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HYDROBIOLOGY
DOI: 10.2478/v10104-011-0020-9
Vol. 10
No. 2-4, 191-200
2010
Ecohydrology for
water ecosystems
and society in Ethiopia
Abstract
Land degradation caused by soil erosion (sheet and rill erosion) and soil fertility decline
is a serious threat in the Ethiopian highlands, especially in the Gumara watershed. In this
study the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model was applied to the Gumara
watershed to predict sediment yield and runoff, to establish the spatial distribution of
sediment yield and to test the potential of watershed management measures to reduce
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RZDQGVHGLPHQWUHFRUGVDQGYDOLGDWHGXVLQJGDWDIRUWKHQH[WWKUHH\HDUV2XWRI
6:$7VXEEDVLQVVXEZDWHUVKHGVZHUHLGHQWLHGDVHURVLRQSURQHDUHDV
contributing to a mean annual sediment load ranging from 11 to 22 t ha-1 yr-1. The model
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VHGLPHQWSURGXFWLRQIURPFULWLFDOPLFURZDWHUVKHGV7KHLQVWDOODWLRQRIYHJHWDWLRQOWHU
VWULSVRQYXOQHUDEOHODQGZDVVKRZQWRUHVXOWLQDWRUHGXFWLRQLQVHGLPHQW
\LHOGIRUVWULSZLGWKVRIPDQGPUHVSHFWLYHO\
Key words: land degradation, soil erosion, sediment yield, SWAT, critical sub waterVKHGVYHJHWDWLRQOWHUVWULSV
1. Introduction
Ethiopia possesses huge amount of potential
natural resources, which include an annual
DYDLODELOLW\RIELOOLRQP3 of surface water and
2.6 billion m3 of ground water as well as 3.7 million
ha of potentially irrigable land, that could be used
WRLQFUHDVHDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQDQGSURGXFWLYLW\
(Awulachew et al.0R:5+RZHYHU
despite this potential resource base, agricultural
production is low in some parts of the country, as
DUHVXOWRIHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQZKLFKLV
manifested primarily by soil erosion and loss of
soil fertility (Teketay 2004).
Sheet and rill erosion are, by far, the most
widespread types of accelerated water erosion,
constituting a principal cause of land degradation
LQWKHFRXQWU\7KHLUFRPELQHGLPSDFWVLJQLFDQWO\
DIIHFWVDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQDQGSURGXFWLYLW\
(Constable 1984). A rapidly increasing population,
GHIRUHVWDWLRQ RYHUFXOWLYDWLRQ H[SDQVLRQ RI
FXOWLYDWLRQDWWKHH[SHQVHRIODQGXQGHUFRPPXQDO
192
use rights (grazing and woody biomass resource 2. Materials and methods
H[SORLWDWLRQFXOWLYDWLRQRIPDUJLQDODQGVWHHSODQGV
RYHUJUD]LQJDQGRWKHUVRFLDOHFRQRPLFDQGSROLWLFDO 2.1. Description of the study area
IDFWRUVKDYHUHVXOWHGLQVHULRXVVRLOHURVLRQZLWKLQWKH
The Gumara watershed is located in the North
country in general and within the Gumara watershed
West part of Ethiopia in Amhara Regional State;
in particular (BCEOM 1998; MoARD 2004).
south Gondar zone (Fig. 1). It is situated to the
Despite the recognition of the problem, based VRXWKHDVWRI/DNH7DQDDQGFRYHUVWKHGUDLQDJH
on estimates of gross soil loss and sediment measure- area of about 1464 km2.
PHQWVDWZDWHUVKHGRXWOHWVIHZVWXGLHVKDYHEHHQ
The major landforms of the watershed include
conducted to determine the spatial and temporal DWJHQWO\VORSLQJWRXQGXODWLQJSODLQVKLOOVDQG
YDULDELOLW\RIUXQRIIDQGVHGLPHQW\LHOGDWWKHPLFUR mountains. The upper and middle parts of the
ZDWHUVKHGOHYHO6WXGLHVDWWKLVVFDOHDUHLPSRUWDQW catchment are characterized by mountainous, highly
EHFDXVHPDQ\RIWKHVROXWLRQVWRHQYLURQPHQWDO rugged and dissected topography with steep slopes
problems, such as soil erosion and non-point source DQGWKHORZHUSDUWLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\YDOOH\RRUV
pollution, will require changes in management on ZLWKDWWRJHQWOHVORSHV(OHYDWLRQLQWKHZDWHUVKHG
the landscape scale (Wilson et al. 2000).
