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P. A. DAMIANOU
C. SOPHOCLEOUS
abstract We classify the symmetry groups of an autonomous Hamiltonian system with two
degrees of freedom. With the exception of the harmonic oscillator or a free particle where
the dimension is 15, we obtain all dimensions between 1 and 7. For each system in the
classification we examine integrability.
Introduction
The objective of this paper is a complete classification of the symmetry groups for a Hamiltonian system with two degrees of freedom. We actually study the equations in Newtonian
form since a first order system always has an infinite number of symmetries. We consider
the motion of a particle of unit mass in the plane (q1 , q2 ) under the influence of a potential
of the form V (q1 , q2 ). We will assume that the Hamiltonian is time independent. This is
not really a restriction because a time-dependent ndimensional system is equivalent to a
time-independent (n + 1)dimensional system by regarding the time variable as the new coordinate. For the most part we assume that the system is two-dimensional with Hamiltonian
1
1
(1)
H(q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 ) = p21 + p22 + V (q1 , q2 ) .
2
2
However, in section VI we generalize some of the results to the n-dimensional case. The real
valued function V (q1 , q2 ) is assumed to be smooth on some open, connected subset of R2 .
Hamiltons equations, in Newtonian form, become
V
q1 = q
1
V
q
2
q2 =
(2)
.
We search for point symmetries of the system (2). That is, we search for the infinitesimal
transformations of the form:
t0 = t + T (t, q1 , q2 ) + O(2 )
q10 = q1 + Q1 (t, q1 , q2 ) + O(2 )
q20 = q2 + Q2 (t, q1 , q2 ) + O(2 ) .
(3)
The functions V (q1 , q2 ) such that the system (2) admit such transformations are completely
classified. Therefore, in the following analysis we determine the functions V , T , Q 1 and Q2 .
Equations (2) admit Lie transformations of the form (3) if and only if
(2) {
q 1 + V q1 } = 0
(2)
{
q 2 + V q2 } = 0 ,
(4)
+ Q1
+ Q2
.
(5)
t
q1
q2
For the reader who is unfamiliar with the definition and properties of Lie point symmetries,
there are a number of excellent books on the subject e.g. [1], [2], [3], [4].
Equations (4) give two identities of the form:
=T
E1 (t, q1 , q2 , q1 , q2 ) = 0
E2 (t, q1 , q2 , q1 , q2 ) = 0 ,
2
(6)
V
V
where, we have used that q1 = q
and q2 = q
. The functions E1 and E2 are explicit
1
2
polynomials in q1 and q2 . We impose the condition that equations (6) are identities in five
variables t, q1 , q2 , q1 and q2 which are regarded as independent. These two identities enable
the infinitesimal transformations to be derived and ultimately impose restrictions on the
functional forms of V , T , Q1 and Q2 .
After some straightforward calculations one can show, see e.g. ref. [5], that the generators
necessarily have the following form:
(7)
In this paper we classify the symmetry groups of the system according to the form of the
generators. Here is a preview of the various cases and the potentials that appear.
Case 1. b1 6= 0, b2 6= 0.
In this case the potential is of the form
V =
2
q1 + q22 + 1 q1 + 2 q2 .
2
a00 6= 0
2a
V =
(q1 + q22 ) +
2
(q1 + q2 )2
2
(q1 + q22 ) + 2
2
q2
1
2
(q1 + q22 ) + 2 ()
2
q2
where = qq12 . For arbitrary we end up with a 3-parameter symmetry group. For special
types of we obtain a 4-parameter group.
Second Subcase:
a00 = 0
This is the case where T is a linear function of time.
2d
V = q22 + 1 q1 q2 + () ,
3
2f The dimensions of the symmetry groups in this case are all equal to 2 except for the
last three systems where the dimension is 3. Specifically, we obtain the following list of
potentials:
1.
V
2.
= q2N ( qq21 )
= 1 log q2 + ( qq12 )
V
3.
= eq1 (q2 )
4.
= eq1 (q1 q2 )
V
5-10
V
= 1 f1 (q1 ) + 2 f2 (q2 ) ,
where f1 (q1 ) = q1n , log q1 , eq1 and f2 (q2 ) = q2m , log q2 , eq2 .
