INTRODUCTION

Pharmacognosy
- applied science that deals with the biological,
biochemical and economic features of drugs of
biological origin and their constituents
Focuses of Pharmacognosy
Identification of plants and animals
Chemistry
Evaluation, preservation and use of crude drugs
Toxicology
History, distribution, collection and selection
Preparation for commerce
Brief History
Papyrus Ebers
- Egyptian document
- George Ebers
- uses of plants and animals
Dioscorides
- De Materia Medica
- 600 medical plants
Claudius Galen
- drugs from animals and plants
- galenicals
- documented methods of preparation of
drugs
C.A. Seydler
- introduced the term pharmacognosy
- pharmakon drug
- gnosis knowledge
Schmidt
- first to use the term pharmacognosy
Drug Constituents
Natural directly obtained from nature (e.g.
camphor tree camphor)
Synthetic manufactured
o Semi-synthetic natural raw material,
chemically modified (e.g. pinene
camphor)
o Totally synthetic from chemicals (e.g.
cyclopentadiene camphor)

Crude Drugs vegetable or animal drugs that

consist of natural substances that have
undergone only the process of collection and
drying
Derivatives or Extractives chief principles or
constituents of crude drugs that are separated
and used in a specific manner
Naturalized Plants grow in localities other
than their native country
Indigenous Plants growing in their native
country

Preparation of Crude Drugs

1) Collection select the species to cultivate
2) Harvesting
- gather the samples on a specific and
proper period or season
- can use manual labor or mechanical
device
3) Drying
- remove moisture to prevent fungal and
microbial growth
- fixes the constituent
- converts the drug into a form more
convenient for shipping and handling
o temperature control
o regulation of airflow
4) Curing
- special drying process that enhances
the property of the active ingredient
o Cascara sagrada (fresh)
reduced glycoside which is
irritating
o Cascara sagrada (cured x 1 year
with MgO) oxidized
glycoside which is less irritating
5) Garbling
- final step
- physical process of separating
extraneous materials (dirt, soil, insects,
other plants/ plant parts)
6) Preservation, Storage and Packaging
- protect and market the drug

Classification of Drugs
Morphologic Classification based on the plant
or animal part used
Taxonomic Classification based on natural
relationship or phylogeny
Pharmacologic or Therapeutic Classification
based on the drugs therapeutic effect
Chemical Classification
- preferred in the method of study
- based on the chemical class of the
active ingredient
CARBOHYDRATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
Carbohydrates
- most abundant group of organic molecules
- first products of photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
- general/ empirical formula (CH2O)n
- polyhydric aldehydes and ketones

Functions of Carbohydrates
provide significant amount of energy (e.g.
glucose)
storage of energy (e.g. starch, glycogen)
cell components (e.g. glycoproteins)
structural components (e.g. chitin)
Classes of Carbohydrates
1) Sugars (monosaccharides, disaccharides,
oligosaccharides)
2) Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
- simplest CHO unit
- cannot be [H2O] into simpler sugars
- building blocks of CHO
1) Diose (2C) e.g. hydroxyacetaldehyde (doesnt
occur in nature)
2) Triose (3C) e.g. glyceraldehydes,
dihydroxyacetone
3) Tetrose (4C) e.g. erythrose

4) Pentose (5C)
Ribose
- aldopentose
- product of gum [H2O]
Ribulose ketopentose
Xylose
- aldopentose, diagnostic aid for
intestinal absorption
- wood sugar, absorbed but not
metabolized
- simplest sugar in plants
- not found free, occur as xylan
polymer
Xylulose ketopentose
5) Hexose (6C)
Glucose (accepted chemical name)
- Dextrose
- aldohexose
- most abundant form: -D
glucose
- grape sugar
- physiologic sugar
- obtained by controlled
enzymatic [H2O] of starch
- as nutrient by mouth, by
injection (caloric agent)
Fructose
- ketohexose
- fruit sugar
- sweetest sugar, bitter aftertaste
- obtained by inversion of
aqueous solution of sucrose or
hydrolysis of inulin
- as nutrient for DM patient
beneficial in acidosis
- as nutrient in infant formulas
- high fructose sweeteners
obtained from isomerization of
glucose by glucose isomerise
Galactose
- aldohexose
- C4 epimer of glucose
- found in milk (as lactose)
- found in neuronal fibers (as
galactosides

Gauchers Disease
inability to breakdown
galactose
- Mucic Acid Test (+) white ppt
with oxidizing acid
galactose galactaric acid
(mucic acid)
o

6) Heptose (7C)
Sedoheptulose ketoheptose
7) Nonose (9C)
Neuraminic acid/ sialic acid
Disaccharides
- composed of 2 monosaccharides linked by
glycosidic bond
1) Sucrose
- table sugar
- glucose + fructose
- -1,2 bond (reducing groups are linked
together)
- non-reducing sugar
- sources:
o beet (Beta vulgaris) cut into
limp slivers (cossettes)
o sugarcane (Saccharum
officinalum)
o sugar maple (Acer saccharum)
o sugarcane juice boiled with lime
(neutralize plant acids,
coagulate albumins)
sucrose decolorized
with SO2
molasses residual
dark-colored syrup
after the complete
crystallization
- only disaccharide that occurs free in
nature
- undergo inversion
sucrose glucose + fructose
- pharmaceutic necessity in preparation
of Syrup, NF 85% (sufficiently
bacteriostatic, self-preserving) masks
disagreeable taste of drugs
- demulcent, nutrient

