1

Introduction
Since the practise of agriculture began, humans have been struggling to reduce the adverse
effects of pests on crops, forest and other human managed ecosystem. Pests such as
anthropods, weeds and pathogens have, been are, and will still continue to be a major
constraint to agricultural production throughout the world. Man has been combating
against his pest enemies from the day he learnt the art of agriculture. The earliest known
mention of using naturally occuring compounds to manage pests dates as back as 1000 BC
when Homer referred to the use of sulphur compounds. A brief history of the pest
management is given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Selected History of Pest Management.
Discovery

Date
BC
1000
324

First published observation of

an anthropod parasitism

Implementation
Homer refers to Sulphur use in fumigation
and other forms of pest control
Chinese introduced ants (Acephali
amaragina) in citrus trees to control
caterpillar and large booing beetles.

AD
1602
1669
1690
1752
1821
1845

Earliest mention of arsenic used as

insecticide in Western world
Tobacco extracts used as contact insecticide
Linnaeus recommends use of predatory
arthropods to control anthropod pests.
In England, sulphur used as fungicide on
mildew
Italian Society for Promotion of Arts and
Crafts awards gold medal to Antonio Villa
for successful use of arthropod predators to
control anthropod pests

BIOPESTICIDES

Millardet discovers value of

the Bordeaux mixture

1883
1889

TEPP, first organaphosphate

insecticide discovered

1938

1938
1939
1942
1945
1946
1948
Watson and Crick discover the
double helix structure of DNA

Breeders release wheat cultivar resistant

to stem rust (Puccinia graminis), a fungal
disease
2, 4-D synthesised as an analogue to plant
hormone indole acetic acid
First DDI shipped to United States for
experimental use
Chlordane, first persistent chlorinated
cyclodiene insecticides and first carbonate
herbicides introduced
First house flies resistant to DDT observed
in Sweden
First U.S. registration of microbial pesticides
(Bacillus papillae & B. tentimorhus) to
control Japanese beetle larvae.

1953
1954

Foundation for Integrated Pest

Management (IPM)
Nuremberg decipher the genetic
code

Australian ladybird beetle introduced to

control cottony cushion scale; credited with
saving the Californian citrus industry.
Bacillus thuringiensis first used as microbial
insecticide

Release of spotted alfalfa aphid resistant

cultivar

1959
1960
1969
1972
1975
1977
1979
1980
1983
1986

Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner registered

to control lepidopteran larvae
Arizona places moratorium to use of DDT
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) US
cancels nearly all uses of DDT
Registration of the first virus (Heleothis
nuclear polyhedrosis) for bud worm/boll
worm control on cotton
First registration of a pheromone for use on
cotton
Agrobacterium radiobacter registered to
control crown gall disease
Protozoan Nosema locustae registered to
control grasshoppers
First successful transfer of a plant gene from
one species to another.
Development of transgenic virus-resistant
plants using coat protein gene

INTRODUCTION

1987
1988
1990
1994

1995
onwards

First US trials of transgenic plants

(transgenic tomato plant)
Bacillus thuringiensis San Diego and
Bacillus thuringiensis Tenebrionis
registered to control coleopteran larvae
Fungus Gliocladium virens registered to
control Pythium & Rhizoctonia
Regulatory approval of transgenic virus
tolerant
squash,
arthropod-tolerant
cotton, herbicide - tolerant soyabeans &
cotton
The trials and introduction of pest
resistant crops/plants on field started.

Crop plants especially the high yielding varieties, are particularly prone to diseases
and pests. It is estimated that Rs. 6000 crores worth of agricultural products are destroyed
by pest annually world wide. Weeds take up 30 percent to 50 percent of the total nutrients
supplied to the crops and 20 percent to 40 percent of the soil moisture. With expanding
population, productive land is at a premium. Therefore, it is imperative to control pests,
weeds and diseases in order to maximise yield. Plant protection chemicals have been
developed to control pests, but the problem not only continues but is increasing day by
day.
During the 1940s, a number of chemical insecticides were developed as a means of
controlling the proliferation of various insect populations. One of these was the chlorinated
hydrocarbon, DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane), which had originally been
synthesised in the 1870s but was not recognised as an insecticides until the late 1930s.
DDT proved to be exceptionally effective in killing and controlling many species of pests.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT function by attacking the nervous system and muscle
tissue of insects. Other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as dieldrin, chlordone and toxophene
have been also synthesised and applied on a massive scale.
Another class of chemical insecticides is called organophosphates and includes
malathion, parathion and diazinon. The first generation of organophosphates were
developed as chemical warfare agents. Now they are used to control insect populations by
interfering with the activity of exhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which hydrolyses
the nerve transmitter acetylcholine. These insecticides disrupt the functioning of motor
neurones and neurone in the brain of the insect.
By the early 1960s, over 100 million acres of US agricultural land were being treated
annually with chemical insecticides. At about this time, researcher realised that chlorinated
hydrocarbons insecticides (to a large extent) and organophosphate insecticieds (to a lesser
extent) had dramatic and immediate side effects and long term and indirect effect on
animals,ecosystems and humans. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DDT, were found to
persist in the environment for 15 to 20 years and were found to be accumulated in increasing
concentrations through the food chains. This bioaccumulation in fatty tissues was having
a significant biological impact on many organisms. For example, in North America, many
species of birds including peregrine falcons, sparrow, hawks, bald eagles, brown pelicans
and double crested cormorants were severely depopulated.

BIOPESTICIDES

EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF IMPORTANCE OF

NATURAL PROCESSES
Researchers have used pesticides to experimentally eliminate organisms having
biological control as a way to quantify the importance of biological and natural
processes in managing pests.
(a) California Red Scale (Anoidiella aurantii) on citrus
Experimental DDT applications caused a pest population to increase from 36
fold to more than 1200 fold over a period of time.
(b) Cottony Cushion Scale (Icerya purchasi)
Two experimental applications of DDT to trees with initial light-to-moderate
scale populations initially produced scale infestations sufficient for tree
defoiliation or death within 1 year. With lighter infestations, four treatments
over a 2 year period were required to achieve the same level of infestation.
(c) Citrus Red Scale (Panoncychus citri )
Two and half months after application of DDT, the mite population index on
treated trees was 2,303 compared to 377 on untreated trees. The use of DDT
on citrus in California was abandoned early in the game by citrus growers
because of its obvious effect in causing such mite increase.
(d) Cyst Nematode
Application of soil fungicides to research plots in England revealed the
widespread phenomenon of biological control of cereal nematode by natural
occurring soil fungi; populations of cyst nematodes remained low in untreated
plots but increased greatly in treated plots because the fungicide killed the
nematodes biological control organisms.
These experimental demonstrations bring out the importance of a natural and
biological control programme.
During the 1950s, as the targeted insect pest populations became increasingly resistant
to treatment with many chemical insecticides, higher concentrations of the insecticides
had to be applied to obtain control of the pest species. In addition, chemical insecticides
were found to lack specificity. Consequently, beneficial insects were being killed off more
effectively than the target organisms, with the bizarre result that pesticide treatment led
to the higher levels of the insect pest after the application of the pesticide.
A biotechnological approach to insects and pests control may be defined as a condition
or practice under which or whereby survival and activity of insects and pests is reduced
through the agency of any living organism. This principally involves the use of bio-control
agents, specific biological products or metabolites and genetic manipulation.
The biotechnological approach to pests and diseases is not new, though it got recognition
much later. When plants emerged from warm primeval seas and invaded land in the
Devonian period about 300 million years ago, they were accompanied by fungi and bacteria
which had been parasitizing them for millions of years. As roots evolved, they were invaded
in turn. Thus, parasitic fungi and bacteria have been a part of the environment of roots
for at least as long as the soil itself. It is, therefore, to be expected that the interactions
between the parasite, root, and soil, and between parasitic and saprophytic microorganisms

INTRODUCTION

have become extremely complex. These organisms which do not adjust to this competition,
by one means or another, did not survive. A state of fluctuating biological balance thus
developed for each native habitat, and was self-adjusting for the relatively slow evolutionary
and climatic changes.
Biological control is not only based on the disciplines like ecology or microbiology, it is
also based on plant and microbial genetics, molecular biology, cytology, biochemistry, plant
physiology etc. Biocontrol is shown to be potentially applicable to nematodes,
phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria, insect pests and weeds. Virologist are also coming up
with some of the best biocontrol methods, using a virulent and modified virus strains to
obtain cross-protection against virulent plant viruses. Biological control can be accomplished
by genetic manipulation of the host, antagonist, or even the pathogen itself, and may be
directed at the ecosystem, population or individual level.

PESTICIDES: AN OVERVIEW
Pesticides include any substances used either to directly control pest populations or to
prevent or reduce pest damage. Although many pesticides are designed to kill pests, some
may only inhibit their growth, or simply attract or repel them. Examples of pesticides
include herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, rodenticides, wood preservatives and
disinfectants.. The pesticide ingredients and products discussed in this section either have
some historical significance or are known to be used in and around schools or other sensitive
settings. The mention of specific products is not meant as an endorsement of these products,
but as examples for applicators and administrators.

