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Skin friction drag and pressure drag.

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1. Skin Friction

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Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.

Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.
2. Pressure Drag

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Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in direction of

motion.
Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear (base) drag components.

3. What is ISA?

Since the physical properties of the air are dependent upon temperature, and
the performance of the aircraft is dependent upon the air density, pressure and
temperature, correlation of performance data is dependent upon some assumed
standard lapse rate. For convenience, an International Standard Atmosphere has been
adopted based on an average linear lapse rate at 40 degree north latitude which has
been empirically chosen after a study of average lapse rates observed throughout the
world.

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4. What are the conditions required for minimum drag and minimum power?
Also there must be a single value for the angle of attack which gives:
Maximum L/D, minimum TR and minimum D.
Thrust Required TR must be proportional to 1/(L/D) or 1/(CL/CD)
I.e. speed for minimum drag or minimum thrust required must correspond with
speed for maximum lift/drag ratio.

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5. What is meant by the degree of freedom and how much required for airplane?

6. What is meant by dihedral effect?

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The aircraft has six degrees of freedom, namely three translational and three
rotational. The longitudinal axis is denoted by x-axis towards the forward nose section
of the fuselage. The y-axis points towards the starboard position and the z-axis
vertically downward. The degrees of freedom signify the various modes the aircraft
centre of gravity can translate and rotate freely in all directions.

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The phenomenon of rolling moment due to sideslip is termed dihedral effect and
is not a static stability in the true sense of the word. An airplane is said to have stable
dihedral effect if a negative rolling moment (left wing down) is created as a result of
positive sideslip. The dihedral stability is the ability of the aircraft to recover from a
roll without pilots intervention. If the wing is tilted upwards from root to tip, it has a
dihedral. Dihedral is good for Lateral stability.
7. What is meant by dihedral angle?

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The dihedral angle is defined as the angle between the plane of each wing and
the horizontal. When the aircraft is unbanked and level. And is positive when wing lies
above horizontal plane. Negative dihedral is used in some aircraft and is known as
anhedral. The tilting of the lift vector on each wing, associated with wing dihedral, is
responsible for a minor destabilizing contribution towards the yawing moment due to
yaw. However the contribution is insignificant compared with the effect of wing
sweepback.

8. What causes induced drag?

The drag resulting from lift is called induced drag. From the potential theory, it
can be shown that with no circulation about an aerodynamic body the lift is equal to
zero. With a finite value of circulation a lift forces results, which in turn produces an
induced drag force. From the classical theory it was impossible to explain the
formation of this circulation without the assumption of a viscous fluid in the boundary
layer setting up the circulation.

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9. Why does an airplane require a vertical tail or fin?

The main contributor to the static directional stability is the vertical tail or fin.
Both the size and arm of the fin determine the directional stability of the aircraft. The
further the vertical fin is behind the C.G the more static directional stability the
aircraft will have. (This is often called the weather vaning effect, because it works the
same way as a weather vane.).
10. Distinguish between troposphere and stratosphere.

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The atmosphere is categorized into different levels or strata, defined in

accordance with the temperature profile and separated by narrow transition zones.
We are only interested in the lower two strata, i.e. the troposphere & stratosphere.

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1. What is operating principle of jet engine?

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Air is collected and accelerated rearwards to a high velocity and the reaction due
to this is transmitted to the aircraft as a forward thrust
2. What is the difference between propeller propulsion and jet propulsion?

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Both are forms of reaction propulsion but jet engine produces its thrust by
accelerating small amount of air at high velocity & the propeller moves large mass of
air at low velocity
3. The important parts of an airplane

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4.

Wings
Fuselage
Empennage
Landing Gears
Control Surface
Engines
Parts of aeroplane

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CLASSIFICATION BY CONFIGURATION
5. POSITION OF THE WING

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Low Wing
Mid Wing
High Wing

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6. NUMBER OF WINGS
Mono Plane
Bi Plane
Tri Plane

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Delta Wing
Diamond Wing
Swept Wing
Gull Shaped Wing

Conventional Wing
No Tail Or Tailess
Horizontal Tail Located Aove The Vertical Tail
CANARD TYPE

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8. POSITION OF THE WINGS

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7. SHAPE OF THE WINGS

9. LOCATION AND TYPE OF LANDING GEAR

Retractable
Non Retractable
Tail Wheel
Nose Wheel

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10. TYPES OF FUSELAGE

Round
Square
Oval

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11. CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

A.
Civil
B.
Cargo
C.
Military
i.
ii.
iii.

Bombers
Fighters
Interceptors

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE

12. PRIMARY GROUP

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Aileron
Elevator
Rudder

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13. SECONDARY GROUP

Trim Tab
Spring Tab

Wing Flaps
Spoilers
Speed Brakes
Leading Edge Flap
Slots

12 .Longitudinal axis

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14. AUXILIARY GROUP

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Axis extends lengthwise from the nose through the tail.

13. Rolling moment

Four Forces of Flight

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14.

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Movement about the longitudinal axis is called roll.

15. AIRFOIL
An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air through
which it moves

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Chord Line
Mean Camber Line
Angle Of Attack
Angle Of Incidence

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16. AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is

parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
It must always act to oppose the direction of motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the
desirable component

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18. TYPES OF DRAG

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17. Drag force

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19.

Why should we study Atmospheric Properties?

Engineers design flight vehicles, turbine engines and rockets that will operate at
various altitudes.
They cannot design these unless the atmospheric characteristics are not
known.
For example,

CL

L
1
V2 S
2

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20.

What is a standard atmosphere?

Weather conditions vary around the globe, from day to day.

Taking all these variations into design is impractical.
A standard atmosphere is therefore defined, that relates fight tests, wind tunnel
tests and general airplane design to a common reference.
This common reference is called a standard atmosphere

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Servo-assisted
Hydraulic pressure transmitted to servo actuator which assists
mechanical linkage to move surface.
Linkage still available if power is lost but system then very heavy to
operate.
Fully power-operated
Control signals transmitted hydraulically, electrically (fly-by-wire) or
optically (fly-by-light).

22. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS

Flight instruments
Engine instruments
Navigation and communication instruments

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21. Two forms of Powered Controls

23. THE COMMON FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Altimeter
Airspeed Indicator
Vertical Speed Indicator
Heading Indicator
Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon)
Turn Coordinator

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Fuselage construction
TRUSS

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24.

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MONOCOQUE

26.

SEMI MONOCOQUE

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Types of engines

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25.

TURBOPROP

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27.

28. PUSHER

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TURBOFAN

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30. TURBOJET

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31. TURBOJET WITH AFTERBURNER

ROCKET ENGINE
32. LIQUID FUEL

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33. Solid fuel

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