UDQJHVIURPWRPDERYHVHDOHYHOZLWK
Measurement of sediment transport at a water- DPHDQHOHYDWLRQRIPDVO0RUHWKDQWKUHH
VKHGRXWOHWSURYLGHVXVHIXOLQIRUPDWLRQFRQFHUQLQJ TXDUWHUVRIWKHZDWHUVKHGLVLQWHQVLYHO\FXOWLYDWHG
ZKDWLVKDSSHQLQJLQWKHZDWHUVKHG+RZHYHULWGRHV and teff (Eragrostis tef), maize, barley, and wheat
not indicate which part of the watershed is susceptible are the major crops. Bush or shrub land, grazing
to erosion and contributing more sediment to the out- land, forest/wood land and wetland/swamp are
let. Furthermore, lack of procedures for transferring WKHRWKHUPDLQODQGFRYHUW\SHVLQWKHZDWHUVKHG
LQIRUPDWLRQIURPULYHUJDXJLQJVWDWLRQVWRSURSRVHG (WWDSE 2007).
UHVHUYRLUVLWHVDQGPLFURZDWHUVKHGVUHSUHVHQWVDQ%DVHGRQWKH)$2FODVVLFDWLRQV\VWHPVL[
RWKHUSUREOHPLQHVWLPDWLQJRZDQGVHGLPHQWORDGV VRLOW\SHVQDPHO\+DSOLF/XYLVROV&KURPLF/Xat the location of interest (Admasu 2006).
YLVROV/LWKLF/HSWRVROV(XWULF9HUWLVROV(XWULF
One of the possible solutions to the problem )OXYLVROVDQG&KURPLF&DPELVROVDUHWKHFRPof land degradation due to soil erosion is therefore, mon soil types in the watershed (BCEOM 1998;
to understand the processes causing erosion at the 0R$5'::'6(5DLQIDOORYHUWKH
PLFURZDWHUVKHGOHYHODQGWRLPSOHPHQWZDWHUVKHG watershed is unimodal and most of the rainfall is
PDQDJHPHQWPHDVXUHV(IIHFWLYHZDWHUVKHGSODQ- concentrated in the season extending from June
ning requires information on runoff and erosion WR 6HSWHPEHU ZLWK D YLUWXDO GURXJKW RFFXUULQJ
rates at the plot, hill slope, and small watershed IURP1RYHPEHUWKURXJK$SULO7KHIRXUZHWWHVW
VFDOHDQGDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKRZWKHVHYDU\DFURVV months contribute 85 percent of the total annual
the landscape. In addition, there is
DQHHGWRLGHQWLI\DUHDVWKDWKDYH
the potential for high erosion, so
WKDWFRUUHFWLYHDFWLRQVFDQEHWDNHQ
to reduce sediment production from
these areas.
,QUHFHQWGHFDGHVVHYHUDOVLPXODWLRQPRGHOVKDYHEHHQGHYHORSHGIRU
estimating soil erosion and enhancing understanding of the spatial and
temporal complexities of catchment
response. Such models facilitate asVHVVPHQWRISURFHVVHVRSHUDWLQJRYHU
large areas, in order to identify and
target priority management areas.
7KH PDLQ REMHFWLYHV RI WKLV
study were to determine the spaWLDOYDULDELOLW\RIVHGLPHQW\LHOGWR
identify critical micro watersheds
DQGWRHYDOXDWHYDULRXVFRQVHUYDtion scenarios for reducing sediment
yield, based on the simulation results
SURYLGHGE\WKHSK\VLFDOO\EDVHGDQG
spatially distributed SWAT model.
Fig. 1.0DMRUULYHUEDVLQVLQ(WKLRSLDDQGORFDWLRQRI*XPDUDZDWHUVKHG
2.2. Methods
The SWAT 2005 model integrated with geographic information system (GIS) techniques was
used to simulate runoff and sediment yield in this
study. SWAT is a physically-based and computaWLRQDOO\HIFLHQWK\GURORJLFDOPRGHOZKLFKXVHV
UHDGLO\DYDLODEOHLQSXWV,WZDVGHYHORSHGWRSUHGLFW
the impact of land management practices on water,
sediment and agricultural chemical yields in large
FRPSOH[ZDWHUVKHGVZLWKYDU\LQJVRLOVODQGXVH
DQGPDQDJHPHQWFRQGLWLRQVRYHUORQJSHULRGVRI
time (Neitsch et al. 2005).
