............................................................................................33
High Current Discharge Test ...................................................................................34
Capacity Testing ......................................................................................................35
Impedance Testing ...................................................................................................37
Recycling Secondary Battery Cells .............................................................................38
DC Testing ...................................................................................................................39
DC Lighting Systems...................................................................................................40
First Aid .......................................................................................................................41

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Instructional Content

Notes to Trainer

Timing

Introduction

Display Slide 2 & 3

PL

DC systems are installed in substations to supply power for control, protection,

alarms, communications, emergency lighting, and other critical auxiliary circuits
where maximum reliability of supply is essential.

AC supplies can be unreliable, whether it is obtained from the local supply or from
on-site alternator sets. In the event of AC supply failure DC electricity is stored in
batteries with sufficient capacity to provide enough power until the AC supply
becomes available again.
While the battery provides the reserve of stored energy, this is only normally used
in an emergency, or for supplying the short time heavy current drain of circuit
breaker closing solenoids. Under normal conditions the station load and the small
current required to maintain the battery in a fully charged state is supplied by the
battery charger.

SA
M

Different DC voltages are used within substations depending upon equipment

requirements. Common voltages are 50, 120 and 400.

The storage batteries may be of a few main types: lead-acid, alkaline, and nickelcadmium; each type with its own characteristics.
Substation staff need to have an understanding of how batteries are maintained, the
principles of charging and discharging of batteries, how to recognise and diagnose
battery faults, and how to diagnose faults which may occur in the DC distribution
network. Installation in the context of this Learning Module refers to
replacement of defective units. (Installation and commissioning of battery banks
will be generally performed by contractors from the supplier.)

Some ESI organisations may use other

voltages such as 20VDC and 30VDC.
Furthermore, there may be some
tolerance around the actual voltage
descriptor; 50VDC may also be known as
48VDC, 120VDC may also be know as
110VDC depending upon the particular
ESI organisation.
400VDC is commonly used to supply
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)
systems: inverters generating 240VAC for
critical mains powered equipment such as
computers.

The principles contained within this module are also appropriate to other electrical
and electronic fields that use DC storage systems, including telecommunications,
security, computer and renewable energy.

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Display Slide 4

Learning Outcomes
(As per those listed on Page 5 of this Trainer Guide.)

Display Slide 5

DC Equipment in Substations

Primary and secondary cells

Lead-acid cells

Alkaline cells

Cell capacity

Battery maintenance

Battery testing

Earth fault detection

SA
M

PL

Topics Covered in this Learning Module

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E
Display Slide 6

Hazards Associated with DC Systems

There are a number of hazards that may be present when working with DC
systems in electrical substations. These include:

Electrical shock DC voltages and large currents may be high enough to cause
severe burns or electrocution.

Acids and alkalis Can burn skin and eyes.

Large mass batteries and cells are very heavy and can cause injury if not
lifted and transferred using appropriate techniques.

Confined spaces gases from battery cells can build up and require ventilation
before battery rooms can be entered.

PL

SA
M

This list is not definitive. A risk assessment should always be performed before
commencing any activity. The work method statement for your organisation can
also provide guidance about how to work safely.
Treatment of these injuries is covered in the section on First Aid later in this
Learning Guide.
For more detail on working safely in electrical substations refer to Learning
Module: UETTDRIS22A - Implement and monitor the organisational OHS
policies, procedures and programs.

Environmental Considerations

Display Slide 7

As you will learn, battery cells may be constructed using the heavy metals of lead
or cadmium. Both of these metals are known to be detrimental to the environment,
and if absorbed by the human body they can be very detrimental to health. If
nickel cadmium cells are carelessly disposed of in landfills the cadmium
eventually dissolves and the toxic substance can seep into the water supply,
causing serious health problems.
Cells which have reached the end of their life or are faulty are returned to the

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NSW DET 2009

manufacturer on an exchange basis for replacement new cells, or are sent to

specialist recycling facilities where the metals are recovered and reused.