11.
V
= (q12 + q22 )
12.
V
= (q12 + q22 )n ,
n 6= 1, 0, 1
13.
V
14.
V
= sin1
q12 q22
q12 +q22
Finally, we note that the potential V (q1 , q2 ) = q1k has a 15-parameter group of symmetries
for k = 0, 1, a 7-parameter group for k = 2, a 6-parameter group for k = 2 and a 5parameter group of symmetries otherwise. These dimensions generalize for arbitrary n 2
to (n + 2)2 1, n2 + 3, n2 + 2, n2 + 1 respectively.
4
In this paper we will not consider the general case of motion in Rn , however for the case
n = 3, the classification of symmetry groups is in progress; see [6]. In this case, we end
up again with a maximal dimension of (n + 2)2 1 = 24 for the harmonic oscillator or a
free particle, but the dimensions of the other groups in the classification vary from 1 to 12
(n2 + 3). We did not obtain the dimension 8 and any dimension between 13 and 23.
In section II we will also consider the simplest system, with one degree of freedom, maily to
illustrate the procedure we use for the two-dimensional case. The classification for a general
ordinary differential equation of second order with one dependent and one independent
variable goes back to Sophus Lie [7]. He showed that the dimensions of a maximal admitted
algebra take only the values 1, 2, 3 and 8. Lie actually gave a group classification of all
arbitrary order O.D.E.s. In this way he identified all equations that can be reduced to lowerorder equations or completely integrated by group theoretical methods [8]. The problem of
classifying symmetry groups for a system of differential equations is open. This is mentioned
in [9] where some known facts are presented. Some results for linear systems of second order
ordinary differential equations can be found in [10].
Of course the ultimate goal in classical mechanics is to integrate explicitly the equations
of motion. Such systems are called integrable. For the definition and basic concepts of
Hamiltonian Systems and Symplectic Geometry there are a number of good references e.g.
[11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. The key result is the following theorem of Liouville which in the
2-dimensional case translates as follows: Consider a Hamiltonian system with two degrees
of freedom. If in addition to the Hamiltonian H there is a second integral of motion I,
independent of H, then the system is integrable, i.e. in principle one can solve the equations
by quadratures. Even though most of the well known systems of classical mechanics are
Liouville integrable, the fact is, that most Hamiltonian systems are not integrable, a result
demonstrated by Poincare. It is not surprising that most of the symmetry groups that appear
in our classification correspond to integrable potentials. The non-integrable potentials appear
mainly in case 2f, where the size of the symmetry group is small. The integrability of twodimensional systems has been the subject of numerous investigations; see for example [16],
[17], [18], [19],[20], [21], [22]. Of course a system with symmetries should be expected to be
integrable, after all this is the essence of Noethers theorem; in this direction see for example
the review [23]. On the other hand one can give a number of examples of integrable systems
whose symmetry group is trivial (i.e. one dimensional). Some of the chaotic systems that do
not appear in our list, for example the famous Henon-Heiles system, are known to have only
as a single symmetry. Of course, we should point out that all the systems which do not
t
(8)
with k > 1.
As was discussed in [24] there are integrable systems which possess only one symmetry. This
situation is also investigated in [25]. We would like to point out another example:
V = 4q12 + q22 +
r1 r2
.
+
q1 q22
(9)
For example, one of the integrable cases of Henon-Heiles corresponds to the presence of a
nonlocal symmetry.
For the integrable systems that appear in the list we actually give the second integral (whenever it is not obvious) or a reference. Since integrability is preserved under various transformations e.g. translations, rotations, scalings, time reflections, we construct the second
invariant for a representative of that class. Generally we choose the potential to be as simple
as possible in order to illustrate the symmetry group and demonstrate integrability.
II
Before attacking the two-dimensional case, we classify the symmetries for a one-dimensional
system, just to illustrate the techniques we use on the two-dimensional case. We consider a
Hamiltonian of the form
1
H = p2 + V (q) .
(10)
2
The equation of motion of the particle is
q =
V
.
q
(11)
(12)
(13)
+Q
.
(14)
t
q
The definition of the second prolongation is the following: First we define the first prolongation
i
h
(1) = + Tq q2 + (Qq Tt )q + Qt
.