'LJLWDOHOHYDWLRQPRGHO'(0GDWDSRO\JRQ
FRYHUDJHRIVRLOVDQGODQGXVHDQGSRLQWFRYHUDJH
of weather stations were used as basic input to the
model. Other inputs include daily rainfall, miniPXPDQGPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUHUHODWLYHKXPLGLW\
solar radiation, and wind speed. We delineated the
watershed using a 90 m 90 m resolution DEM
and digitized stream networks for the study area.
After watershed delineation, it was partitioned
LQWRK\GURORJLFUHVSRQVHXQLWV+58ZKLFKKDYH
unique soil and land use combinations within the
watershed to be modeled. Accordingly, multiple
HRU with a 20% land use threshold and a 10% soil
threshold were adopted.
For modelling surface runoff and sediment
\LHOGWKH6RLO&RQVHUYDWLRQ6HUYLFHFXUYHQXPEHU
PHWKRG6&6DQGWKHPRGLHG8QLYHUVDO
6RLO/RVV(TXDWLRQZHUHXVHGUHVSHFWLYHO\,QRUGHU
WRLGHQWLI\WKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWRUVHQVLWLYHPRGHO
SDUDPHWHUVEHIRUHFDOLEUDWLRQPRGHOVHQVLWLYLW\
analysis was carried out using a built-in SWAT
VHQVLWLYLW\DQDO\VLVWRROWKDWXVHVWKH/DWLQ+\SHUcube One-factor-At-a-Time (LH-OAT) procedure
9DQ*ULHQVYHQ2QFHWKHPRVWVHQVLWLYH
SDUDPHWHUVKDYHEHHQLGHQWLHGYDOXHVRIVHOHFWHG
PRGHOSDUDPHWHUVZHUHYDULHGLWHUDWLYHO\RYHUDQ
DSSURSULDWHUDQJHGXULQJYDULRXVFDOLEUDWLRQUXQV
XQWLODVDWLVIDFWRU\DJUHHPHQWEHWZHHQREVHUYHG
DQGVLPXODWHGVWUHDPRZDQGVHGLPHQWGDWDZHUH
obtained.
Daily precipitation, maximum and minimum
WHPSHUDWXUHVRODUUDGLDWLRQUHODWLYHKXPLGLW\DQG
wind speed data collected from 9 weather stations
were used as an input for the model. The missing
metrological data from these weather stations were
OOHGE\DZHDWKHUJHQHUDWRUPRGHOHPEHGGHGLQ
SWAT. Daily discharge data were collected and
the gap of daily suspended sediment was estimated
XVLQJVHGLPHQWUDWLQJFXUYHZLWKFRUUHODWLRQFRHIFLHQWRI
193
3. Results
3.1. Sensitivity analysis
6HQVLWLYLW\DQDO\VLVZDVXQGHUWDNHQWRLGHQWLI\
VHQVLWLYH SDUDPHWHUV WKDW VLJQLILFDQWO\ DIIHFWHG
VXUIDFHUXQRIIEDVHRZDQGVHGLPHQW\LHOG&XUYH
QXPEHU&1,,DYDLODEOHZDWHUFDSDFLW\62/B
$:&DYHUDJHVORSHVWHHSQHVV6/23(VDWXUDWHG
K\GUDXOLFFRQGXFWLYLW\62/B.PD[LPXPFDQRS\
VWRUDJHFDQP[VRLOGHSWK62/B=DQGWKHVRLO
HYDSRUDWLRQ FRPSHQVDWLRQ IDFWRU (6&2 ZHUH
IRXQGWREHUHODWLYHO\VHQVLWLYHSDUDPHWHUVWKDW
VLJQLFDQWO\DIIHFWVXUIDFHUXQRII
The threshold water depth for flow in the
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IDFWRU$/3+$B%)DQGWKHGHHSDTXLIHUSHUFRODWLRQ
IUDFWLRQVUFKUJGSZHUHRWKHUVHQVLWLYHSDUDPHWHUV
WKDWPDLQO\LQXHQFHEDVHRZ7DEOH9,
:HDOVRLGHQWLHGDYHUDJHVORSHVWHHSQHVV
WKH8QLYHUVDO6RLO/RVV(TXDWLRQ86/(FRYHU
or management factor, the USLE support practice
194
IDFWRUDYHUDJHVORSHOHQJWKWKHOLQHDUIDFWRUIRU
channel sediment routing and the exponential factor
IRUFKDQQHOVHGLPHQWURXWLQJDVWKHPRVWVHQVLWLYH
