Chapter 2, Chemical quantities.

Since atoms are so small, any sensible laboratory quantity of substance must contain a huge
number of atoms. For example:
1 litre of water contains 3.3 x 1025 molecules.
1 gram of magnesium contains 2.5 x 1022 atoms.
100 cm3 of oxygen contains 2.5 x 1021molecules.
Such numbers are not convenient to work with, so it is necessary to find a unit of "amount"
which corresponds better to the sort of quantities of substance normally being measured. The
unit chosen for this purpose is the mole. The number is chosen so that 1 mole of a substance
corresponds to its relative atomic/molecular/formula mass measured in grams.
The unit of mass is 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the isotope Carbon-12 (12C=12.0000
exactly).
The Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)of an element is the ratio of the mass of an average atom of
that element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the nuclide Carbon-12.
Experiment 2.1
Cut squares, to represent different atoms, from graph paper with areas of 4cm2, 8cm2 and
16cm2. Weigh each square on a two decimal place balance. Calculate the relative masses of
your atoms.
Atom
Mass/g
Relative mass
A
0.12
0.12g/0.12g = 1.00
B
0.23
0.07g/0.02g = 3.5
C
0.48
0.14/0.02 = 7
(graph paper, scissors, 2dec place balances)
2.1a AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE. ( Understand the definition of Avogadros constant)
The mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are
atoms in 12.00g of carbon-12. This number of atoms is 6.02 x 1023 and is called the
Avogadro constant.

One mole of carbon atoms.

Molar mass can be found. The number of g in one mole is the same number as the relative
formula mass of a substance E.g. 23gmol-1 of Na atoms and 28g mol-1 of N2 molecules all
contain the same number of particles, they are all one mole of atoms or molecules.

The definition of Molar mass :

Molar mass = mass of 1 mole.
amount of substance = mass of substance/molar mass of substance
A mole is thus defined as follows:
A mole of a substance is the amount of that substance that contains the same number
of elementary particles as there are carbon atoms in 12.00000 grams of carbon-12.
One mole of carbon-12 has a mass of 12.0g.
One mole of hydrogen atoms has a mass of 1.0g.
One mole of hydrogen molecules has a mass of 2.0g.
One mole of sodium chloride has a mass of 58.5g.
The number of particles in one mole of a substance is 6.02 x 1023. This is known as
Avogadro's number, L.
Thus when we need to know the number of particles of a substance, we usually count the
number of moles. It is much easier than counting the number of particles.
The number of particles can be calculated by multiplying the number of moles by Avogadros
number. The number of moles can be calculated by dividing the number of particles by
Avogadros number.

(Number of particles) = (number of moles) x L

particles
moles

The mass of one mole of a substance is known as its molar mass, and has units of gmol-1. It
must be distinguished from relative atomic/molecular/formula mass, which is a ratio and
hence has no units, although both have the same numerical value.
The symbol for molar mass of compounds or molecular elements is Mr The symbol for molar
mass of atoms is ar.

Mass (m), molar mass (mr or ar) and number of moles (n) are thus related by the following
equation:

MASS = MOLAR MASS X NUMBER OF MOLES

or m = mr x n
Mass must be measured in grams and molar mass in gmol-1.

mass
moles

molar
mass

2.2 REACTING MASSES

It is possible to use the relationship moles = mass/mr to deduce the masses of reactants and
products that will react with each other.
When performing calculations involving reacting masses, there are two main points which
must be taken into account:
The total combined mass of the reactants must be the same as the total combined mass
of the products. This is known as the law of conservation of mass.
The ratio in which species react corresponds to the number of moles, and not their
mass. Masses must therefore all be converted into moles, then compared to each other, then
converted back.
ii)

reactions which go to completion

Eg What mass of aluminium will be needed to react with 10 g of CuO, and what mass of
Al2O3 will be produced?
3CuO(s) + 2Al(s) Al2O3(s) + 3Cu(s)
10 g
= 10/79.5
= 0.126 moles of CuO
3:2 ratio with Al
so 2/3 x 0.126 = 0.0839 moles of Al, so mass of Al = 0.0839 x 27 = 2.3 g
3:1 ratio with Al2O3
so 1/3 x 0.126 = 0.0419 moles of Al2O3, so mass of Al2O3 = 0.0419 x 102 = 4.3 g

ii) reactions which do not go to completion

Many inorganic reactions go to completion. Reactions which go to completion are said to be
quantitative. It is because the reactions go to completion that the substances can be analysed
in this way.
Some reactions, however, particularly organic reactions, do not go to completion. It is
possible to calculate the percentage yield of product by using the following equation:
% yield =

amount of product formed

maximum amount of product possible

x 100

Eg 2.0 g of ethanol (C2H5OH) is oxidised to ethanoic acid (CH3COOH). 1.9 g of ethanoic

acid is produced. What is the percentage yield? (assume 1:1 ratio)
Moles of ethanol = 2/46 = 0.0435
Max moles of ethanoic acid = 0.0435
so max mass of ethanoic acid = 0.0435 x 60 = 2.61 g
percentage yield = 1.9/2.61 x 100 = 73%