2) Maltose
- malt sugar
- major degradation product of starch
- glucose + glucose
- -1,4 bond
- reducing sugar
3) Lactose
- milk sugar
- glucose + galactose
- -1,4 bond
- reducing sugar
- from cows milk (cow - Bos taurus)
- uses:
o tablet diluents (because it is
inactive)
o infant feed (important to
establish normal flora in the gut
Lactobacillus sp.)
4) Milk products
Butter formed when fat globules unite
Buttermilk liquid left when fat
globules unite
Skimmed milk milk left after the
separation of cream
Coagulum formed when skimmed
milk is treated with rennin
Cheese treated coagulum
Whey liquid left after separation of
coagulum
Condensed milk partial evaporation of
milk in a vacuum with subsequent
sterilization usually by autoclaving
Malted milk milk evaporated with
malt extract
Kumyss fermented milk
5) Lactulose
- Duphalac, Lilac
- fructose + galactose
- -1,4 bond
- semi-synthetic sugar
lactose lactulose (alkaline
rearrangement)
- laxative/ stool softener

MOA
o not absorbed in small intestine
o fermented in large intestine
into lactic acid and acetic acid
(laxative effect)

Oligosaccharides
- 3 or more monosaccharides
1) Maltotriose
- 3 glucose units
- intermediate product of starch
hydrolysis
2) Dextrin
- several glucose units
- responsible for browning of bread
- product of partial [H2O] of starch (acid/
heat)
starch dextrin maltotriose maltose glucose

Polysaccharides
- glycans
- complex, high molecular weight polymers of
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
Heteroglycan different monosaccharides
Homoglycan same monosaccharides
Homoglycans
1) Cellulose
- structural polysaccharide in plants
- homopolyglycan
- -1,4 bond
Purified cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
Powdered cellulose mechanically
disintegrated -cellulose (disintegrant)
Microcrystalline cellulose partially
depolymerised -cellulose (diluents)
Pyroxylin
- cellulose nitrate (nitric and
sulphuric acid)
- soluble gun cotton
- preparation of collodions
2) Chitin
- structural polysaccharide in animals

in arthropods (exoskeleton) and

molluscs (shells)
homoglycan of N-acetylglucosamine

3) Starch
- storage polysaccharide in plants
- components:
Amylose
Amylopectin
more branched
Linearity
linear
(q 25-30 units)
-1,4
Bonds
-1,4
-1,6
Solubility in H2O less soluble
more soluble
Size
250-300 units
> 1000 units
Iodine
dark blue color
blue-violet color
glutens tacky proteins that retard the free
flow of starch
- official sources:
o corn (Zea mays)
o potato (Solanum tuberosum)
o rice (Oryza sativa)
o wheat (Triticum aestivum)
- other sources: arrowroot (Maranta
arundinacea)
- uses:
o dusting powder
o diluents
o binder
o disintegrant
o antidote for iodine poisoning
starch paste dispersing starch in cold water,
boiling until the granules swell and burst
forming a translucent solution
heta starch
- contains 90% amylopectin
- more soluble
- plasma expander in shock patient
4) Glycogen
- storage polysaccharide for animals
- more branched than starch (q 10 units)
- supplies energy (glucose) 8-12 hrs
- Glycogen Storage Diseases:
o GSD Type I
- Von Gierkes Disease
- deficiency of glucose-6phosphatase
glycogen glucose-6-PO4 glucose
- mental retardation

5) Inulin
- polyfructan
- -2,1 bond
- abundant in family Asteraceae
(compositae) e.g. sunflower
- improve digestion
- diagnostic aid to estimate GFR (inulin
clearance), not secreted not reabsorbed
6) Dextran
- homopolyglycan
- -1,6 bond
- from sucrose by action of a
transglycolase enzyme system (dextran
sucrose) found in Leuconostoc
mesenteroides
- used as a plasma expander
- preparation: Iron dextran hematinic
(IV/IM)
Heteroglycans (more than 1 type of sugar)
1) D-gluco-D-mannan glucose + mannose
Metabolically Related
1) Acids
a. Citric acid
- tricarboxylic acid
- discovered by Scheele in
lemons
- acidulant in effervescent
preparations
- salts:
o systemic alkalizers
o anticoagulants
b. Tartaric acid
- dicarboxylic acid
- byproduct of wine industry
- buffer and acidulant in
effervescent preparation
Deniges Test differentiate citric and tartaric
acid
c. Lactic acid
- lactic fermentation of sugars
- acidulant in feeding formulas