(15)
q
=T
. (16)
(17)
(18)
"
V
+ 3qb00 a00 + 2c0 = 0 .
q
(20)
Case 2. b = 0.
From (20) we have
1
c = a0 + c 1
2
(22)
(23)
V = q2 ,
T = c2 t2 + 2c3 t + c4
Q = (c2 t + c3 )q ,
(24)
2(2n)
ct
n+2 1
4c1
q.
n+2
+ c2
(25)
(26)
III
We return now to the case of two-degrees of freedom. The analysis is analogous to the one
used in the case of one-degree of freedom. We substitute the forms of T , Q1 , Q2 in (7) into
equations (6).
The coefficient of q1 in equation (6) [E2 = 0] gives
V
2 b1
c21
b1 + 2 q2 +
2
q2
t
t
=0.
(27)
=0.
(28)
c11
2 b2 2 a
V
2 b1
V
+ b2
+ 3q1 2 + q2 2 2 + 2
=0,
q1
q2
t
t
t
t
(29)
V
V
2 b2
2 b1 2 a
c22
+ b1
+ 3q2 2 + q1 2 2 + 2
=0.
q2
q1
t
t
t
t
(30)
If b1 (t) 6= 0 and b2 (t) 6= 0, then from equations (27) and (28) we deduce that V is quadratic
in q1 and q2 . We also note that if b1 = 0, b2 6= 0 (or b1 6= 0, b2 = 0), then from equations (28)
and (29) V has again a quadratic form. We therefore split the analysis into two exclusive
cases:
Case 1. b1 6= 0, b2 6= 0.
Case 2. b1 = b2 = 0.
IV
Case 1
(31)
Now, substituting (31) into (6) the coefficients of q1 q1 in E1 and q2 q1 in E2 give respectively:
3(b001 + 21 b1 ) = 0
3(b001 + 22 b1 ) = 0 .
(32)
Subcase 1a
Note that we have taken 1 = 2 = 0 in (31) and then renamed the constants. Without
presenting any calculations, we state that the system (2) with V linear has the following 15
symmetries:
1 =
2 =
3 =
4 =
5 =
6 =
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
q1
q2
2
t t
+ ( 12 q1 34 1 t2 ) q1 + ( 12 q2 34 2 t2 ) q2
+ (q1 t 21 t3 q1 + (q2 t 22 t3 ) q2
t2 t
2
(2tq2 + 2 t3 ) t
+ (2q1 q2 + 2 t2 q1 1 t2 q2 12 1 2 t4 ) q1 + (2q22 12 22 t4 ) q2
+ (2q12 12 21 t4 ) q1 + (2q1 q2 + 1 t2 q2 2 t2 q1 12 1 2 t4 ) q2
(2tq1 + 1 t3 ) t
(q2 + 12 2 t2 ) q1
(q1 + 12 1 t2 ) q2
t q1
t q2
(q1 + 12 1 t2 ) q1
(q2 + 12 2 t2 ) q2 .
Subcase 1b
We will choose = 1. We substitute the form of V into equations (6) and equate coefficients.
In E1 , q1 q1 = 0 implies
d 2 b1
+ b1 = 0 .
dt2
In E1 , q1 q2 = 0 implies
d 2 b2
+ b2 = 0 .
dt2
In E1 , q2 = 0 implies
dc12
=0,
dt
therefore c12 is constant. Similarly by examining the coefficient of q1 in E2 we see that c21 is
also constant.
In E1 , q1 = 0 and in E2 q2 = 0, imply that
dc11
d2 a
2
=0,
dt2
dt
10
and
dc22
d2 a
2
=0.
2
dt
dt
Similarly, using the coefficient of q1 = 0 in E1 and q2 = 0 in E2 , we obtain
da
d2 c11
+2
=0,
2
dt
dt
and
d2 c22
da
+2
=0.