Battery rooms must be kept clean. Liquid spills or leaking electrolyte must be
cleaned up.

PL

Battery rooms should be bunded to prevent harmful chemicals entering the

environment. Bunding is a method of sealing the flooring and walls so that liquids
cannot escape into the environment. Any signs of damage to the proofing
membrane (cracking, flaking etc) should be reported.
All waste associated with DC Systems should be disposed of correctly, in
accordance with your organisational guidelines.

SA
M

Further detail on environmental management can be found in the Learning

Module: UETTDRIS23A - Implement and monitor environmental and sustainable
energy management policies and procedures.

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NSW DET 2009

Performance Characteristics of DC Systems

The battery should be able to be recharged from its design end-of-discharge

voltage to full charge in 5 hours.

Storage Battery Principles

SA
M

Primary Cells

The period that the battery is required to

supply DC power, and the re-charge
period, may vary from organisation to
organisation, and this figure should be
treated as typical or modified for the
organisation that training is occurring in.

PL

The battery is required to supply the electrical requirements of the system

substation when there is no output from the battery charger. This may be due to a
loss of the A.C. supply to the substation or a fault in the battery charger or its
supply. Under these conditions the battery is required to supply the loads it is
connected to for a period of 10 hours.

The simplest form of battery is non-rechargeable. These are known as primary

cells.

Display Slide 8

Without getting overly complicated, a battery is formed when two different metals
have an electrolyte (a solution that an electrical current can pass through) placed
between them. A potential difference (voltage) is developed between the two
metals. If the circuit is closed by placing a wire between the two metals then a
chemical reaction begins as electrons and ions circulate. In a primary cell a nonreversible reaction occurs whereby the two metals are permanently changed. (This
is technically called a redox reaction, which means reduction-oxidisation, of
which common metal rusting is a type.) The common zinc-carbon dry cell and
alkaline dry cell is an example of this type of battery. A typical voltage of such a
primary cell is 1.5 volts. The name dry cell is given because the electrolyte is in Lithium dry cells may have voltages
higher to 3 volts due to the higher
a paste-form rather than liquid form.
electrochemical potential of this metal and
Primary cells must not be recharged as they may explode.
its compounds.

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NSW DET 2009

Secondary Cells

Display Slide 9

PL

Also called storage or accumulator cells, these battery cells can be recharged
because the chemical reaction that occurs during discharge can be reversed by
applying a reverse current into the cell. The cell can be discharged and recharged
many times (often many thousand times) before it is degraded to the point where it
can no longer provide reliable service.

Lead Acid Batteries

This is perhaps the most common type of rechargeable battery, especially in

substation environments. It is also called a wet-cell or flooded-cell battery
because the electrolyte is in a liquid form. They are vented batteries because the
charging process can produce gasses of hydrogen and oxygen which needs to be
able to escape from the confines of the battery case.

Most people would be aware of lead acid

batteries used in automobiles.

Display Slide 10

SA
M

In its charged state the cathode (positive plates) are lead peroxide, the anode
(negative plates) are lead, and the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid. As the cell is
discharged the plates are converted to lead sulphate and the electrolyte becomes
water. The chemical reaction looks like this:

+ve plate

Cell charged
-ve plate

Cell discharged
+ve plate
-ve plate

PbO2

+ Pb

+ 2H2SO4

PbSO4

+ PbSO4

+ 2H2O

(lead
peroxide)

(lead)

(sulphuric
acid)

(lead
sulphate)

(lead
sulphate)

(Water
peroxide)

Display Slide 11

The open circuit voltage of a fully charged lead acid cell is between 2.3 volts and
2.4 volts. Under load the voltage will typically be between 2.0 volts and 2.2 volts.