Eg When propanone (CH3COCH3) is reduced to propan-2-ol (CH3CH2CH2OH), a 76% yield

is obtained. How much propan-2-ol can be obtained from1.4 g of propanone? (assume 1:1
ratio)
Moles of propanone = 1.4/58 = 0.0241 moles
So max moles of propan-2-ol produced = 0.0241 moles
So actual amount produced = 0.0241 x 76/100 = 0.0183 moles
So mass of propan-2-ol = 0.0183 x 60 = 1.1 g

2.3 ATOM ECONOMY

When we carry out a chemical reaction in order to make a product, we often make other
products, called by-products, as well.
Eg In the production of NaOH from NaCl the following reaction takes place:
2NaCl + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
The atom economy of a reaction is the percentage of the total mass of reactants that can, in
theory, be converted into the desired product. It can be calculated as follows:
% atom economy = mass of desired product
total mass of products

x 100

Assuming we start with 2 moles of NaCl and 2 moles of H2O, we will make 2 moles of
NaOH, and 1 mole of H2 and Cl2.
So % atom economy =

(2 x 40)
x 100 =
(2 x 40) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 71)

52.3 %

The remaining 47.7% of the mass is converted into less useful products and is hence wasted.
So the higher the atom economy, the less waste and the more efficient the product process
(assuming the reaction does actually go to completion).
All reactions which have only one product have an atom economy of 100%
Atom economy is an important consideration when considering how to make a particular
useful product.

2.4 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

The empirical formula of a compound is the formula which shows the simplest wholenumber ratio in which the atoms in that compound exist.
It can be calculated if the composition by mass of the compound is known.
The molecular formula of a substance is the formula which shows the number of each type
of atom in the one molecule of that substance.
It applies only to molecular substances, and can be deduced if the empirical formula and
molar mass of the compound are known.
The molecular formula is always a simple whole number multiple of the empirical formula.
Eg a substance contains 85.8% carbon and 14.2% hydrogen, what is its empirical formula? If
its relative molecular mass is 56, what is its molecular formula?

Mole ratio = 85.8

12

14.2
1

7.15
7.15

:
:

14.2
7.15

so empirical formula = CH2

RMM = 56 = (CH2) so 14n = 56 and n = 56/14 = 4

Molecular formula = C4H8
It is also possible to calculate the percentage composition by mass of a substance, if its
empirical or molecular formula is known.
Eg What is the percentage composition by mass of ethanoic acid, C2H4O2?
RMM = 60
% C = (12 x 2)/60 x 100 = 40.0%
% H = (1 x 4)/60 x 100 = 6.67%
%O = (16 x 2)/60 x 100 = 53.3%

2.5.a. EQUATIONS.

Formula equations show the formulae of the reactants and the products on either side. Balancing
numbers are used - called the coefficients of the reaction - to ensure that the numbers of particles
on both sides of the equation are equal.
In this equation one nitrogen molecule is needed to react with every three hydrogen molecules to
produce 2 molecules of ammonia. The coefficient of nitrogen is 1, that of hydrogen is 3, and that
of ammonia is 2.
To balance a chemical equation it is important to remember that the formula of the reactants and
products cannot be changed and that coefficients may only be placed before the formulae,
multiplying them by whole numbers.

Example: One stage in the manufacture of nitric acid is the oxidation of ammonia, as shown
below:
4NH3 + _O2

_NO + _H2O

What is the coefficient for O2 when the equation is balanced?

Solution:
Balance the nitrogen by counting up the nitrogen atoms on both sides: 4NH3 + _O2 4NO + _H2O
Balance the hydrogen atoms: 4NH3 + _O2
4NO + 6H2O
Now balance the oxygen atoms: 4NH3 + 5O2
Correct response : Coefficient = 5

4NO + 6H2O

These show the actual numbers of reacting particles in a chemical reaction. The reaction must be
BALANCED to give the correct number of particles on each side of the reaction arrow.