SDUDPHWHUVWKDWVLJQLFDQWO\DIIHFWVHGLPHQW\LHOG
WDEOH9,,
Fig. 2.&DOLEUDWLRQUHVXOWVIRUPRQWKO\PHDQPHDVXUHGDQGVLPXODWHGRZV
Fig. 3.9DOLGDWLRQUHVXOWVIRUPRQWKO\PHDQPHDVXUHGDQGVLPXODWHGRZ
Table I.&DOLEUDWLRQDQGYDOLGDWLRQVWDWLVWLFVIRUPRQWKO\PHDQPHDVXUHGDQGVLPXODWHGVWUHDPRZV
Parameter
Calibrated (1998-2002)
Validated (2003-2005)
0.87
0.76
3.29
0.83
0.68
-5.4
R FRUUHODWLRQFRHIFLHQW
Ens 1DVK6XWFOLIIHPRGHOHIFLHQFLHV
'GHYLDWLRQRIPHDQGLVFKDUJH
2
Table II.&RPSDULVRQRIPRQWKO\PHDQPHDVXUHGDQGVLPXODWHGRZV
Period
Calibration (1998-2002)
9DOLGDWLRQ
0HDQRZP3 s-1)
Measured
Simulated
31.63
32.69
33.98
32.15
195
Calibrated (1998-2002)
0.85
0.74
-14.2
Validated (2003-2005)
0.79
0.62
-16.9
Fig. 4. Calibration results for monthly mean measured and simulated sediment yield.
Fig. 5.9DOLGDWLRQUHVXOWVIRUPRQWKO\PHDQPHDVXUHGDQGVLPXODWHGVHGLPHQW\LHOG
Table IV. Comparison of simulated and measured mean monthly and annual sediment yields for the calibration
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Simulation periods
Calibration (1998-2002)
9DOLGDWLRQ
196
Fig. 6. The spatial distribution SWAT simulated annual sediment yield classes by sub-basin (t ha-1 yr-1). Numbers
1-30 indicate a sub-basin number.
4. Discussion
(YHQWKRXJKWKHSUREOHPRIVRLOHURVLRQLV
FOHDUO\GHPRQVWUDWHGE\DYDLODEOHHVWLPDWHVRIJURVV
HURVLRQDQGHOGREVHUYDWLRQVWKHUHLVDQHHGIRU
TXDQWLWDWLYHLQIRUPDWLRQDWWKHPLFURZDWHUVKHG
OHYHOWRGHYHORSZDWHUVKHGPDQDJHPHQWSODQVDQG
for decision making. In this study, an attempt was
made to characterize the Gumera watershed in
WHUPVRIVHGLPHQW\LHOGLGHQWLFDWLRQRISRWHQWLDO
VHGLPHQWVRXUFHDUHDVDQGHYDOXDWLRQRIDOWHUQDWLYHPDQDJHPHQWPHDVXUHVWRUHGXFHWKHRQVLWH
and offsite effects of soil erosion in the watershed.
:HHYDOXDWHGWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKH6:$7
PRGHOXVLQJVWDQGDUGFDOLEUDWLRQDQGYDOLGDWLRQ
statistics. A good agreement between simulated
DQGPHDVXUHGPRQWKO\VWUHDPRZZDVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\WKHFRUUHODWLRQFRHIFLHQW52 = 0.87),
WKH1DVK6XWFOLIIHPRGHOHIFLHQF\(ns = 0.76)
DQGWKHPHDQGHYLDWLRQSHUFHQW' IRUWKH
FDOLEUDWLRQSHULRGDQGYDOXHVRI52 = 0.83, Ens = 0.8
DQG' IRUWKHYDOLGDWLRQSHULRG7KHPRGHO
RYHUHVWLPDWHGRZVE\DQGXQGHUHVWLPDWHG
flows by 5.4% for the calibration (1998-2002)
DQGYDOLGDWLRQSHULRGVUHVSHFWLYHO\
+RZHYHUWKHVHYDOXHVDUHZLWKLQWKHDFFHSWDEOH
range of 15%. In general, the time series trend of
WKHJDXJHGRZLVZHOOPDWFKHGE\WKHVLPXODWHG
RZLQERWKFDOLEUDWLRQDQGYDOLGDWLRQSHULRGV
In simulating sediment yield, good agreement
between simulated and measured flows for the
calibration period was again obtained, as demonVWUDWHGE\WKHFRUUHODWLRQFRHIFLHQW52 = 0.85),
WKH1DVK6XWFOLIIHPRGHOHIFLHQF\(ns = 0.74.)
