Epidermis:

Composed of epithelial cells- keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (avascular)

Outermost protective layer of the body
5 distinct layers:
Basale (basal layer)
Spinosum (spiny or prickly layer)
Granulosum (granular layer)
Lucidium (clear layer)
Corneum (horny layer)
4 different cell types:
Keratinocytes (most epidermal cells)
Melanocytes
Epidermal dendritic cells
Tactile cells
Keratinocytes:
Main cells of epidermis
Chief role is to produce keratin-fibrous protein that helps give epidermis its protective
properties
Tightly connected to one another by desmosomes, keratinocytes arise in deepest layer
called stratum basale.
Undergo continuous mitosis (regulated by epidermal growth factor-peptide): pushed
up toward the surface where they become scale-like and ware off by abrasion
(dead)(takes approx. a month from mitosis to slough-off)
Mitosis occurs mainly in stratum basale with some in stratum spinosum (basale and
spinosum are collectively called stratum germinativum)
Life span 35-45 days (new epidermis)
Callus- thickening of the epidermis
Melanocytes:
Spider-shaped epithelial cells that synthesize pigment melanin
Found in the deepest layer of epidermis
10-25% are melanocytes, of the cells in the basal layer
As melanin is made, it accumulates in membrane bound granule called melanosomes
that are moved to the ends of melanocytes processes
The cells many branches come in contact with keratinocytes, which phagocytize the ends
and ingest the pigment. The pigment is stored and accumulates in the cell, protecting
the keratinocyte nuclei and underlying nerve endings from UV light
Largerhans cells/Epidermal dendritic cell:
Macrophages (phagocytosis), and will activate immune system
Create a web around keratinocytes
Arise from bone marrow and migrate to epidermis

Merkel cells/ Tacticle:

Present at the epidermal junction
Shaped like spiky hemisphere
Intimately associated with a disc like sensory nerve ending
Sensory receptor for touch

Layers of Epidermis:
Two types:

Thick skin: 5 layers/strata, covers the palms and soles of feet

Thin skin: 4 layers/strata (no stratum lucidium), covers the rest of the body

Stratum Basale (basal layer)

Deepest layer
Consists of single row of keratinocytes-continually renewing cell population (stem cells-youngest
keratinocytes)
Very mitotic for ongoing production of keratinocytes->keratin production
Each time of basal cell divides, one daughter cell is pushed into the cell layer just above to begin
its specialization into mature keratinocyte. The other daughter cell remains in basal layer to
continue process of producing new keratinocytes
Some tactile (Merkels cells) are seen

Stratum spinosum (spiny layer)

Several layers thick

Some mitosis, due to blood supply from CT reaching cells in this layer
Cells are somewhat flattened, irregular and spine-like projections causing them to be called
prickle cells
Langerhans cells, macrophage cells most abundant in this layer

Stratum granulosum (granular layer)

Thin, consists of 3-5 cell layers

Keratinocyte appearance changes drastically
Keratinization (cells fill with protein keratin) begins
Cells flatten, their nuclei and organelles begin to disintegrate, and they accumulate two types of
granules:
Keratohyaline granules: help to form keratin in the upper layers
Lamellated granules: contain a water-resistant glycolipid that is a major factor in
slowing water loss across the epidermis (waterproofing) in the extracellular space of
epidermis.
Above this layer nutrient diffusion virtually stops (no nutrients-> no diffusion)

Stratum lucidium (clear layer)

thin translucent band just above the stratum granulosum

Consists of two or three rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes (anucleate) with indistinct
boundaries
Little cytoplasm left but contain semi fluid keratohyalin (water repellant protein)

Stratum Corneum (Horny layer)

Outermost layer
20-30 cells thick, that accounts for of the epidermal thickness
Filled with dead keratin fibers surrounded only by plasma membrane, which protects the skin
from abrasion
Glycolipid between the cells is the real waterproofing of this layer
For this reason stratum corneum provides a durable overcoat for the body, protecting deeper
cells from hostile external environment (air) and from water loss, and rendering the body
relatively insensitive to biological, chemical, and physical assaults.
Ongoing shedding of these cells, which will be replaced by ongoing mitosis in stratum basale

Dermis:

Makes up the bulk of the skin

Tough, leathery layer composed mostly of fibrous CT
Only layer that is vascularized
Nutrients reach epidermis by diffusing through the tissue fluid from BV in the dermis
Cells types: macrophages, fibroblasts, some mast cells, and WBCs
Contains lymphatics, hair follicles, oil and sweat glands (derived from epidermis but reside in
dermis)
Semifluid (gel-liked) matrix, lots of collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers
Two layers:
Papillary layer (20% of dermis)
Areolar CT, interlacing collagen and elastic fibers form a loosely woven mat that is
heavily invested with small BV (extensive blood supply-blood will diffuse from here into
epithelium)
Looseness of this CT allows phagocytes and other defensive cells to wander freely as
they patrol the area for bacteria
Superior surface form peglike projections called dermal papillae:
1. Contain capillary loops
2. Other house free nerve endings (pain receptors)
3. touch receptors (Meissners corpuscles)
4. on palms of hands and soles of feet, papillae lie atop dermal ridges which
cause overlying epidermis to form epidermal ridges (collectively called friction
ridges)-increase friction and enhance gripping ability of the fingers and feet.