PESTICIDE CLASSIFICATION
Pesticides are classified in several ways, each having its own value for a given purpose.
Some pesticides are classified by the Environmental Protection Agency as restricted-use
pesticides (RUPs) because even with the proper handling and application of these pesticides,
they pose an unreasonable or adverse effect on humans and or the environment. Only a
certified applicator may mix, load, and apply, or direct the use of restricted-use pesticides.
Some institutes like the University of Wisconsin Extension provides the necessary training
to people who want to become certified to use RUPs or who just want training on the basic
principles of pesticide use. Trained pest control operators (PCOs) should be used in the
rare situation where a RUP would be necessary.
Pesticides are also classified based on their toxicity. Acute toxicity values of a pesticide
determines the toxicity category of the pesticide and the signal word(s) required on the
pesticide label. The toxicity category is assigned on the basis of the highest measured
toxicity, oral, dermal, or inhalation; effects on the eyes and external injury to the skin are
also considered. The toxicity category and, therefore, the signal word(s) are based on the
total formulation. Thus, products that contain the same active ingredient but in different
formulations may bear different signal words.
One of the most common means to classify a pesticide is based on chemical structure.
Based on chemistry, pesticides can be divided into three groups: inorganic pesticides, organic
pesticides and biological pesticides.

BIOPESTICIDES

INORGANIC PESTICIDES
The inorganic pesticides are those pesticides that do not contain carbon. They can contain
elements or natural compounds, such as arsenic, copper, boron, mercury, sulfur, tin, zinc,
borate, diatomite, silica or other substances. Many of the organics were important early
pesticides, but many have since been banned or severely curtailed because of health and
environmental concerns. A few inorganic pesticides are used in urban pest situations as
alternatives to organic pesticides because of their relatively low risk to humans and animals.
One of these includes the borates (i.e. boric acid) which have a low acute toxicity to humans
and animals, but are very toxic to certain insects. Even with the borates, care must be
taken when using dust formulations around people with chronic respiratory ailments,
such as asthma. A second group of low risk inorganic pesticides are the insect desiccants.
This group of pesticides contain silica aerogel or diatomaceous earth. They absorb oils from
the exoskeleton (cuticle) of insects or physically damage the cuticle causing water loss and
death because the insects cannot live without water.
The first chemicals used in weed control were inorganic compounds. Among them
were the trivalent arsenicals, borate compounds, ammonium salts and sodium chlorate. A
few of the inorganic herbicides are still used in weed and brush control, but most have
been replaced by organic compounds because of the persistence of the inorganics in soils
and their toxicity to humans and wildlife.

ORGANIC PESTICIDES
Organic pesticides are compounds used to control pests that contain carbon. Although
organic pesticides can occur naturally, they are most often human-made (synthetic). They
get their name based on some aspect of their chemistry. For example, organophosphate
pesticides contain phosphorus and carbamate pesticides have a carbamic acid base.

Synthetic Organic Pesticides

Synthetic organic pesticides do not naturally occur in the environment, but are
synthesized by man. They are called organic compounds because they contain carbon and
hydrogen atoms as the basis of their molecular structure. The synthetic organic compounds
include most of the insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, avicides, and other pesticides
currently available.
There are five basic groups of synthetic organic insecticides that can be used in pest
situations. These include the chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, carbamates,
pyrethroids, and fluorinated hydrocarbons. There is an even larger number of synthetic
organic herbicide classes and individual ingredients available for control of weeds in crops,
in turf, and other non-cropping areas. Some of these are used around schools to control
various weeds in turf, on parking lots, along fencelines, and around playgrounds. Synthetic
organic pesticides are also used to control rodents. A few are even used to control birds.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
This large group of insecticides vary considerably in their toxicity to mammals. Many
of the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are prohibited from use. Their prohibition is

INTRODUCTION

primarily due to their persistence in the environment and ability to accumulate in the
fatty tissues of birds and mammals. Examples of the prohibited pesticides within this group
include DDT, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, mirex and heptachlor. Members of this group
that continue to have registered uses include lindane, dicofol, and methoxychlor.
Methoxychlor pesticide products are still available in a variety of formulations for control
of various indoor and outdoor insects. Use of methoxychlor and other chlorinated
hydrocarbon-containing pesticide products have largely been replaced by the less persistent
and newer synthetic pyrethroid and fluorinated hydrocarbon pesticide products.

Organophosphates
The organphosphates are a large group of pesticides containing about 39 active
ingredients, which vary from being moderately to very toxic to mammals. Organophosphates
were the first insecticides used on a large scale to replace the chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Unlike most of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates are not stored in the body
for long periods of time. This property, combined with a much shorter residual life also
reduces the chances of long-term environmental contamination. Many insect species world
wide, including flies, mosquitoes, and cockroaches, have developed resistance to the
organophosphate insecticides because of their frequent use and similar modes of action.
Organophosphates work by interfering with the activity of an enzyme, cholinesterase,
which is necessary for proper nerve function. Without this enzyme, impulses continue to
pass down the nerve fiber disrupting the nervous system and ultimately resulting in death
by respiratory failure. Some of the more toxic organophosphate insecticides can present a
high risk of irreversible organophosphate poisoning in humans, from excessive exposure.
This risk is highest to pesticide applicators and non-target animals. Organophosphates,
unlike the organochlorines insecticides, do not accumulate in the tissues of humans or
animals.
Many uses of organophosphates are being replaced by the pyrethrins, synthetic
pyrethroids and the fluorinated baits. However, certain organophosphates still have use
in low-impact pesticide applications.

Carbamates
Carbamates are another large group of insecticides, a few of which are commonly
used in the structural pest control industry. Like the organophosphates, many of the
carbamate insecticides used, except perhaps for bendiocarb (Ficam) and propoxur (Baygon),
are being replaced by the fluorinated hydrocarbon baits and pyrethroids. Like the
organophosphates, carbamates are cholinesterase inhibitors, however their inhibition of
this enzyme is reversible. Therefore, compared to the organophosphates, people excessively
exposed to carbamates have a greatly reduced likelihood of acute nerve poisoning and a
greatly increased recovery rate. Carbamates, like organophosphates, do not accumulate
in the environment or fatty tissues of mammals. Both carbamates and organophosphates
act as contact insecticides with some stomach poisoning activity. In addition to their use as
insecticides, a number of carbamates are also used as herbicides and fungicides. Bendiocarb
and propoxur are two carbamate insecticides that continue to be used indoors in lowimpact situations. Bendiocarb is very effective against ants, bees and wasps and is useful
for crack and crevice applications. Propoxur is effective on a variety of flying and crawling

BIOPESTICIDES

insects found in and around buildings. It is labeled for crack and crevice treatments in
food handling situations and it is available in baits and many other formulations. Carbraryl
(Sevin) dusts, wettable powders and aerosol formulations continue to be used, mostly
outdoors, for controlling various turf, ornamental and invasive insect pests.

Synthetic Pyrethroids
The synthetic pyrethroids or pyrethroids have a long and successful history in pest
control. For ease of classification they are placed in two categories or generations.
First generation pyrethroids have many of the same characteristics as pyrethrum,
but are more stable, have greater killing power, and are somewhat less irritating to the
eyes and skin. Some first generation pyrethroids commonly used to control pests include:
phenothrin/d-phenothrin (many), resmethrin/transresmethrin (Endal), s-bioallethrein
(many) and tetramethrin (many). Although some pesticide products contain only a first
generation ingredient most products containing first generation pyrethroids are combination
products. These combination formulations may contain first and/or second generation
pyrethroids or a variety of combinations of a one or more pyrethroids or organophosphates.
Many first and second generation pyrethroid products contain a synergist (i.e. piperonyl
butoxide and MGK 264), which increases the insecticidal activity of the product.
The second generation pyrethroids are the most common insecticides used in urban
pest control. Their frequent use in structural pest control is largely attributed to their
exceptional insecticidal activity and greatly reduced rates of application. Some second
generation pyrethroids are used singly or in combination with other pyrethroids or
organophosphates. Some of the common second generation insecticides currently used,
either singly or in combination with other insecticides, include: cypermethrin (Demon),
permethrin (many), cyfluthrin (Tempo), and lamda-cyhalothrin (Commodore). The signal
word of first and second generation pyrethroid insecticide products vary with the active
ingredient and the formulation. A primary factor related to their toxicity is the degree of
eye irritation caused by the active ingredient concentrate.