2
dt
dt
Finally, E1 = 0 and E2 = 0 imply that the functions d1 (t) and d2 (t) are solutions of the
equation
d2 x
+x=0 .
dt2
Therefore the form of the generators in this case is the following:
T = k1 + k2 cos 2t + k3 sin 2t + (k4 cos t + k5 sin t)q1 + (k6 cos t + k7 sin t)q2
Q1 = (k4 sin t + k5 cos t)q12 + (k6 sin t + k7 cos t)q1 q2 +
(k2 sin 2t + k3 cos 2t + c11 )q1 + c12 q2 + k8 cos t + k9 sin t
Q2 = (k4 sin t + k5 cos t)q1 q2 + (k6 sin t + k7 cos t)q22 +
c21 q1 + (k2 sin 2t + k3 cos 2t + c22 )q2 + +k10 cos t + k11 sin t .
We note that the system (2) with V = 2 (q12 + q22 ) admit a 15-parameter group of transformations isomorphic to sl(4, R).
Remark: This system is the 2-dimensional isotropic oscillator. A second integral is I 1 =
1 2
p + 12 q12 or I2 = 21 p22 + 12 q22 . We also have constants of motion linear in the momenta, for
2 1
example I3 = q2 p1 q1 p2 .
Remark: Cases 1a and 1b give the most general form of Hamiltonian for which the second
invariant is linear in the momenta [21].
Case 2
: q2
: q1
: q1
: q2
=0
=0
=0
=0
11
c012 = 0
c021 = 0
2c011 a00 = 0
2c022 a00 = 0 .
(33)
Therefore, c12 = c1 , c21 = c2 , c11 = 12 a0 + c3 and c22 = 12 a0 + c4 . Here and elsewhere the ci
are constants. Using these results, equations (6) take the form
and
(34)
(35)
(36)
(a00 q1 + 2d01 )Vq1 q2 + (a00 q2 + 2d02 )Vq2 q2 + 3a00 Vq2 + a0000 q2 + 2d000
2 = 0 .
(37)
Non-linear T
We divide equations (36) and (37) by a00 and then differentiate with respect to t to obtain
respectively,
d0
2 002
a
!0
d0
2 001
a
!0
V q1 q2
d0
+ 2 001
a
!0
V q1 q2
d0
+ 2 002
a
!0
V q1 q1
a0000
+
a00
!0
d000
q1 + 2 100
a
!0
=0,
(38)
V q2 q2
a0000
+
a00
!0
d000
q2 + 2 200
a
!0
=0.
(39)
From equations (38) and (39) we deduce that the function V (q1 , q2 ) satisfies two partial
differential equations of the form
1 V q1 q2 + 2 V q1 q1 + 3 q 1 + 4 = 0 ,
(40)
2 V q1 q2 + 1 V q2 q2 + 3 q 2 + 5 = 0 .
(41)
In order to solve equations (40) and (41) we consider the following cases:
1 6= 0, 2 6= 0
1 = 0, 2 6= 0 (or 1 6= 0, 2 = 0)
1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 0
12
In the following three subcases we determine the form of V from equations (40) and (41).
The corresponding generators may be obtained with the employment of equations (34)(39).
Subcase 2a
In this case, V takes the form
V =
2
,
(q1 + q22 ) +
2
(q1 + q2 )2
(42)
(43)
(44)
(q1 + q22 ) + 2 .
2
q2
.
q22
(45)
Finally, using equations (34) and (35) we obtain the forms of the group generators :
T = a(t)
Q1 = c3 q1 + 21 a0 (t)q1 + d1 (t)
Q2 = 21 a0 (t)q2 .
(46)
T = c1 t2 + 2c2 t + c3
Q1 = (c1 t + c2 )q1
Q2 = (c1 t + c2 + c4 )q2 + c5 t + c6 .
We choose the following basis for the Lie algebra of symmetries:
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
=
=
=
=
=
=
+ q1 q1 + q2 q2
2t t
t2 t
+ q1 t q1 + q2 t q2
q2 q2
t q2
,
q2
13
(47)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2X1
X2
X6
2X3
X5
X6
X5
X5
X6 .
(48)
This algebra is not semi-simple since the ideal generated by X5 , X6 is abelian. It is not
solvable either because L(1) = {X1 , X2 , X3 , X5 , X6 }, and L(2) = L(1) .
Remark: It is clear that Subcase 2b is a special case of Subcase 2a by setting = 0.