5. Friction ridge patterns are genetically determined and unique to each of us.
Sweat pores open along their crests, and our fingertips leave identifying films of
sweat called fingertips on almost anything we touch.
Reticular layer:
Deeper layer, accounts for 80% of the thickness of dermis
Coarse, irregularly arranged, dense fibrous CT
Cutaneous plexus: network of blood vessels that nourishes this layer lies between this
layer and the hypodermis.
Extracellular matrix contains adipose cells here and there, and thick bundles of
interlacing collage fibers
Hypodermis:

Subcutaneous tissue deep to the skin

NOT part of the skin, but shares some of skins protective functions
AKA superficial fascia because it is superficial to the tough CT wrapping (fascia) of the skeletal
muscles
Consists mostly of adipose tissue
Anchors the skin to the underlying structures (mostly muscle) but loosely enough that the skin
can slide freely over those structures
Because of Adipose Tissue also acts a shock absorber and insulator that reduces heat loss from
the body

Sensory Receptors:

Touch sensation,stimulation of tactile receptors in the skin or hypodermis layer

Touch, pressure, vibration, tickle, and (itch?)
Two types of touch:
Light touch: able to perceive exactly what point is being touched, plus what is the
source (size, shape, texture)
Crude touch: able to perceive that one is being touched, but not exactly where or what
is touching
Unencapsulated
Free nerve ending
o Everywhere in the skin; most common in epidermis (papillae)
o Touch, nociceptor (pain), thermoreceptor (hot and cold), mechanoreceptor
(pressure)
Root hair plexus
o Peritrichial nerve endings around the hair shafts (light touch)
Merkels Disc:
o Disc or saucer shaped nerve ending
o Deep layers of epidermis and dermis
o Touch and pressure (associated with free nerve endings)

Encapsulated
Meissners Corpuscles:
o In dermal papillae of hairless skin, nipples, eyelids
o Increased numbers in palms of hands, soles of feet, and lip margins
o Light touch and slow vibration
Ruffini Corpuscles (end organs of Ruffini)
o Deep in the dermis and slightly into hypodermis
o Mechanoreceptors, deep pressure (continuous) and stretch (joint capsule)
Pacinian Corpuscles
o Large lamellated corpuscles (3mm long)
o Subcutaneous tissue, sex organs, pancreas, and other viscera
o Mechanoreceptors, deep pressure (only initially), and vibration

Skin Color
Melanin:

Pigment produced by melanocytes

Polymer made of tyrosine amino acids.
Its two forms range in color from yellow to tan to reddish-brown to black
Found only in the deeper layers of the epidermis
Protects keratinocytes and nerve endings from UV rays
All humans have relatively same number of melanocytes, only varies in amounts produced and
darkness of color, not number
Darker-skinned people produce many more and darker melanosomes than that of lighterskinned people, and their keratinocytes retain it longer.

Carotene:

Yellow to orange pigment, found in some plants such as carrots

Tends to accumulate in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue of the hypodermis
Its color is most obvious in the palms and soles, where the stratum corneum is thickest, and
most intense when large amounts of carotene-rich foods are eaten
Along with melanin gives yellowish tinge to skin (due to variation of melanin, not carotene)
In the body carotene can be converted to vitamin A-essential for vision as well as epidermal
health

Hemoglobin

Oxygenated hemoglobin turns a brighter red

Glows through capillaries
More noticeable in lighter-skinned people because only small amounts of melanin are present

Albinism (albino):

An inherited inability of an individual of any race to produce melanin (recessive trait)

Lack melanin in skin, hair , and yes

Appendages of the Skin:

Basic Characteristics:

Skin derivatives: nails, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, and hair follicles and hair
Hair has minor protective value against trauma & heat loss, and filters sunlight
A key step in the beginning to form any of skins derivatives is formation of an epithelial bud.
(stimulated by reduction of cell adhesion factor called cadherin)