Fluorinated Hydrocarbons
This broad classification is applied to two relatively new insecticide classes
amidinohydrazones and fluoroaliphatic sulfones, both contain fluorine in their chemical
structure.
The amidinohydrazones include several insecticide products ( Maxforce bait products)
containing the active ingredient hydramethylnon. Hydramethylnon is primarily used in
baits to control ants and cockroaches. It functions as a slow acting stomach poison. It is
available in a number of formulations including gels for crack and crevice treatments of
cockroaches and in tamper-resistant bait stations for control of ants and cockroaches. Bait
formulations containing hydramethylnon have low toxicity to mammals and are readily
accepted by insects. The most important factor determining their effectiveness is proper
bait placement.
Like the amidohydrazones, the fluoroaliphatic sulfones includes one active pesticide
ingredient, sulfluramid (Dual Choice products). Sulfluramid, like hydramethylnon is a
relatively non-toxic ingredient used in prepackaged consumer bait products for control of

INTRODUCTION

cockroaches and ants. Like hydramethylnon, sulfluramid kills insects by interfering with
a specific metabolic process.

Phenoxyaliphatic Acids
The first of the phenoxy herbicides, (phenoxyacetic acid derivative) was 2,4-D (i.e.
Weed- B- Gon products) which was introduced in 1944 and continues to be one of the most
useful broad-leaf herbicides ever developed. Other closely related phenoxy herbicides
commonly used on turf for broad-leaf weed control include MCPA, MCPP, MCPB and
2,4DB. There are hundreds of phenoxy herbicide products available to the consumer.
Two phenoxy herbicides, 2,4,5-T and silvex, have been banned from use since 1983
because they were contaminated during their manufacture with a highly toxic compound,
tetrachlorodioxin.
The phenoxy herbicides mechanism of action resembling those of certain plant growth
hormones known as auxins. The death of susceptible plants occurs within 3-5 weeks of
application by affecting the plants metabolism which leads to uncontrolled cell division
and growth. The signal word and toxicity of the phenoxy products vary with the active
ingredient and formulation. The corrosiveness and ability to cause eye and skin damage
usually are the reason for signal words of Warning or Danger on the product label.

Arylaliphatic Acids or Benzoics

This group of aliphatic acid herbicides are applied to the soil against germinating
seed or seedlings. The most commonly used member of this group is dicamba. Dicamba is
frequently used in combination with phenoxy herbicides (2,4-D, MCPA and others) to
control a wide range of broad-leaf weeds. Their mechanism of action is similar to the
phenoxy herbicides. Pesticide products containing only dicamba usually have a label signal
word of Caution or Warning. Many of the dicamba-phenoxy combination products are
often labeled with the signal word Danger or Warning depending on the formulation and
concentration of the active ingredients.

Dinitroanilines
This group of herbicides are largely permanence selective herbicides used mainly in
agriculture, but there are some active ingredients registered for permanence application
to turf, primarily for controlling certain annual weeds, such as crabgrass. The dinitroanilines
have an involved mode of action, which includes inhibiting the development of several
enzymes and disrupting the plants metabolism. Common dinitroaniline ingredients used
to control crabgrass during the seed germination process include: Pendimethalin
(Pendulum), benefin and trifluralin (Acclaim). Preemergence products can generally be
used alone or with fertilizer. They often have a Caution signal word on the label. Direct
exposure to them may cause eye irritation.

Miscellaneous Herbicide Ingredients

In addition to the common herbicides previously mentioned there are many herbicides
which can be used to control weeds in turf, around paved areas and along fencelines.

10

BIOPESTICIDES

Some other herbicide ingredients are available to be used prior to weed germinating
(preemergence) include prodiamine (Barracade), dithiopyr (Dimension), dacthal (Dacthal)
and oxadiazon (Ronstar).
There are many other individual and combination herbicide ingredients labeled for
post emergence control of broadleaf weeds and/or grasses. Some ingredients in addition to
those already mentioned include imazaquin (Image), isoxaben (Gallery) and fenoxapropp-ethyl (Acclaim). These products are usually labeled with the Caution signal word.
A few herbicide ingredients are used to control weeds in paved areas and along
fencelines and around the perimeters of play or athletic areas. Prominent among these is
glyphosate (Round-up). Glyphosate is recognized for its effectiveness against perennial
grasses and broadleaf weeds as well as woody brush. It is a foliar-applied, systemic herbicide
that can be applied at any stage of plant growth and at any time of the year. There are
many formulations of glyphosate and most have the signal word of Caution. There are
other herbicides, such as prometon (Primatol) and diquat that are sometimes used along
fencelines or on paved areas, but they either have more limited uses than glyphosate or
are more toxic.

Anticoagulant Rodenticide Baits

About one-half of all mammalian species are rodents. The most common species of
rodents found include the Norway rat, the house mouse, species of wild mice (e.g. deer and
white-food mouse), voles (field mice), and the thirteen-lined ground squirrel. In situations,
where trapping alone cannot resolve indoor or outdoor rodent problems, commercially
prepared rodenticidal baits are often the control choice. The group of baits most often
considered for use to control most species of rodents are the anticoagulant baits. The
anticoagulants inhibit material in the blood of rodents that is responsible for clotting and
can cause capillary damage. Both of these actions contribute to internal bleeding and
ultimately death of the rodents. Depending on the active ingredient, anticoagulants require
one or more feedings of the bait to be effective. Commercial anticoagulant baits come in a
variety of formulations including loose meal baits, pelleted baits, packet style baits, liquid
baits, seed baits and block baits. Anticoagulant pesticides belong to two chemical classes,
the coumarins and the indandiones. Commonly used coumarin pesticide bait ingredients
include bromdiolone (Contrac, Decon), difethialone (Generation), brodifacoum (Talon) and
warfarin. Indandione baits commonly used in urban situations include diphacinone (Ditrac)
and chlorophacinone (Rozol).

Phosphorus Based Rodenticide Baits

Ground squirrels, voles and moles (insectivore) can be pests in areas. When trapping,
elimination of habitat, flooding of burrows or other mechanical control options do not
work, zinc phosphide baits are sometimes used by commercial applicators to control these
pests. Zinc phosphide is an intense poison which attacks the liver and other organs of the
pest which results in rapid death. It is also very toxic to humans and should only be used
by commercial applicators. To avoid hazards to humans and non-target animals, zinc
phosphide baits (restricted-use) are put directly into burrows of ground squirrels and moles.
Voles are also occasionally controlled with zinc phosphide baits. Grain-based baits are
usually placed in the voles burrow.

INTRODUCTION

11

Bird Repellents
Unprotected pest birds such as pigeons, sparrows, starlings and blackbirds and can
occasionally be a problem. When exclusion or dispersal methods are not effective, a
commercial avicide, containing 4-aminopyridine (Avitrol), is available to professional
applicators for controlling unprotected bird species. Birds that consume Avitrol baits emit
a distress call which frighten other birds of the same species away from the treated area.
Because Avitrol is relatively toxic, the death of some birds are likely.
One may prefer to use a natural or organic pesticide when you need to control a
pest. Organic pesticides are usually considered as those pesticides that come from natural
sources. These natural sources are usually plants, as is the case with pyrethrum (pyrethins),
rotenone or ryania (botanical insecticides), or minerals, such as boric acid, cryolite, or
diatomaceous earth. Organic pesticides are largely insecticides.
Even if a product is considered to be organic, it is still a pesticide. It is important to be
careful when using any pesticide, even organic or natural pesticides. Just because a product
is thought to be organic, or natural, does not mean that it is not toxic. Some organic
pesticides are as toxic, or even more toxic, than many synthetic chemical pesticides. Organic
pesticides have specific modes of action, just as the synthetic pesticides.
To determine the relative toxicity of any pesticide to humans, check the signal word
given on the pesticide label. Least toxic products carry the signal word CAUTION on their
label. Products with the signal word WARNING on the label are more toxic. The most toxic
pesticides have the signal word DANGER on their labels. Signal words are not an indication
of the potential for environmental harm.
While some organic pesticides may be nontoxic or are only slightly toxic to people,
they may be very toxic to other animals. For instance, the organic pesticide ryania is very
toxic to fish. Also, some organic pesticides may be toxic to beneficial insects, such as
honeybees, if they are combined with other materials, such as combining pyrethrins with
rotenone.

BIOLOGICAL PESTICIDES (BIOPESTICIDES)

Biopesticides( also known as biological pesticides) are certain types of pesticides derived
from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria and certain minerals. For example,
garlic, mint and baking soda all have pesticidal applications
(1) Microbial pesticides contain a microorganism ( bacterium, fungus, virus,
protozoan, or alga) as the active ingredient. The most widely known microbial
pesticides are varieties of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt, which can
control certain insects in cabbage, potatoes, and other crops. Bt produces a protein
that is harmful to specific insect pests. Certain other microbial pesticides act by
outcompeting pest organisms. Microbial pesticides need to be continuously
monitored to ensure they do not become capable of harming non-target organisms,
including humans.
(2) Plant pesticides are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic
material that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the
gene for the Bt pesticidal protein, and introduce the gene into the plants own

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BIOPESTICIDES

genetic material. Then the plant instead of the Bt bacterium manufactures the
substance that destroys the pest. Both the protein and its genetic material are
regulated by EPA; the plant itself is not regulated.
(3) Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests
by non-toxic mechanisms. Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are synthetic
materials that usually kill or inactivate the pest. Biochemical pesticides include
substances that interfere with growth or mating, such as plant growth regulators,
or substances that repel or attract pests, such as pheromones. Because it is
sometimes difficult to determine whether a natural pesticide controls the pest by
a non-toxic mode of action. EPA has established a committee to determine whether
a pesticide meets the criteria for a biochemical pesticide.
Microbial and Antimicrobial Pesticides

These are two separate and distinct types of pesticides registered by EPA.
Microbial Pesticides are microbes, including bacteria, that help to control insects
and weeds, as well as fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases. These are one type of
biopesticide.
Antimicrobial Pesticides are pesticides that control unwanted microbes on
inanimate objects, in water, and on selected foods under certain circumstances. These
pesticides are almost always chemicals, and they act by killing or inactivating microbes
that are pests. Antimicrobial pesticides include the disinfectants used in swimming pools,
drinking water supplies, and in hospitals to control microbes that can cause disease.
The advantages of using biopesticides are:

Biopesticides are inherently less harmful than conventional pesticides.