DQGWKHPHDQGHYLDWLRQSHUFHQW' 7KH
HTXLYDOHQWYDOXHVIRUWKHYDOLGDWLRQSHULRGZHUH
197
Table V. 0HDQDQQXDOFKDQJHVLQVHGLPHQW\LHOGDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHLQVWDOODWLRQRIOWHUVWULSVRIYDU\LQJZLGWKVLQ
selected critical sub-watersheds.
Selected
critical
sub-watersheds
11
16
17
22
24
28
29
Fig. 8. Per cent of reduction in simulated mean annual suspended sediment yield (t ha-1 yr-1) due to
LQVWDOODWLRQRIOWHUVWULSV
198
Table VI.6XPPDU\RINH\LQLWLDODQGQDOFDOLEUDWHGRZSDUDPHWHUYDOXHV
Parameter description
Parameter
code
Range
,QLWLDO6&6&1,,YDOXH
CN2
25%
$YDLODEOHZDWHUFDSDFLW\PPZDWHUPPVRLO
62/B$:& 25%
$YHUDJHVORSHVWHHSQHVVPP-1)
SLOPE
25%
62/B.
25%
6DWXUDWHGK\GUDXOLFFRQGXFWLYLW\PPK-1)
7KUHVKROGZDWHUGHSWKLQVKDOORZDTXLIHUIRURZPP GWQMN 0-5000
Maximum canopy storage (mm)
canmx
0-10
%DVHRZ$OSKDIDFWRUGD\V
$/3+$B%)
0-1
Deep aquifer percolation fraction
UFKUJBGS
0-1
6RLOHYDSRUDWLRQFRPSHQVDWLRQIDFWRU
ESCO
0-1
Soil depth (mm)
62/B=
25
Initial
(default)
value
*
**
**
0.0
0.0
0.048
0.05
0.95
**
Adjusted
parameter value
+13%
-20 %
12%
+25
0.0
0.1
0.048
0.03
0.90
-12%
&DQP[FDOLEUDWHGIRUIRUHVWDQGEUXVKODQGVDQGIRURWKHUODQGXVHVYDOXHIRUFDQP[LV
6:$7GHIDXOWSDUDPHWHU
YDOXHVIRUHDFKODQGXVHDQGVRLOW\SHLQHDFKVXEEDVLQ
,QLWLDOSDUDPHWHUYDOXHVIURPHOGPHDVXUHPHQWDQG
OLWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ
Table VII. 6XPPDU\RILQLWLDODQGQDOVHGLPHQWFDOLEUDWLRQSDUDPHWHUYDOXHV
Parameter Description
Range (g)
Initial
value
0.25(a)
0.15(b)
0.10(c)
0.02(d)
0.003(e)
0.01(f)
0.10
0.15
**
**
0.0001
1.0
1
Adjusted
parameter value
0.35
0.25
0.18
0.09
0.004
0.05
0.18
0.25
+15%
+12%
0.0035
1.1
0.85
References
Admasu, T. 2006. Evaluation of sediment yield and
reservoir sedimentation in Angereb watershed. MSc
WKHVLV$UED0LQFK8QLYHUVLW\(WKLRSLD
Awulachew, S.B., Yilma, A.D., Luelseged, M., Loiskandl, W., Ayana, M., Alamirew, T. 2007. Water
resources and irrigation development in Ethiopia.
Working paper 123, International Water Management
Institute, Colombo, Sirilanka, pp. 78.
BCEOM 1998. Abbay River basin integrated development
master plan project9ROXPH;,,,(QYLURQPHQW
Ministry of Water Resource, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Constable, M. 1984. Resource of rural development in
Ethiopia. Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study.
FAO/Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Hurni, H. 1985. Soil conservation manual for Ethiopa.
Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
199