Display Slide 12

Lead acid batteries have reduced life expectancy if they are left in a discharged

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PL

Often a number of cells are packaged together in one case to give a battery of
higher terminal voltage. Other common voltages for lead acid batteries are 6 volts
and 12 volts.
Sulphation

Sulphation is a natural occurrence in all lead/acid batteries, including sealed and

gel-cell type batteries. It the prime cause of early battery failure. It occurs when
the sulphur in the sulphuric acid forms hard sulphate crystals attach to the lead
plates. These crystals then act as an insulator, keeping the battery from accepting
a full charge.
Terminal Corrosion

Automobile batteries have 6 cells

connected in series providing an output
voltage of 12 volts loaded and closer to
13.8 volts unloaded.

condition. Ordinarily they do not deal well with deep discharge cycles, although
recent advances in design have produced lead acid batteries more suitable to such
tasks.

SA
M

Lead acid batteries suffer from terminal corrosion because of the corrosive
atmosphere created by the misting of sulphuric acid which is vented from the
battery. Most people are familiar with the corrosion that forms around the
terminals of a cars lead acid battery. The crystals that form are often yellow in
colour (sulphur) and bluish-green (copper salts). To minimise this corrosion it is
common practise to use petroleum jelly to create a barrier between the sulphuric
acid and the metal terminals and connectors.

Display Slide 13

Display Slide 14

Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) Batteries

Display Slide 15
This is a particular type of lead acid battery which is becoming more common
because of the reduced maintenance requirements. More correctly, they should be
called a valve regulated lead-acid battery, because they do have a valve to release
internal gas build up which can result from overcharging. The electrolyte has been
jellified making the battery more resistant to extreme temperatures, vibration and
shock. This is also why they are sometimes called Gel Cells. They also have
calcium included in the plate construction which reduces the gassing effects,
minimising loss of electrolyte.

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NSW DET 2009

Nickel Iron/ Nickel Alkaline

Also abbreviated to NiFe cell (or simply written as Nife). This type of battery cell
is becoming far less common, however can still be found in some older
substations. Manufacturing of this type of battery has almost ceased.

NiFe cells have a nominal voltage of 1.2 volts (1.4 volts open circuit).

They have advantages of being very robust, lifetimes in excess of 30 years are
possible, and can be deep cycled.

Disadvantages include excessive weight, steep voltage drop off with state of
charge, high self-discharge rates, can only be charged slowly, and are only able to
be discharged slowly.

SA
M

Nickel Cadmium Cells

The electrolyte of a NiFe cell IS NOT

compatible with a lead acid battery.
Contamination of the two different types of
electrolyte must be avoided.

PL

It uses a nickel oxide (Ni2O3) cathode, an iron anode, and an electrolyte of

potassium hydroxide, which is alkaline.

Display Slide 16

Most of us are aware of the round sealed nickel cadmium rechargeable batteries
used in many of todays consumer items. Although they appear very physically
different they use a similar chemical reaction to the vented stationery batteries
used in substations and other standby power arrangements. Sometimes referred to
by the abbreviation NiCad, although strictly speaking this is a copyrighted name
to one particular manufacturer.

Unlike a lead-acid cell, the electrolyte is

not changed during charging and
discharging of a NiFe cell. It remains as
potassium hydroxide (2KOH). Therefore
specific gravity testing will not indicate the
state of battery charge.

Display Slide 17

Nickel cadmium cells cost as much as five times more than lead acid batteries,
however they have the advantage of large capacities and discharge rates. Vented
nickel cadmium cells are not normally damaged by excessive rates of overcharge,
discharge or even reverse charging. Oxygen and hydrogen are released through
the vent, and this explains the need to top up the water levels of vented nickel
cadmium cells. (Note: Sealed nicads are damaged by such adverse actions.)

The nominal voltage of a nicad cell is 1.2 volts.

Can deliver very high currents.