They are designed to affect only one specific pest or, in some case, a few target
organisms, in contrast to broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may affect
organisms as different as birds, insects and mammals.
Biopesticides often are effective in very small quantities and often decompose
quickly, thereby resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution
problems caused by conventional pesticides.
When used as a component of Integrated Pest Management(IPM) programs,
biopesticides can greatly decrease the use of conventional pesticides, while crop
yields remain high.
Biopesticides are an important group of pesticides that can reduce pesticide risks.
Biopesticides, in general:
w Have a narrow target range and a very specific mode of action;
w Are slow acting;
w Have relatively critical application times;
w Suppress, rather than eliminate, a pest population;
w Have limited field persistence and a short shelf life;
w Are safer to humans and the environment than conventional pesticides;
w Present no residue problems.

INTRODUCTION

13

The two types of biopesticides are biochemical and microbial. Biochemical pesticides
may have a similar structure to, and function like, naturally occurring chemicals, and
have nontoxic modes of action.
Insect pheromones, for example, are naturally-occurring chemicals that insects use
to locate mates. Man-made pheromones are used to disrupt insect mating by creating
confusion during the search for mates, or can be used to attract male insects to traps.
Pheromones are often used to detect or monitor insect populations, or in some cases, to
control them.
Microbial insecticides are another kind of biopesticide. They come from naturallyoccurring or genetically altered bacteria, fungi, algae, viruses or protozoans. They suppress
pests by:
w Producing a toxin specific to the pest;
w Causing a disease;
w Preventing establishment of other microorganisms through competition; or
w Other modes of action.
An example of a microbial pesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt. Bacillus
thuringiensis is a naturally occurring soil bacteria that is toxic to the larvae of several
species of insects but not toxic to nontarget organisms. Bacillus thuringiensis can be applied
to plant foliage or incorporated into the genetic material of crops. Bacillus thuringiensis,
as discovered, is toxic to the caterpillars (larvae) of moths and butterflies. Several strains
of Bt have been developed and now strains are available that control fly.
Potato as Neutraceutical
Will eating potato salad replace vaccines?

Future delivery of vaccines to promote peoples resistance to diseases may not be

through a needle and syringe. It may be through eating genetically-modified (GMO) fruits
and vegetables especially the potato. Neutraceuticals are defined as foods producing high
levels of a substance(s) promoting good health.
Pass the potato vaccine, please.

Boyce-Thompson Institute at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY, developed a GMOpotato with a genetic makeup to give immunity against the Norwalk virus, a major foodborne illness. The Norwalk virus is responsible for 90% of the worlds viral diarrhoea.
In other research at the Institute, a GMO-potato was developed against hepatitis B
in mice. The potato vaccine did not breakdown in the stomach and activated antibiotic
production. Being inside the potato cells, the antigen responsible for the immunization
was not destroyed by the gastric juices.
In the last couple of years, this anti-hepatitis B GMO-potato was grown in Wisconsin
by an ag-technology company, Ag-Tec International, for testing. This is the first-ever
large-scale crop being produced as a pharmaceutical. Ag-Tec Int. has developed rapid
multiplication minituber technology to grow potato vaccines (quantum tubers). This
technology allows for pathogen-free, harvestable tubers in 40-50 days followed by two
field generations for commercial quantities of seed potato.

14

BIOPESTICIDES

Potato vaccines would provide a cheap and painless medicine that would be easily
delivered and stored. Research on potato vaccines is on the fore-front of these developments
Medical Agriculture.
Imagine eating a potato to negate the effects of a bio-terror attack.

Biological pesticides contain the microbial pesticides, insect growth regulators,

pheromones and the botanical pesticides. Except for the botanicals, this group differs from
other pesticides groups in that they consist of a variety of chemicals of natural origin or
synthetic versions of natural chemicals which target specific species and usually have
little impact on non-targeted species. The botanicals pesticides are extracted from plants
and are used alone or with other pesticides. They usually are used to control a wide variety
of insect or weed pests. Biological pesticides that are sometimes used or potentially could be
used include microbial pesticides, insect growth regulators, pheromones and select
botanicals, such as pyrethrum and corn gluten.

Microbial Pesticides
An increasing number of pathogens (bacteria, fungi, viruses) are being registered as
pesticides for control of specific insects and plant diseases, especially in agriculture.
Currently, only one pathogen, a naturally occurring fungus, has been registered for use
in structural pest control. The fungus, Metarhizium anislopia, is available as Biopath and
is used in tamper-resistant chambers as a slow acting contact poison for controlling
cockroaches. The spores of a number of varieties of the bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis,
are available in a number of commercial products for controlling larval mosquitoes,
caterpillars and other select species of insects. These species specific and low toxicity pesticide
products have some potential use for controlling larval mosquitoes or for controlling
caterpillar pests .

Avermectins
Avermectins and abamectin are synonymous for a mixture of two chemicals produced
in a fermentation process by the soil-inhabiting fungus, Streptomyces avermitilis. For
convenience, the mixture of these two chemicals are referred to as avermectins. They kill
insects by stimulating the production of a substance in the insect which blocks nerve
signals and causes death by paralysis. Avermetins are available as a dry flowable bait
formulation that is applied to cracks and crevices indoors and outdoors to control
cockroaches. One drawback of this pesticide is that it is not labeled for use in food preparation
areas.

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)

Insect growth regulators are a group of compounds that affect the ability of insects to
grow and mature normally. They consist of synthetic chemicals that mimic the naturally
occurring growth hormones that occur within an insects body. There are two classes of
materials that currently fall into the IGR category; juvenile hormone analogs (juvenoids)
and chitin synthesis inhibitors. The effects on the insect varies with the chemical nature of
the IGR. Some extend the period of larval or nymphal stages of insects, others prohibit the
larval stage from pupating or its ability to pupate, and other IGRs cause infertile adults.

INTRODUCTION

15

IGRs are effective at very low rates and present a very low risk to humans and pests.
However, they are effective on very limited number of pests and typically take several
months to affect a pest population.
Three IGR compounds are formulated into urban IGR pesticide products: fenoxycarb,
hydroprene and methoprene. Fenoxycarb (Torus and Award) can kill some early nymphal
instars of insects such as fleas and cockroaches. It can prevent their nymphs from becoming
adults and it can also reduce egg hatch in treated females. Hydroprene (Gencor, Gentrol)
is used on cockroaches. Treated nymphs develop into infertile adults. Hydroprene is often
initially applied as mixture of hydroprene and a conventional insecticide to control existing
adult cockroaches which are not affected by hydroprene alone. Methoprene spray is used
against fleas (Precor) and pharaoh ants (Pharorid). It prolongs larval development and
prevents pupation in fleas and prevents the larvae of pharaoh ants from developing
normally and causes the queen to be sterile. Methoprene baits often take several months
to eliminate a colony of pharaoh ants.
Chitin synthesis inhibitors disrupt the normal molting process of insects by interfering
with chitin, a major component of an insects exoskeleton. Currently one compound,
hexaflumuron (Sentricon) show considerable promise against certain termite species. Other
similar bait products are currently under development for control of a variety of structural
pests.

Pheromones
Insects release chemical substances into the air which convey information to and
produce specific responses in other individuals of the same species. These chemicals are
called pheromones. Synthetic pheromones are used to assist in insect trapping or monitoring
programs. These pheromones cause certain insects (ants, moths and beetles) to gather by
mimicking signals that promote aggregation, either for mating or food or both. Pheromones
are often included as a component of sticky traps which are one of the primary tools used
in structural insect monitoring programs.

Botanicals
Example of botanical pesticides include pyrethrum, rotonone, nicotine, strychnine
and corn gluten. The fact that these compounds are natural does not mean that they
have low toxicity. Nicotine containing insecticides and strychnine containing rodenticides
are very toxic to humans and animals and many of their uses have been suspended by
EPA.
Pyrethum insecticides are best known for their rapid knockdown properties and low
residual activity. Phrethrum also has a good safety record in consumer and commercial
pest control products. However, one key disadvantage is that they are toxic to fish and can
cause skin irritation in humans.
Corn gluten is the protein and nitrogen residue remaining after starch is removed
from corn kernels during wet-milling. It has recently been found to have preemergent
herbicide properties which can prevent the germination of certain annual weed seeds.
Corn gluten has recently been gaining some acceptance as a natural herbicide in golf
course and residential turf management.