Subcase 2c
Since all the coefficients of the terms in equations (38) and (39) vanish, the functions a(t),
d1 (t) and d2 (t) may be determined. From equations (36) and (37) we deduce that
V =
where =
q1
.
q2
2
1
(q1 + q22 ) + 2 ()
2
q2
(49)
We now use equations (34) and (35) to determine the forms of the generators.
X1 = t
+ q1 q1 + q2 q2
X2 = 2t t
X3 = t2 t
+ tq1 q1 + tq2 q2
q2
= q22 :
1
14
(50)
2
(q1 + q22 ) + 2 .
2
q1
(51)
(q1 + q22 ) + 2 .
2
q2
(52)
V =
q
2
c tan1 q1
2 .
(q1 + q22 ) + 2
e
2
q1 + q22
(53)
(54)
= t
= 2t t
+ q1 q1 + q2 q2
+ tq1 q1 + tq2 q2
= t2 t
= 14 cq1 + q2 q1 + 41 cq2 q1 q2 ,
[X1 , X2 ]
[X1 , X3 ]
[X2 , X3 ]
[Xi , X4 ]
=
=
=
=
2X1
X2
2X3
0
i = 1, 2, 3 .
This example generalizes in n dimension to a Lie algebra which is a direct sum sl(2, R)
so(n, R).
Remark: In polar coordinates this system is
V =
2
(r ) + 2 ec .
2
r
15
Taking () =
r1
2
r1 r2
2
(q1 + q22 ) + 2 + 2 .
2
q1 q2
The associated Hamilton-Jacobi equation is separable in cartesian and polar coordinates. This
system is an example of a system with closed trajectories under the influence of Noncentral
field [26]. For = 1, the generators take the form:
T = c1 + c2 cos 2t + c3 sin 2t
Q1 = (c2 sin 2t + c3 cos 2t)q1
Q2 = (c2 sin 2t + c3 cos 2t)q2 .
They form a 3-dimensional Lie algebra
X1 = t
q1 sin 2t q1 q2 sin 2t q2
X2 = cos 2t t
X3 = sin 2t t
+ q1 cos 2t q1 + q2 cos 2t q2 ,
(55)
In other words, it is a simple Lie algebra of type A1 isomorphic to so(3, R). For = 0 we
obtain a Lie algebra isomorphic to sl(2, R). In [27] the most general form of a differential
equation invariant under the action of the generators of sl(2, R) is determined.
We note that the similar system
V =
r1 r2
2
(4q1 + q22 ) + + 2
2
q1 q2
(56)
has t
as the only symmetry.
In general, the system V = 2 (q12 + q22 ) + q12 ( qq12 ) is integrable: Changing to polar coordinates
2
q1 = r cos , q2 = r sin we find that
V =
B()
2 (cot )
r + 2 2 = r2 + 2 .
2
2
r
r sin
.
(+)2
(q1 +q2 )2
a00 = 0
T linear
1 V q1 q1 + 2 V q1 q2 + 3 = 0 ,
(57)
1 V q1 q2 + 2 V q2 q2 + 4 = 0 .
(58)
Subcase 2d
where = q1 q2 . We obtain various forms of the generators depending on the form of the
function .
= 3 2 :
That is, V is quadratic of the form
V = 1 q22 + 2 q1 q2 + 3 q12 .
(59)
We have followed the common practice of renaming the constants. The corresponding generators are:
T = c6
Q1 = c1 q2 + c3 q1 + d1 (t)
Q2 = c1 q1 + 2 12 23 c1 + c3 q2 + d2 (t) ,
(60)
where d1 (t) and d2 (t) satisfy the o.d.e.s d001 + 23 d1 (t) + 2 d2 (t) = 0, and d002 + 21 d2 (t) +
2 d1 (t) = 0. ( A 7-parameter group).
If 2 = 0 then 1 6= 3 , Q1 = c3 q1 + d1 (t), Q2 = c4 q2 + d2 (t) and d1 (t), d2 (t) satisfy the same
o.d.e.s with 2 = 0.
We describe explicitly the Lie algebra for the potential V (q1 , q2 ) = 12 q12 + 12 q22 . The Lie
algebra is 7-dimensional with generators:
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
q1 q1
et q1
et q1
q2 q2
cos t q2
sin t q2 .