Example: 2NaOH + H2SO4

Na2SO4 + 2H2O

These equations are constructed by writing the formula of each of the compounds in the reaction,
and then by counting up the number of atoms on each side to make sure they are equal. If they
are not equal, balancing numbers (coefficients) are added in front of each chemical formula (where
needed), so that the numbers of each type of particle on each side of the equation are the same
Step 1 - write the chemical equation
ammonia + oxygen nitrogen monoxide + water
Step 2 - write the formula of each of the reaction components
ammonia + oxygen nitrogen monoxide + water
NH3 + O2

NO + H2O

Step 3 - add coefficients IN FRONT OF the formulae to balance the equation

4NH3 + 5O2

4NO + 6H2O

Note Whenever an exam question asks for an equation, it is the balanced formula equation that is
required, unless specified otherwise.

top

Ionic equations
When ionic solutions react, the reaction only usually involves some of the ions and not others. An
ionic equation shows just the ions implicated in the reaction. The other ions are often called
"spectator ions".

Example: 2NaOH + H2SO4

Na2SO4 + 2H2O
The ionic equation is written as:
H+ + OH-

H2O

Although the formula equation represents the overall process, the sodium ions start off in solution
as Na+(aq) and at the end of the reaction they are still Na+(aq), nothing has changed, they are
merely spectator ions. The same applies to the sulfate ions, SO42-. The only particles that actually
react are the OH- ions from the sodium hydroxide and the H+ ions from the sulfuric acid.
State symbols
These are used to show the states of the various compounds that constitute the equation for the
reaction.
(s) means that the compound is in the solid state.
(l) means that the compound is in the liquid state.
(g) means that the compound is in the gaseous state.
(aq) means that the compound is dissolved in water, i.e. it is in solution.

Example: 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)

Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

The sodium hydroxide and the sulfuric acid are in solution. These make sodium sulfate in solution
and water liquid.

2.5.b Full and ionic equations

When iron is added to copper (II) sulphate, copper and iron (II) sulphate is
formed.
The full equation is
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ---> Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)
In terms of ions this is:
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ----> Cu(s) +Fe2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Sulphate ions are spectator ions as they are unaffected by the reaction.
Therefore they are left out. The ionic equation is:
Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) ----> Fe2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Both the number of atoms and charges balance.
Common ions
Cations
Sodium Na+, potassium K+, lithium Li+, magnesium Mg2+, calcium Ca2+,
Aluminium Al3+, ammonium NH4+, hydrogen H+,
Anions
Oxygen O2-, fluoride F-, chloride Cl-, bromide Br- iodide I-, hydroxide OH-,
carbonate CO3-, sulphate SO4-, nitrate NO3-,
Task 2.5.c.Balancing equations
Balance the following equations:
Write ionic equations where appropriate
1) Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
2) CO + O2 CO2
3) Ca + O2 CaO
4)* Fe2O3(s) + HCl(aq) FeCl3(aq) + H2O (l)
5)* NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq)
6)* Al + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + H2
7)* CaO + HCl CaCl2 + H2O
8)
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
9) Na2O + H2O NaOH
10)* Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + CO2 + H2O
11)* Br2 + KI KBr + I2
12)* Ca(OH)2 + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
13) Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2
14)* Pb3O4 + HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + PbO2 + H2O
15)* Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
16)
HNO3 NO2 + H2O + O2

2.6 CALCULATIONS FROM EQUATIONS

FACTFILE.

When solving problems based on equations

1. Write a balanced equation.
2. In words, state what the equation tells you about the substance in which
you are interested.
3. Use molar masses to change amounts in moles to masses in grams.
4. State the masses to match the quantities in the question.
Example 1
a What mass of magnesium oxide would be produced from 16 g of magnesium
in the reaction between magnesium and oxygen?
i ) Write the full balanced equation
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
ii ) Read the equation in terms of moles
2moles of magnesium reacts to give 2 moles of magnesium oxide
iii)Convert the moles to masses using the Mr values
(2 x 24g) of magnesium gives 2 x (24+16) = 80 g of Magnesium oxide
16 g of magnesium gives 80 x 16

2 x 24
= 26.7 g of Magnesium oxide
Example 2
What mass of lead(II) sulphate would be produced by the action of excess dilute
sulphuric acid on 10 g of lead nitrate dissolved in water ?
Pb(NO3)2(aq) +
H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
1 mole of lead nitrate
gives
mole of lead sulphate
331 g of lead nitrate gives 303 g of lead sulphate
and 10 g of lead nitrate gives 303g10g of leadsulphate

331g
= 9.15 g of lead sulphate