16

BIOPESTICIDES

Dealing with Chemophobia

Several agrichemical companies established a Consumer Information Program to deal

with the publics fear about agrichemicals. This program conducted a survey on the publics
perceptions on pesticides. Cancer was concern number1. There was a desire for organic
farming to increase and felt that the technology was available but ignored by farmers.
One outcome of this survey was to determine what information may ease the publics
anxieties and what information does not.
Statements that help relieve chemophobia concerning pesticides:
1. Pesticides undergo a rigorous testing process. There are more than 120 separate
tests taking 8-10 years at a cost of $35-50 million that must be passed.
2. Only about one in 20,000 compounds make it to the farm. Monitoring of
agrichemicals continues even after chemical registration.
3. The National Cancer Institute has stated that there is NO scientific evidence
that pesticide residues on produce causes cancer in people.
4. A 40-lb child would need to eat 340 oranges each day for a lifetime and still
would not consume enough pesticide residue that would cause a health problem
in a mouse.
Peoples confidence in pesticides was greatly increased when they learned about the
amount of initial and ongoing testing performed on each chemical. Most people do not
know or understand the strict regulatory criteria used on pesticides. An explanation of
these requirements gives more confidence in how a chemical gets to the agricultural market.
Arguments that do not help relieve the publics concern:
1. Risk comparisons such as one in a million arent effective. It implies that a person
could be that one and note there are 8 million people in New York City and in Los
Angeles.
2. The world needs to be fed and pesticides are an integral part of farming does not
work.
3. There are far more naturally-occurring chemicals that are really dangerous such
as cyanide, strychnine and many natural carcinogens. The public assumes that
people can break these down, metabolize, in the body system since we live with
these chemicals.
4. The fact that organic food supplies have serious drawbacks doesnt help. Its
better to explain integrated pest management (IPM) and sustainable agriculture.
How Gullible Are We?

In 1998, Nathan Zohner, then a freshman at Eagle Rock Junior High School in
Idaho Falls, ID, decided to show how conditioned people had become to alarmists practicing
junk science. For his science project for the Greater Idaho Falls Chamber of Commerce, he
urged people to sign a petition demanding strict control or total elimination of the chemical
dihydrogen monoxide. He told those who signed that:
1. It caused excessive sweating and vomiting.
2. It is a major component in acid rain.

INTRODUCTION

17

3. It can cause severe burns in its gaseous state.

4. Accidental inhalation can kill you.
5. It contributes to erosion.
6. It decreases effectiveness of car brakes.
7. It has been found in tumours of cancer patients.
He asked 50 people if they supported a ban of this chemical. Forty-three said yes, six
were undecided, and only one knew that dihydrogen monoxide was actually water.

SELECTION OF PESTICIDES
Pesticides should be used when satisfactory control cannot be achieved with other methods.
Other pest control methods include use of direct and indirect suppression strategies. Many
of these techniques within these categories have been around for a long time and have
resurfaced with current emphasis placed on IPM.

Indirect Suppression
Indirect suppression includes use of the overlapping techniques such as structural
design, habitat modification and sanitation. Pest professionals can use knowledge of pest
behavior and pest management principles to make recommendations in design changes to
reduce specific pest problems. Modifying habitat to minimize pest access to food, water and
hiding places are primary ways of managing certain pests. Use of good sanitation in
classrooms, kitchens, locker areas, basements and trash storage areas is the single most
important indirect suppression tool, especially for controlling insects and rodents.

Direct Suppression
Direct suppression techniques commonly used include use of physical and mechanical
control techniques and employment of a low impact chemical control program. Physical
and mechanical control can be as simple as installing and maintaining window screens
and frequently vacuuming cafeterias, carpeted and other heavily used areas. A low impact
control program compliments a good overall IPM program which is based on using nonchemical measures, such as sanitation, physical control measures and other non-chemical
practices as well as having a good inspection and pest monitoring program. Suppression of
weeds in turf can be accomplished using a combination of good management practices
such as fertilization, watering, moving, topdressing and over seeding. Even with a good
non-chemical program occasionally pesticide use may be necessary, but their use should
normally be minimal. Use pesticides only when they are needed.
Select the least toxic and most effective products (bait or organic dusts). Treat the
smallest area without limiting effectiveness (i.e. crack and crevice or spot treatments).
When liquid sprays are necessary, select the product that will offer good control while
having a low toxicity (i.e. products with a Caution signal word). Use a formulation that
presents the least risk for the situation (i.e. wettable powders and microencapsulated
products) and apply the lowest concentration and amount of product that will obtain
acceptable control.

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BIOPESTICIDES

Corn Gluten Meal: A Biological Herbicide

Corn gluten, a by-product of the wet milling process, has some herbicidal properties
and should be considered for use as a pre-emergent herbicide for control of certain weeds.
It is currently labeled for control of crabgrass, barnyardgrass, foxtails (Setaria spp.),
dandelion, lambsquarters, pigweed, purslane and smartweed. Data suggest it has at least
some activity on an even wider variety of plants. It is safe to use on established turf but
not on newly seeded turf or prior to overseeding. Corn gluten will not control weeds that
are already present or germinated.
Research shows 50-60% control can be achieved in the first year with improved control
at higher rates and with continued use over several years. Currently it is sold as a dry
product under various trade names, including Dynaweed, Safe N Simple, Earth Friendly,
W.O.W.!, Corn Gluten Meal Herbicide, and Propac. Until recently it was only offered in
powder form. As of 1998 a granular form is available which can more easily be applied
with Vikon spreaders, rotary and drop spreaders. Application rates vary from 12 to 40 lbs
per 1000 ft2 depending on the intended use. For crabgrass control in turf, two applications
are recommended at 12 lb/1000 ft2, once in early to mid-spring and another in early to
mid-August. Since the corn gluten meal is approximately 9% nitrogen, this spreads out
the nitrogen effect. At 12 lb/1000 ft2, the corn gluten meal will supply approximately 1 lb
N/1000 ft2 .
Portions of at least two proteins in the corn gluten meal, called peptides, are the
active ingredients in corn gluten meal. Laboratory studies show the peptides themselves
to be significantly more effective at preventing weed germination than the corn gluten
meal itself. Unfortunately, the peptides do not persist in the soil when used as a spray long
enough for effective control. Current research is aimed at isolating and packaging these
peptides to produce a sprayable product.

Development of New Biological Pesticides

The overuse of chemical pesticides has caused serious environmental problems and
thus the demand for safer pesticides is increasing. One alternative is microbial pesticides
that suppress plant pathogens via their microbial activities. As microbial pesticides that
are friendlier to the environment, Bacillus subtilis and Alcaligenes facalis, showed a
broad suppressive spectrum against various kinds of plant pathogens not only in vivo but
also in a plant test.
B. subtilis is found to show suppressive activity against more than 30 kinds of plant
pathogens, either bacterial or fungal. Investigation of the mechanism based on such a
broad suppressive spectrum is under way by genetic and biochemical analyses.
This bacterium produces two antifungal lipopeptides, iturin A, and plipastatin, and
a biosurfactant, surfactin. Surfactin is a very powerful biosurfactant. Iturin and plipastatin
exhibit powerful antifungal activities. These three substances consist of amino acids and
fatty acids as side chains and thus are easily biodegradable in soil in sharp contrast with
persistent chemical pesticides. Genes encoding surfactin were cloned by a genome project,
and also genes encoding iturin A and plipastatin.
B. subtilis produces an iron-chelating agent, 2,3-DHBG (2,3dihydroxybenzoylglycine), which deprives iron from plant pathogens. The gene encoding

INTRODUCTION

19

2,3- DHBG was found to be controlled in collabortaion with the genes encoding iturin and
surfactin. This bacterium also produces proteases with high activity that attack the cell
wall of plant pathogens.
Genetic engineering is applied to produce new strains of B. subtilis with enhanced
activity and multiple functions against plant diseases by introducing a gene encoding Btprotein (insecticidal protein) or the chitinase gene, which is effective for attacking the cell
wall of fungal pathogens. We have already bred B. subtilis that shows resistance to chemical
pesticides, and this has enabled co-use of this bacterium with chemical pesticides. Co-use
of the bacterium and the chemical pesticides reduces the amount of chemical pesticides
used to 1/10 - 1/100 of that when only chemical pesticides are used.
A. faecalis suppresses plant pathogens by producing hydroxylamine by heterotrophic
nitrification. Damping-off of tomato was effectively suppressed in a plant test.