[X1 , X3 ]
[X1 , X4 ]
[X1 , X6 ]
[X1 , X7 ]
[X2 , X3 ]
[X2 , X4 ]
[X5 , X6 ]
[X5 , X7 ]
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
X3
X4
X7
X6
X3
X4
X6
X7 .
This Lie algebra L is solvable with L(1) = [L, L] = {X3 , X4 , X6 , X7 } and L(2) = {0}.
Remark: The system with Hamiltonian
1
1
(61)
H = p21 + p22 + 1 q12 + 2 q1 q2 + 3 q22 .
2
2
is integrable. We can actually rotate the Hamiltonian to a separable one, obtain the second
integral and then rotate back to obtain the invariant in the original coordinates. So, we set
q1
q2
p1
p2
=
=
=
=
cos Qx + sin Qy
sin Qx + cos Qy
cos px + sin py
sin px + cos py .
2
.
3 1
(62)
T = c6
Q1 = c2 q1 + c2 q2 + d2 (t)
Q2 = c2 q1 + 1 c2 q2 + d2 (t) ,
(63)
= 12 Qx + 12 Qy
= 12 Qx + 12 Qy
= 12 px + 12 py
= 12 px + 12 py .
1 2 1 2
2
px + py + ( 2Qx ) + (Q2y Q2x ) .
2
2
2
We may choose the second integral to be 12 p2x + ( 2Qx ) 22 Q2x . The second integral for the
original system is
1
2
I = (p1 p2 )2 + (q1 q2 ) (q1 q2 )2 .
4
4
= 3 n , n 6= 0, 1, 2 :
In this case, V has the form
V = 2 (q1 q2 +
1 2 2
q ) + 3 (q1 q2 )n ,
2 2
(65)
with n 6= 0, 1, 2.
The generators are:
T = 2c5 t + c6
4
Q1 = c2 (q1 + q2 ) n2
c5 q1 + d2 (t)
4
1
Q2 = c2 (q1 + q2 ) n2 c5 q2 + d2 (t) ,
(66)
X1 = t
X2 = (q1 + q2 ) q1 + q2
X3 = cos t q1 + q2
X4 = sin t
q1
q2
=
=
=
=
X4
X3
2X3
2X4 .
This Lie algebra L is solvable with L(1) = [L, L] = {X3 , X4 } and L(2) = {0}.
On the other hand, the potential V (q1 , q2 ) = (q1 q2 )3 gives a five dimensional Lie algebra.
This Lie algebra is isomorphic with the symmetry Lie algebra for the potential V (q 1 , q2 ) = q13
which we examine later.
= 3 e :
In this case, V has the form
V = 2 (q1 q2 +
1 2 2
q2 ) + 3 e(q1 q2 ) ,
2
(67)
(68)
= t
= 2t t
4 q1
= (q1 + q2 ) q1 +
= q1 + q2
X5 = t
q1
q2
q2
[X1 , X2 ]
[X1 , X5 ]
[X2 , X3 ]
[X2 , X5 ]
[X3 , X4 ]
[X3 , X5 ]
=
=
=
=
=
=
2X1
X4
4X4
2X5
2X4
2X5 .
This Lie algebra L is solvable with L(1) = [L, L] = {X1 , X4 , X5 }, L(2) = {X4 } and L(3) = {0}.
For the case 2 6= 0 we obtain a Lie algebra which is identical with the one in arbitrary.
= 3 log :
Setting 2 = 0, V takes the form
V = 3 log (q1 q2 ) ,
(69)
T = 2c5 t + c6
Q1 = c2 q1 + c2 q2 + 2c5 q1 + d2 (t)
Q2 = c2 q1 + 1 c2 q2 + 2c5 q2 + d2 (t) ,
(70)
Subcase 2e
We obtain various forms of the generators depending on the form of the function .
arbitrary:
The generators take the form:
T = c6
Q1 = 0
Q2 = c4 q2 + d2 (t) ,
(71)
(72)
(A 5-parameter group).
If 1 6= 0, we set c5 = 0. We end up with a 4-parameter group. It is the same as in
arbitrary.
We will calculate explicitly the Lie algebra for the potential V (q1 , q2 ) = q13 . For a basis we
choose the following five vector fields:
21
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
= t
2q1 q1
= t t
= q2 q2
= t q2
= q2 ,
=
=
=
=
=
X1
X5
X4
X4
X5 .