Install and maintain substation DC systems Trainer Guide

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NSW DET 2009

Install and maintain substation DC

systems (UETTRDSB03A)

Instructions to Assessors

Certificate IV in ESI Substation Resources (UET40206)

Assessment Guide

M
PL

This Assessment Guide is part of a suite of resources that have been developed to
support 8 core units of competency from the Certificate IV in ESI Substation
(UET40206) as follows:
UETTDRIS05A
UETTDRIS22A
UETTDRIS23A

UETTDRSB01A

UETTDRSB02A
UETTDRIS03A
UETTDRIS04A
UETTDRIS05A

Perform substation switching operation to a given schedule

Implement and monitor the organisational OHS policies,
procedures and programs
Implement and monitor environmental and sustainable energy
management policies and procedures
Diagnose and rectify faults in power systems substation
environment
Carry out substation inspections
Install and maintain substation DC systems
Maintain HV power system circuit breakers
Maintain HV power system transformers and instruments

SA

This Assessment Guide together with a Trainer Guide and a Learner Guide are
designed for UETTDRSB03A Install and maintain substation DC systems. This
guide is intended to provide some direction to assessors who are determining
competence of students who have completed the theoretical and practical instruction
in this learning module. Assessors are expected to use their own judgement in
designing appropriate assessment questions and tasks and putting them into context
for the assessment candidate. At all times the evidence requirements as set out in the
unit and the principles of assessment, that is, validity, reliability, flexibility and
fairness must be complied with.
Use these guidelines to assist in preparing your own assessment instruments and tools.
The checklist should be treated as a starting point. You may choose to add more
checkpoints to highlight particular aspects of knowledge and skill that you want to see
evidence of. This could be through practical tasks or problem-based questions.
Evidence Required

Evidence for competence in this unit shall be considered holistically. Each element
and associated Performance Criteria shall be demonstrated on at least two occasions in
accordance with the Assessment Guidelines UET06. Evidence must also reflect
the critical aspects of evidence which includes the following:

State Training Services

M
PL

A representative body of performance criteria demonstrated within the timeframes

typically expected of the discipline, work function and industrial environment. In
particular this must incorporate evidence that shows a candidate is able to:
Implement Occupational Health and Safety workplace procedures and practices
including the use of risk control measures as specified in the Performance Criteria
and Range Statement.
Apply sustainable energy principles and practices as specified in the Performance
Criteria and Range Statement
Demonstrate an understanding of the essential knowledge and associated skills as
described in this unit to such an extent that the learners performance outcome is
reported in accordance with the preferred approach; namely a percentile graded
result, where required by the regulated environment.
Demonstrate an appropriate level of skills enabling employment.
Conduct work observing the relevant Anti Discrimination legislation, regulations,
polices and workplace procedures.
To be deemed as competent in this Unit, the candidate must provide sufficient
evidence of being able to maintain and repair the range of DC systems within the
electrical substation.
Where summative (or final) assessment is used it is to include the application of the
competency in the normal work environment or, at a minimum, the application of the
competency in a realistically simulated work environment. In some circumstances,
assessment in part or full can occur outside the workplace. However, it must be in
accordance with industry and regulatory policy. (For more detail on assessment
practices you are advised to refer to the Training Package and the Evidence Guide
for this Unit of Competence, especially where longitudinal competency development
and Profiling has been used).
This assessment guide covers all tasks and equipment included in the section of the
Unit: Critical aspects for assessment and evidence required to demonstrate
competency in this unit, as shown in the table below.

SA

The minimum number of items

on which skill is to be
demonstrated.

At least
following:
At least
following:

one

of

one

of

All of the following:

At least
following:

two

of

the

the

the

Item List

Nickel cadmium batteries

Sealed/unsealed lead acid batteries
Main batteries
Communication batteries
Pilot isolation batteries
Battery chargers
DC control circuits
Cell voltage test
Hydrometer/specific gravity test
Battery discharge and capacity tests
Impedance testing

Install and maintain substation DC systems Assessment Guide

NSW DET 2009