2) Alcohols
a. Ethanol
- 92.3% or 94.9% EtOH at
15.56C
- 70% local anti-infective
Diluted alcohol 48.4-49.5% ~ 50% alcohol
Brandy wine
Whisky fermented malted grain
Rum fermented molasses
b. Mannitol
- manna (dried saccharine
exudates of Fraxinus ornus)
- laxative (osmotic), not
absorbed
- also used to estimate GFR
- sugar alcohol (from mannose)

c. Sorbitol or Glucitol
- moutain ash (Sorbus aucuparia)
- reduction product of glucose
- humectants
- non-caloric sweetener
d. Dulcitol or Galactitol reduction
product of galactose
Gums and Mucilages
Gums
- natural hydrocolloids that maybe anionic or
non-ionic as their salts
- translucent and amorphous
- typically heteropolysaccharides
- occur as salts of Ca++ and Mg++
- protective for plant injury
Linear
Branched
less soluble
more soluble
less stable
more stable
less gelling (viscosity
gelating agent
enhancers)
- general uses:
o ingredient in dental and other adhesive
o bulk laxatives
o pharmaceutic necessity: binder,
emulsifying/ suspending agent, viscosity
enhancer, gelling agent
- precipitated from solution by lead acetate or
alcohol (e.g. acacia gum)

1) Shrub and Tree Exudates

a. Tragacanth
- gum tragacanth
- Astragalus gummifer
- composed of:
o bassorin - H2O
swells in water
o tragacanth - H2O
dissolves in water
- most acid-resistant hydrocolloid
- suspending agent (5-6%)
- emulsifying agent
- 3 forms:
o Vermiform
- worm-like,
coiled
- natural injuries
- yellowishbrown
o Tragacanth sorts
- irregular tearshaped
- natural injuries
- yellowishbrown
o Ribbon and Flake Gum
- ribbon/ flaked
- from manmade
transverse
incision of the
bark
- preferred form/
grade
b. Acacia
- Egyptian gum
- Gum Arabic
- Acacia senegal
- Arabin Ca, Mg, K salt or
Arabic acid
- stable below 60% alcohol
- 12-15% H2O
- stable at pH 2-10
- suspending agent (35-38%)

c. Ghatti Gum
- Indian gum
- Anogiessus latifolia
- branched hydrocolloid
- discontinuous mucilage
substitute for acacia
d. Karaya Gum
- Sterculia gum
- Sterculia urens, S. villosa, S.
tragacantha
- has a fetid odor
- one of the least soluble plant
gums
- discontinuous mucilage
2) Marine Gums
a. Algin
- Na alginate (Na salt of alginic
acid), suspending agent
- Macrocystis pyrifera
Laminaria spp.
Ascophyllum spp.
Ecklonia spp.
Nereocystis spp.
b. Agar
- Japanese isinglass
- Gellidum cartilagineum
Gracilaria confervoides
Rhodophycaceae
- composed of:
o agarose (SO4)
o agaropectin (SO4)
- uses:
o laxative
o suspending and gelling
agent
o culture medium
c. Carrageenan
- highly sulphated
- Chondrus (Chrondrus crispus)
- Irish moss ( Gigartina
memillosa)
- stabilizer, gelling agent,
demulcent, bulk laxative
- ingredient in toothpaste

Kappa ()
stable helix

Iota ()
stable helix

gelling property gelling property

Lambda ()
no stable helix
non-gelling
property (viscosity
enhancer)

d. Danish Agar
- Furcellaran
- Furcellara fastiglata
- similar to K-carrageenan
- gelling, suspending agent
3) Seed Gums
a. Plantago Seeds
- Metamucil, C-lium
- Psyllium seed, Plantain seed
- Spanish or French (Plantago
psyllium, Psyllium indica)
- Indian or Blonde (Plantago
ovata)
- gum is present in the seed coat
- bulk-forming laxative
b. Guar Gum
- endosperm of Guaran
- Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
- Galactomannan
- bulk laxative
c. Locust Bean Gum
- endosperm of Carob (Ceratonia
siliqua)
- St. Johns Bread
- Galactomannan
- thickener, stabilizer
- chocolate substitute
4) Plant Extractives
a. Pectin
- intracellular cementing material
- dilute acid extraction from rind
of fruits
- Pomelo (Citrus grandis)
Orange (C. aurantium)
Dalanghita (C. nobilis)
Ponkan/ Tangerine (C. sinensis)
Kalamansi (C. microcarpa)
Grapefruit (C. paradisi)
Lemon (C. limon)
Apple pomace (Pyrus malus)

- forms:
o protopectin (unripe
fruits)
o pectin (ripe fruits)
o pectinic acid (overripe
fruits)
- uses:
o protectant
o suspending agent
o anti-diarrheal (Kaolinpectin)
5) Starch and Cellulose Derivatives
6) Microbial Gums
a. Xanthan Gum
- high molecular weight gum
from the action of bacterium
Xanthomonas campestris on a
suitable carbohydrate
- pseudoplastic flow
responsible for ability of
toothpaste and ointments to
retain form and be able to
spread readily
b. Dextran Gum