This Lie algebra L is solvable with L(1) = [L, L] = {X1 , X4 , X5 }, L(2) = {X5 } and L(3) = {0}.
On the other hand, for the potential V (q1 , q2 ) = 12 q22 + q13 we obtain a 4-parameter group
with basis
X1
X2
X3
X4
= t
= q2 q2
= cos t q2
= sin t q2 .
This Lie algebra L is also solvable with L(1) = [L, L] = {X3 , X4 } and L(2) = {0}. It is
isomorphic with the algebra of symmetries of potential (65) which we already examined.
= 2 eq1 :
If 1 = 0, then
T = 2c5 t + c6
Q1 = 4
c
5
Q2 = c4 q2 + d2 (t) ,
(73)
(74)
(A 5-parameter group).
Remark: The potentials that appear in this case are clearly integrable, being separable potentials. At this point we have completed the analysis of a separable potential with one variable
missing. The potential q12 was considered in subcase 2b. The potentials q1n for n = 0, 1 are
1
22
covered by Case 1. The potential q12 was considered in subcase 2d. The potential f (q1 ) falls
under subcase 2e.
Subcase 2f :
Equations (36) and (37) are satisfied ( d1 (t) = constant , d2 (t) = constant). From equations
(34) and (35) we obtain the following results:
1.
V
T
Q1
Q2
= q2N ( qq12 )
= 21 c3 (2 N )t + c6
= c 3 q1
= c 3 q2 ,
(75)
a 2-parameter group of transformations. The Lie algebra in this case is the twodimensional non-abelian Lie algebra with bracket [X1 , X2 ] = 21 (2 N )X1 if N 6= 2
and an abelian 2-dimensional Lie algebra if N = 2. We should mention that for certain
choices of we may obtain a larger symmetry group, e.g. for (x) = xN , but generically the Lie algebra is 2-dimensional. Some values of N will also give different results.
For example, N = 2 falls under subcase 2c.
Remark: In general, this system is not integrable. However, there are some integrable
examples. We mention the Holt potentials [19], [20], [30]
2
9
2
(76)
and c = 12.
1
(q12
q22 ) 3
(77)
Case 2f includes Henon-Heiles type potentials of the form cq23 +q12 q2 . They are integrable
for the following values of c: c = 13 , c = 2, and c = 16
[32], [33], [34].
3
Finally we mention the potential
V (q1 , q2 ) =
q1
.
q2
(78)
It was shown by Hietarinta [35] that the second integral for this potential is a transcendental function. It can be expressed as a combination of W+ and W , the standard
Whittaker functions, i.e. the solutions of the equation
1 2
x a y =0 .
y +
4
00
23
(79)
2.
V
T
Q1
Q2
1 log q2 + ( qq12 )
c3 t + c6
c 3 q1
c 3 q2 ,
=
=
=
=
(80)
a 2-parameter group of transformations. The Lie algebra in this case is the twodimensional non-abelian Lie algebra with bracket [X1 , X2 ] = X1 .
3.
= eq1 (q2 )
= 12 c5 t + c6
= c5
= 0,
V
T
Q1
Q2
(81)
V
T
Q1
Q2
=
=
=
=
eq1 (q1 q2 )
12 c8 t + c6
c8
c8 ,
(82)
Remark: We should mention that because of symmetry we do not list potentials of the
form V (q1 , q2 ) = eq2 (q2 q1 ). We can also replace q1 q2 with q1 + q2 . Taking
= 1, = 1 and = 2 we obtain the potential V (q1 , q2 ) = eq1 q2 + eq2 . This is
a generalized Toda lattice associated with a Lie algebra of type B2 , first considered by
Bogoyavlensky in [36].
5.
V
T
Q1
Q2
= 1 q1n + 2 q2m
= 12 c5 t + c6
c5
= 2n
q1
c5
= 2m q2 ,
(83)
24
6.
7.
V
T
Q1
Q2
V
T
Q1
Q2
8.
= 1 q1n + 2 log q2 ,
= 21 c5 t + c6
c5
= 2n
q1
= c25 q2 .