Microbial Insecticides
Pesticidal proteins

Insect infestation can cause a significant decrease in crop productivity. Such

infestations usually were difficult to fight without the use of nasty chemicals with high
toxicity to other life. However, more environmentally sound approaches are being developed
using biotechnology. One approach involves the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin protein. This
protein all by itself is harmless, but is converted to a potent toxin in the gut of certain
kinds of moths (depending on the bacterial strain the toxin was isolated from) and of
mosquito larvae. The gene coding for this protein has been cloned from various Bacillus
thuringiensis strains, and has been incorporated into several plants. The moth against
which the toxin is active dies after eating from the transformed plant. The drawback of
this case of biological pest control is that the plant is resistant to that particular moth (even
though the beast has first eaten from it before it is killed), but not to most other species of
moths. Another drawback is that resistance of the moth to the toxin may develop (the only
thing the moth has to do is to learn to not convert the original toxin protein in its midgut).
The first cases of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin in caterpillars already have
appeared. To minimize this problem, farmers now plant some wild type crop (not producing
the toxin) in a corner of their plot, and the toxin-producing crop of the same species on the
remainder. In this way, toxin-resistant insects may not have such a huge advantage over
their toxin-sensitive siblings that the toxin-resistant ones quickly become the prevalent
species in the ecosystem.
The major advantage of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin is that it is harmful to
only a few species of insects, while it is harmless to other animals and humans. These
biological pesticides also degrade rapidly in the environment. Thus, the use of such biological
pesticides appears to be a significantly more environmentally safe solution to pest control
than the classical (synthetic chemical) pesticides. Indeed, the majority of the cotton fields
in Arizona has been planted with transgenic cotton plants producing a Bt toxin that is
particularly effective against the pink bollworm, the primary pest on cotton in Arizona. At
least 4% of the fields planted with transgenic cotton is set aside to be planted with the nontransformed strain. This is part of the strategy to minimize the ecological survival advantage
of Bt-resistant bollworms that may develop or that may immigrate. Cotton seeds carrying
a Bt gene have been commercially available since 1996.

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BIOPESTICIDES

Other ways of Biocontrol

Another approach towards biological pest control is based on an original and rather
devious idea: as many male insects are attracted to females through chemicals (pheromones)
the females excrete in minute quantities, one can spray the fields with pheromones, thus
profoundly confusing the males about where to find their partner. The genes for pheromone
biosynthesis have been cloned from various insects and expressed in bacteria, thus paving
the way for making enough pheromones to spray the fields with. Pheromones by-andlarge are innocuous compounds and need to be sprayed only in minute concentrations.
Preliminary evidence indicates that this approach is highly successful.
Other molecular-genetically based techniques of environmentally responsible pest
control are: (1) Sterilize a large number of male insects (for example, by irradiation), and
release them in the field. They will mate, but no progeny will result. (2) Clone genes for
the synthesis of juvenile or anti-juvenile hormones from insects, produce the hormones in
large quantities, and spray on the fields. An excess of juvenile hormone will prevent
maturation of the insects, and an excess of anti-juvenile hormone will result in premature
maturation and sterility. These hormones generally are specific for certain groups of insects
and are not toxic to others, thus minimizing the impact on the environment.
However, presently biological pesticides still have a rather modest market share
compared to the total pesticides marketed. The answer to this apparent paradox is that the
narrow spectrum of control make biological pesticides unattractive for some applications.
However, the low market share is also due in part to the fact that the development of
biological pesticides is relatively new (of the last decade), and that industry has been slow
with catching on to the idea, and has not yet spent considerable resources on development
of better biological pesticides. However, the public opinion currently is strongly in favor of
ecologically acceptable methods of insect control, and this will impact the setting of priorities
in product development by industry.
Thanks to the development of new pesticides, the use of neurotoxic pesticides has
decreased dramatically over the years. There are also alternatives to chemical pesticides,
such as biological pesticides which are preferred by many environmentalists and consumers,
or even no pesticide use at all.
Chemical pesticides currently dominate the world market and are used at a much
larger scale than the alternative-organic pesticides. Pamela G. Marrone, Ph.D, chairman
and founder of AgraQuest, a biotechnology company specializing in the development of
safe and environmentally friendly pest management products, estimates that 26 billion
dollars are spent on synthetic pesticides worldwide per year while only 300 million is spent
on biological pesticides(2004).
Obviously, chemicals that kill millions of insects in one sweep arent going to be good
for people either. Synthetic pesticides such as organophosphate pesticides and organochlorine
insecticides have been associated with everything from cancer to neurological disorders
and lung irritations in humans. However, these symptoms are highly unlikely, if not
impossible, to get from a healthy dose of fruits and vegetables. You are far more likely to
get sick if you dont eat the recommended 5-9 servings of fruits and vegetables per day.
Pesticides have changed drastically over the years and have become much safer for both

INTRODUCTION

21

people and the environment but many consumers are still skeptical about the existence of
a safe pesticide.
Mr. Rick Melnicoe, Director of the Western Integrated Pest Management Center and
the UC Statewide Pesticide Coordinator, says that he really isnt worried about pesticides
on produce. He explains that it is important to remember that it is the dose that makes the
poison and that there is virtually no illness associated with modern pesticide residue on
foods. Illnesses that DO occur are caused by misuse, exposure to concentrated levels by
workers, and basic stupidity such as accidentally drinking the mixture.
It is often argued that natural pesticides are less toxic than chemical pesticides but
the truth is that both natural and synthetic pesticides can be poisonous and potentially
harmful in large doses. Whether or not a substance poses a health risk depends on the
amount ingested. For example, aspirin is poisonous in large doses, but a great remedy for
a variety of ailments if taken responsibly.
Many of us dont realize it, but we are exposed to pesticides everyday. They dont just
occur in farms. Buginfo.com, a great website describing various toxins and pest management
techniques gives a startling list of common household items and foods containing pesticides
that we absorb on a daily basis: Paint, rubbing alcohol, drinking alcohol, salt, pepper,
glue, chocolate, caffeine, medications, diet pills, toothpaste, sodas, disinfectants, cleansers,
and soaps-ALL have toxic properties to them...
Even items that we consider healthy, organic and completely natural, have toxic
properties: ...plants and their parts-apples, almonds, oranges, celery and carrots-have
toxic properties in them, if extracted, concentrated and ingested in large enough doses;
these NATURAL materials would easily kill people. Food items you would never imagine
as dangerous can have some pretty frightening results when mishandled: If you take
carrot leaves, rub them on your skin and expose the area to sunlight, blisters will form,
says Marrone.
It is naive to think that we can avoid the ingestion of pesticides. In fact, we absorb so
many pesticides on a daily basis that they have become a part of us. Melnicoe explains
that Chlorinated Hydrocarbons [which are synthetic pesticides such as methoxychlor,
endosulfan and captan] accumulate in fatty tissue because it isnt completely filtered out
of our systems. All of us have small amounts of it in our tissue, but Im not too worried
about any negative effects. Healthy humans can detoxify the body over time and the
levels are rarely high enough to do any real harm.
It is a little disconcerting that the ingestion of toxic compounds is unavoidable.
Toxicants are found in our walls, foods, drinks, gardens and apparently in our bodies.
There is simply no escape. However modern synthetic pesticides have come a long way
since the days they were first developed. They are now less toxic, more efficient and no
longer kill all the organisms that they come into contact with but rather focus on a target
species. Yet even with these advancements in synthetic pesticide development, biological
(or natural) pesticides are still promoted by many environmentalists and consumers. From
a human health standpoint, says Melnicoe, biological pesticides are far less potent over
the long term. Most biopesticides are less toxic to people than synthetic pesticides and this
is a great incentive for consumers to buy organic products. Marrone explains that it has
been shown that children who eat organic food have a significantly lower level of chemical
pesticides in their blood.

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BIOPESTICIDES

Organic foods have become extraordinarily popular amongst health and

environmentally conscious individuals. Many shoppers buy organic fruits and vegetables
thinking that they have grown under completely natural conditions. Danielle Slaughter
is a regular customer at the Davis Food Co-op, which specializes in organic products.
When asked why she preferred the slightly more expensive produce sold here over the
fruits and vegetables at other grocery stores she said When I can afford to buy organic Ill
buy that over the other produce sold at other stores. Organic produce is just healthier. I
like the fact that its grown without pesticides and by local farmers. I like this store since it
gives you the option between conventionally farmed and organic products.
Contrary to popular belief, organic foods are NOT necessarily pesticide free. According
to the USDA, Organic food is produced without using most conventional pesticides;
fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge; bioengineering; or ionizing
radiation. But pesticides are in fact used on organic foods. Pesticides are essential for
farming quality products that consumers will buy! The pesticides used by organic farmers
are considered natural biopesticides. Surprisingly enough, however, the USDA makes no
claims that organically produced food is safer or more nutritious than conventionally
produced food. Some biopesticides, such as the fungicide sulphur, may even be more toxic
or harmful than their synthetic counterparts.
Some farmers now use biopesticides rather than their chemical pesticides to grow the
organic crops that have become so popular in recent years. The Environmental Protection
Agency defines a biopesticide as certain types of pesticides derived from such natural
materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. They fall into three major
classes.