= 1 q1n + 2 eq2 ,
= 21 c5 t + c6
c5
= 2n
q1
= c5 .
V
T
Q1
Q2
9.
10.
n 6= 0, 1, 2
(84)
n 6= 0, 1, 2
(85)
= 1 log q1 + 2 log q2
= 12 c5 t + c6
= c25 q1
= c25 q2 .
(86)
V
T
Q1
Q2
= 1 log q1 + 2 eq2
= 12 c5 t + c6
= c25 q1
= c5 .
(87)
V
T
Q1
Q2
= 1 e 1 q 1 + 2 e 2 q 2
= 12 c5 t + c6
= c51
= c52 .
(88)
11.
(q12 + q22 )
c6
c 1 q2
c1 q1 ,
(89)
(q12 + q22 )n , n 6= 1, 0, 1
2c5 t + c6
2
c 5 q1
c1 q2 n1
2
c 5 q2 ,
c1 q1 n1
(90)
V
T
Q1
Q2
=
=
=
=
V
T
Q1
Q2
=
=
=
=
25
V
T
Q1
Q2
=
=
=
=
(91)
a 3-parameter group of transformations. The Lie algebra, which is the same as in the
previous case, may not seem interesting, but in n dimensions it is a direct sum of a
2-dimensional Lie algebra with so(n, R).
14.
V
T
Q1
Q2
=
=
=
=
q 2 q 2
(92)
VI
Generalizations, Questions
n
1X
p2 + V (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ) ,
2 i=1 i
i = 1, 2, . . . , n .
(93)
As in the case of two degrees of freedom we seek point symmetries of equations (93). We
consider the equations
(2) {
qi + Vqi } = 0 i = 1, 2, . . . , n ,
(94)
26
n
X
Qi
+
.
t i=1 qi
(95)
i = 1, 2, . . . , n ,
(96)
V
. The functions Ei are explicit polynomials in q1 , q2 , . . . , qn .
where, we have used that qi = q
i
We impose the condition that equations (96) are identities in the variables t, q i , qi which are
regarded as independent.
Again, the functions T and Qi must be of the form
i = 1, 2, . . . , n .
(97)
We substitute (97) into (96). By considering the coefficient of qk in Ej we obtain the following
n2 equations:
For j 6= k,
V
bk = 0 ,
(98)
b00k (t)qj + c0jk (t) +
qj
and for j = k,
2c0jj (t)
00
a (t) +
3b00j (t)qj
X
V
V
bj +
bi (t) = 0 .
+3
b00i (t)qi +
qj
qi
i6=j
(99)
V =
i qi2 +
i=1
n
X
i qi ,
i=1
i = 2, 3, . . . , n
b00i + 21 bi = 0
i = 2, 3, . . . , n .
and
Therefore for non-zero bi (t), we necessarily have
1 = 2 = . . . = n .
Hence, V is of the form
V =
n
X
q2 ,
2 i=1 i
(100)
When = 0, the potential energy is zero and we have a free particle moving in Rn . In this
case the generators take the following simple form:
a(t)
bi (t)
di (t)
cii
cij
=
=
=
=
=
c1 + c2 t + ct2
i + i t
i + i t
i + ct
ij i 6= j .
(101)
=0,
cik
2
2
qi k=1 qk
k=1 qi qk
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, where
n
X
1 0
k = qk a (t) +
ckj qj + dk (t) .
2
j=1
(102)
(103)
1
q12
4. The potential f (q1 ) where f is arbitrary but not exponential, logarithmic or a power has
an n2 parameter group of symmetries.
We give the proof for the potential
1
V (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ) = q12 .
2
The proof for the other three cases is similar. Since the variables q2 , q3 , . . . , qn are missing,
equations (102) for k = 2, 3, . . . , n become
1 000
a qk + d00k ck1 q1 = 0 .
2
28
Therefore, a000 = 0, dk (t) = k + k t, and ck1 = 0 for k = 2, 3, . . . , n. On the other hand, the
first equation in (102) gives
d001
3 0
+ 1 +
a c11 q1 = 0 ,
2
where
n
1 0 X
c1j qj + d1 .
1 = q 1 a +
2
j=1
(104)
k = 2, . . . , n .
29
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31