THE THREE CLASSES OF BIOPESTICIDES

Microbial pesticides:

These consist of microorganisms such as a fungus, virus or bacteria.

Plant-Incorporated-Protectants(PIPs):

These are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has
been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal
protein, and introduce the gene into the plants own genetic material. Then the plant
instead of the Bt bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. This
increases crop yields and reduces the amount of money spent on pesticides.
Biochemical Pesticides:

These are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanism.
These include substances, such as insect sex pheromones, that interfere with mating, as
well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps.

Benefits
Development of biological pesticides will help reduce the use of chemical pesticides
and will aid in the production of green foods. This will help reduce health hazards from
the use of chemical pesticides while providing consumers with more choice and providing

23

INTRODUCTION

increased incomes for farmers. Increased public awareness will be another benefit from
the project, thus increasing the demand for green foods.
The economic benefits will help boost incomes in the target areas and help develop
domestic markets for green products as well as domestic manufacturing for biological
pesticides. The environmental benefits will include manufacturing of low hazard biological
pesticides which will reduce the risk of environmental damage during both the
manufacturing process and application of the chemicals. Green foods will help to develop
technologies that are environmentally sound. This would help shift agriculture towards
more sustainable systems while still maintaining high production.
There are several biopesticides available to the nursery and greenhouse industry.
The advantages of biological pesticides over conventional chemicals are their selectivity to
a targeted pest, lower toxicity to beneficial insects and green house workers, and shorter
reentry intervals(REI) compared to conventional chemicals. The following is a list of some
of the materials available as biopesticides.
Table 1.2: Product and Active Ingredient in Pest Control.

Product and Active

Ingredient

Pest controlled

Comments

Avid(Abamectin) 15 E.C.
formulation produced by
soil
microorganisms
Streptomyces avermitilis

Leafminers and spidermites

Not considered disruptive to

natural predators or beneficial
insects. Takes 3-4 days to see
maximum effectiveness.

Azatin
(Azadirachtin)

Whiteflies, thrips, lesfminers,

mealybugs, caterpillars, aphids

Mainly acts as insect growth

regulator. May act as feeding
and oviposition deterrent. May
be used on herbs and
vegetables.

Citation (Cyromozine)

Dipeterous leafminer larvae,

fungus gnats and shore fly
larvae in greenhouse crops.

Insect growth regulator.

Enstar II (Kinoprene)

Aphids, Whiteflies, scales,

mealybugs, fungus gnat.

Insect growth regulator.

Gnatrol
(Bacillus
thuringiensis subspecies
israelensis)

Fungus gnat larvae

Applied to soil. Compatible with

beneficial nematodes, and
Hypoaspis mites for fungus gnat
larvae control.

Mycostop

Controls seed rot, root and stem

rot, and wilt caused by
Fusarium, Alternaria and
Phomopsis. Supresses Botrytis
infection.

For use on container grown

ornamentals and vegetables.

E.C.

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BIOPESTICIDES

Hot Pepper Wax

Acts as repellant against aphids, Contains hot pepper extract and

spider mites, thrips, leafminers, paraffin wax concentrate with
whiteflies, leafhoppers and herbal extracts.
scales.

M-Pede

Aphids, mealybugs, leafhoppers, Must make contact with insect so

psyllids,
scales,
thrips, no residual effect. May be used
whiteflies and spidermites.
on herbs and vegetable plants.
Repeated applications to same
plants can cause phytotoxicity.

Botanigard( Mycotech
Company)
and
Naturaliso
(Troy
Chemical Company)
Beauveria bassiana

Aphids,
thrips,
mites, Need to be applied as a fine mist
whiteflies,
leaf-feeding and directly hit pests. Humidity
caterpillars, leafhoppers and levels must be above 35%.
psyllids.

Precision
(Ciba
Company) Fenoxycarb

Whiteflies, aphids and thrips.

Soilgard, Gliocladium
virens, G1-21

Beneficial fungus that is Suppression of root rot disease on

antagonistic to Pythium and Vinca, Geraniums and Zinnia.
Rhizoctonia, aiding in control of
damping off and root rot
pathogens.

Scanmask and X-gnat

Steinernema feltiae

Fungus gnat larvae.

Sunspray Ultrafine Oil

. Horticultural oil.

Controls aphids, whiteflies, Avoid applications on cloudy and

mites, thrips, and labeled for humid days. Do not apply in
powdery mildew control in sprayer used to apply fungicides.
greenhouses.
Fungicides and oil react to cause
phytotoxic burn on some plants.

Triact 90 E.C.

A clarified hydrophobic extract For insects, spray at 7-10 day

of neem oil. Black spot on roses, intervals. Do not spray on open
rust, powdery mildew, downy impatiens flowers.
mildew,
whiteflies,
leafminers,thrips, caterpillars,
mites, scales.

Insect growth regulator.

Will search for fungus gnats in

stems and roots. Apply at
temperatures between 50-90 F
and apply as a soil drench.

Biotechnology, Food and Integrated Pest Management

Age-old, common-sense practices are what many people associate with IPM. Today
many growers no longer apply pesticides to food on a regular basis regardless of whether

INTRODUCTION

25

or not there are insects, weeds, or other pest problems. In some parts of the country, food
is being marketed as IPM food.
Some practices for preventing pest damage may include:
w inspecting crops and monitoring crops for damage, and
w using mechanical trapping devices, natural predators (e.g., insects that eat other
insects), insect growth regulators, mating disruption substances (pheromones),
and if necessary, chemical pesticides. The use of biological pesticides is an
important component of IPM.
In technical terms, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the coordinated use of pest
and environmental information with available pest control methods to prevent unacceptable
levels of pest damage by the most economical means and with the least possible hazard to
people, property, and the environment.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is today a widely accepted strategy to reduce
overdependence on chemical insecticides and their potentially negative environmental
and economic effects. Biotechnology has considerable potential to contribute to sustainable
biological elements of IPM. However, biotechnology development to date has been directed
at more conventional models for pest control technologies.
Biotechnology for insect pest management has to some extent been an early byproduct
of the acquisition of biotechnological knowhow, which will have more substantial
implications for agriculture than simply improved IPM. In this context, the relative lack of
strategic planning of biotechnology for IPM can be better understood. However,
biotechnology has now entered pest management with much fanfare and expectations. It
has enormous potential to improve pest management, but also to distort pest management,
if it is seen as a set of singletechnology solutions which can replace a more diversified,
sustainable and farmerparticipatory approach to IPM.

Trends in IPM
IPM has arisen from a need to reduce dependence on chemical insecticides, whose
misuse in many crop systems has led to negative effects on environment and health, and
to pest resistance and resurgence. Pest resurgence is an increase in pest numbers following
pesticide use, which usually results from elimination by pesticides of important predators,
parasites and other natural enemies of the pest. Insecticide treadmills, characterized by
rising pesticide use, growing pest problems and ultimately a decline in production and the
viability of the farming system have appeared repeatedly around the world in
heavilysprayed crops such as cotton, rice, fruit trees and vegetables. Solving these problems
through IPM has usually involved dramatic reduction in insecticide use and its replacement
by a range of control methods. These include cultural methods, plant resistance to pests,
conservation of natural enemies in the crop and the use of pest control products which are
safe to natural enemies, including biological pesticides and attractant traps for pests.
The recent history of rice production in Asia provides an example of the development
of IPM. In the 1970s, Indonesia embarked on a rice intensification scheme based on new,
highyielding Green Revolution varieties supported by fertilizer and insecticide inputs.
Production increased, but with it emerged a new insect pest, the brown planthopper,
Nilaparvata lugens. This was a result of the elimination of local natural enemies by

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BIOPESTICIDES

insecticides. As damage spread across hundreds or thousands of hectares, new rice varieties
bearing planthopper resistance were introduced in 1980. Production was restored, but
only for four years. A high level of pest pressure on crops continued because pesticide use
increased pest numbers. This accelerated selection for resistance in the pest population,
and plant resistance broke down. Production was finally restored after the government
prohibited the use of most insecticides on rice and implemented a programme of farmer
training which focused on three principles: grow a healthy crop, inspect fields regularly
and conserve natural enemies. In these training programmes, called farmer field schools,
farmers learn by doing about pests, natural enemies and pest control measures in their
own crops. IPM programmes of this kind have now trained over a million farmers in rice
and other crops in Asia.
Participatory IPM involves farmers in actively building and selecting the elements of
their own local IPM systems. Today, IPM systems are adapted to suit various farming
systems ranging from highinput to organic farming, whereby chemical use is either
minimized or completely omitted. The global importance of this approach is highlighted in
Agenda 21, which calls on all countries to implement farmerparticipatory IPM by the end
of the century.
This example illustrates the importance of natural biological control in IPM.
Interventions with products, like chemical pesticides and even resistant plant varieties,
failed to control the pest because, in the absence of other natural controlling factors, the
pest could quickly develop resistance to these single technology solutions. The success of
biotechnology in IPM will depend on how it is used. While it provides the tools to modify
performance of the important biological elements of pest control, like natural enemies and
plant varieties, if it is used to produce pesticide like, single technology solutions, its value
and sustainability may be limited.

What has Biotechnology Brought to IPM

In order to understand whether biotechnology is making a positive contribution to
IPM, it is useful to review the pest control biotechnologies presently available or in
development. One focus of biotechnological research has been on improving natural enemies
of pests as pest control agents. This has focused principally on pathogens of insect pests
and their use as formulated biological pesticides. Emphasis has been placed on bacteria
and viruses, largely because they are better understood and more easily manipulated, as
opposed to fungi, protozoa, nematodes and arthropod predators. Research on bacteria has
concentrated on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which is already widely used as a biopesticidal
formulation to control caterpillar and beetle pests of crops, and flies which are disease
vectors. Research has focused on increasing the host range and virulence of Bt by combining
genes with different host specificities and properties. Research is also underway on
improvement of Xenorhabdus spp., the bacteria responsible for the mortality of nematodeinfected hosts. Here the emphasis is on stabilizing and improving the virulence of these
bacteria.
Insect viruses also have a market in their natural form as biopesticides, mostly against
caterpillar pests of forestry and field crops. Biotechnological research has focused on
engineering of certain viruses to express genes whose toxins kill faster than the wildtype
viruses.

INTRODUCTION

27

The second principle area of biotechnology for pest control has been the development
of crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases. This has concentrated on incorporating
insect and virus resistance into the plant genome. In addition, modification of the genome
of plant-associated microorganisms has been followed as a strategy to confer insect resistance
to plants. By far the most extensive application has been the incorporation of genes which
produce various Bt delta endotoxins into crops, primarily to confer resistance against
caterpillars and beetle pests.
In 1996, the first commercial transgenic varieties of cotton, maize and potatoes were
released in the USA. Research is also conducted on incorporating genes for plant or
microbially-derived compounds which affect insect pests, such as trypsin inhibitase and
cholesterol oxidase.
Overall, the application of biotechnology to IPM has so far been quite conservative. It
has focused largely on improvement of existing crop protection products or technologies by
use and manipulation of viral and bacterial genomes. Thus, engineered viruses and bacteria
are variants of existing biopesticidal formulations of the same species. Some transgenic
plants or plantassociated bacteria seek to improve on what can already be achieved less
effectively by topical application of particular microorganisms, particularly Bt.
The technical objectives of many of these manipulations are directed at improving
the performance of an engineered product relative to its wildtype competitor by:
w broadening the target spectrum of the product;
w increasing the speed of action of the product;
w improving the delivery of the product to the pest.
The rationale has much to do with competition with existing products and the rapid
acquisition of large markets. To consider how they may succeed at this, it is useful to
examine the future of the relevant areas of pest control, namely biopesticides and host
plant resistance.

Biotechnology in Biopesticide Development

Today there are over a hundred commercial biological control products on the market,
and many more are locally produced and supplied for particular productions systems.
However, most commercial biological control have focused on insect pathogens, because of
their relative ease of mass production and their capacity to be used in the same manner as
formulated chemical insecticides. Bt has been the principle target of product development,
and accounts for most sales in the US$ 75 million global market for biological control
products. However, this is only less than one per cent of global pesticide sales.
As a product, Bt is valuable in IPM systems because it is much less harmful to predators
and parasites than broad spectrum chemical insecticides. Therefore, it can be substituted
for chemical products in insecticide treadmill situations and will allow the recovery of
natural enemy populations. Like many biopesticides, it is often less effective on its own
than a highly potent chemical product. However in an IPM system, where it is used only
when needed and it conserves natural enemies, its impact is augmented by the action of
those natural enemies (which is free of charge to the farmer) and it can be both more
economical and sustainable. However, present product registration and evaluation systems
often neglect this, favouring through various procedures and protocols the development of
this is all you need products.

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BIOPESTICIDES

A second problem facing Bt is the risk of resistance. Where Bt is still used as a

singletechnology solution, like its chemical predecessors, it is sprayed regularly and a range
of insect pests are now developing resistance. Bts third problem is that it lacks the most
desirable biological property of a biological control agent: its ability to reproduce and
perpetuate itself in crops. A key advantage of biological agents relative to chemical pesticides
is their capacity to both kill pests (functional response) and reproduce at the expense of
pest (numerical response) thereby giving some control in the future pest generations. Bt is
not adapted to persist in the crop environment and its commercial development has focused
less on preserving its ability to reproduce and spread, but more on maximizing the effect of
its insect killing toxin. In other words, its commercial development has focused on using it
like a chemical insecticide and not as a living biological control agent. This is true of most
biopesticide development today, such as that for nematodes and viruses. It also reflects the
fact that the multinational agrochemical industries which have dominated biopesticide
development have traditional skills and interests which are limited to the production and
marketing of pesticidelike products.
Other insect pathogens are better adapted to having a continuous impact on pests in
crops, such as viruses, fungi and protozoa, which can cause continuing outbreaks (epizootics)
which suppress pests under natural conditions. However, these organisms are as yet little
developed as biopesticides. Where biotechnology has been used in this process, the effect
has been to reduce this desirable property of these biological control agents. For insect
viruses, genes have been added or removed which cause the infected pest to die quickly.
This means that the pest will die before the virus has replicated extensively, and fewer
infective bodies may be released in the environment. Here, they may be less persistent
due to their manipulation. There is even an incentive to ensure this because the
environmental persistence of engineered organisms is not encouraged. In short,
biotechnology has been used to turn living, reproducing viruses into quick kill products
resembling the chemical pesticides with which they are expected to compete.

Biotechnology and Crop Resistance

Engineering genes for Bt toxins into plants is an ingenious method of delivering
these toxins to pests which might naturally avoid them, such as insects which feed inside
plants. From an IPM perspective, this technology has more similarities to plant resistance
breeding than biopesticide development. Breeding for plant resistance to insect pests has a
long tradition in the public and private sector, but its potential is far from realized. This is
in part due to the popularity of other insect pest control methods, including insecticides
and even IPM.
Most resistance breeding to date has focused on methods that result in vertical
resistance wherein resistance is based on a single gene. It has gene-for-gene relationship
whereby each gene of resistance in the host has a matching gene of parasitic ability in the
parasite. Qualitatively, the resistance is either present or absent. This is contrary to
horizontal resistance breeding, whereby resistance is based on many genes. Quantitatively,
horizontal resistance is exhibited in varying degrees, from minimum to maximum.
Vertical resistance is convenient because high levels of resistance can be achieved
and the method is compatible with breeding schemes used for enhancing crop performance
through control of major genes. However, its gene-for-gene nature, can sometimes lead to

INTRODUCTION

29

its breakdown through the evolution of resistance breaking pest genotypes, as in the case
of brown planthopper on rice.
In an IPM context, the singletechnology solution promised by a high level of vertical
resistance is not necessarily desirable if this brings the risk of resistance by the pest. The
action of other IPM components like natural enemies can reduce pest populations and
hence the rate of evolution of pest resistance. This means that partial resistance, or other
forms of resistance like horizontal resistance which is built on the quantitative effect of
many genes, can be effective and sustainable. Unfortunately, the tradition of plant breeding
and now biotechnology for resistance to pests favours vertical resistance, with its inherent
risks.
Suggested solutions to resistance problems involve more complex strategies of gene
deployment. This includes mixed or intercropped populations of resistant and susceptible
plants, or genetic methods to restrict expression of genes to certain parts of plant or certain
times. Resistance management is therefore a strong possibility, but the track record of
chemical pesticides is not encouraging.

Future Perspectives
Biotechnology for plant protection is still in its early days. So far, it has been focused
conservatively on improving conventional pest control approaches, biological pesticides
and vertical resistance in crops to pests, in order to make better, single technology solutions
to insect pest problems, which will outcompete current, nonengineered products. Recent
developments in IPM challenge these conventional approaches and products, and this in
turn challenges the current direction of biotechnology in pest management. IPM promotes
a more diversified approach which will limit overreliance on any specific technology and
the consequences of this, such as resistance development. It promotes greater reliance on
exploiting living, selfrenewing processes in pest control, such as the action of natural
enemies of pests. The future of biotechnology has much promise. Biological control and
host plant resistance stand out as elements of IPM which are potentially selfrenewing and
available to all farmers, rich or poor. Biotechnological innovations which improve the
persistence or efficiency of these biological processes, for instance by improving survival or
transmission rates of pathogens, or facilitating broadlybased quantitative crop resistance
to pests, will be valuable to the sustainable IPM of the future. Beyond these areas,
biotechnology has considerable potential application in improving mass production
technologies for natural enemies of pests, and for improving diagnostic systems which
allow scientists to recognize desirable plant genes and natural enemies, and which allow
farmers to recognize potential pest problems before they cause damage. In its next
generation, and with the benefit of the IPM experience, biotechnology stands to contribute
greatly to sustainable pest management.