Structure of Hair and Pili

Flexible strands produced by hair follicles and consist of dead keratinized cells
Contains two structures:
Shaft: the portion in which keratinization is complete
Root: where keratinization is still going
Shaft has 3 parts:
Medulla:
Central core
middle, consists of large cells and air spaces
Only part of the hair that contains soft keratin , is absent in fine hairs
Cortex:
A bulky layer surrounding the medulla
Consists of several layers of flattened cells
Cuticle:
Formed from a single layer of cells that overlap one another from below like
shingles on a roof
This arrangement helps keep neighboring hairs apart so that the hair does not
mat
Most heavily keratinized part of the hair
Provides strength and helps keep the inner layers tightly compacted
Because it is subjected to the most abrasion, it tends to wear away at the tip of
the hair shaft
Hair pigment:
Made by melanocytes at the base of the hair follicle and transferred to the cortical
cells
Different melanocyte colors: yellow, brown, black) combine to produce hair color from
blond to black

 Gray or white hair is a result from decreased melanin production or air bubbles in hair
shaft
Structures of Hair Follicles
Basic features:

Fold down from the epidermal surface into the dermis and hypodermis
Has hair bulb which is located below the skin surface about 4mm below
Sensory nerve endings called Hair follicle receptor/root hair plexus, wraps around each hair
bulb
Hair papilla protrudes into the hair bulb. Contains a knot of capillaries that supplies nutrients
to hair
Wall:
Hair follicle is composed of an outer CT root sheath, derived from the dermis
a thickened basement membrane called glassy membrane
and an inner epithelial root sheath, derived from invagination of the epidermis
Arrector pili
Bundle of smooth muscle associated with each hair follicle
Causes skin surface to produce goose bumps in response to cold external temperature
or fear
Important way for other animals to retain heat and protect themselves

Normal hair loss:

Less in healthy people (lose between 20-100 hairs/day)

Hair grow for approximately 2-6 years, rests for approx. 3 months then falls out
Approx. 90% of hair is in the growth phase at any given time

Pattern baldness (androgenic alopecia)

Due to decreased androgens

Females:
more commonly seen post-menopausal due to decreased estrogen
seen in approx. 20 million women
loss is more even throughout the scalp
Males:
Decrease in testosterone
Seen in approx. 35 million
Most commonly seen on the top of the head (anterior portion)

Alopecia areata:

Seen in 2.5 million people

Inherited condition
Autoimmune disease that attacks the hair follicles
Mild case: oval bald spots are seen
Severe case: complete loss of scalp and body hair

Nails:

Scalelike modification of the epidermis that forms a clear protective covering

3 parts: free edge (the part you cut off), body (visible attached portion), and root (embedded
in skin)

Nail appearance may indicate pathology:

Blush nail bed- circulatory problems

White nail beds or oval depressions-anemia
Pigmented spots under a nail-melanoma
Horizontal furrow-serious illness or malnutrition
Curvature of nails-lung, heart, or liver disorders
Red strikes-rheumatoid arthritis, ulcers, or hypertension

Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands

1.

Distributed over the entire skin surface except the nipples and parts of the external genitalia
Up to 3 million per person
Mostly for thermoregulation
Two Types: Eccrine and apocrine
Eccrine glands (merocrine sweat glands)
Far more numerous and abundant on palms, soles of feet and forehead
Each is a simple, coiled, tubular gland in dermis
secretion: pH 4-6, sweat 99% water, vitamin C, antibodies, salts & urea (true sweat),
heredity and diet determine the exact components of sweat
maintains body temperature (sweat is regulated by sympathetic nervous system)
2. Apocrine sweat glands:
Approximately 2000 of them
Largely confined to axillary and anogenital areas
Also merocrine glands which secrete their product by exocytosis like eccrine glands
Larger than eccrine glands
tend to lie deeper in the dermis or even hypodermis
their ducts empty into hair follicles
Same secretion as true sweat plus fatty substances and proteins
Quite viscous and sometimes has a milky yellowish color
Secretion is odorless, but when metabolized by skin bacteria it decomposes and smells
bad leading to body odor

 Activated by sympathetic nerve fibers during pain and stress, sexual arousal
Ceruminous glands:

Modified apocrine (sweat) glands

Found in the lining of the external ear canal
Secretion mixes with sebum produced by nearby sebaceous glands to form a sticky, bitter
substance called cerumen- earwax
Earwax is thought to deter insects and block entry of foreign material

Mammary Glands:

Secrete milk
Specialized sweat glands

Sebaceous (Oil) Glands:

Simple branched alveolar glands

Found all over the body except in thick skin of the palms and soles
Small on body trunk and limbs, but large on face, neck and upper chest
Secrete oily substance called sebum-made of cholesterol, lipids and proteins
Cells accumulate oily lipids until they become so enlarged that they burst
These are holocrine glands
Sebum soften and lubricates the hair and skin, prevents hair from becoming brittle and slows
water loss from skin when humidity is low
Has bactericidal bacteria killing role
Secretion of sebum is stimulated by hormones especially androgens
Generally inactive in childhood and become active in puberty when androgen production
begins
Arrector pili contractions force sebum out of hair follicles to the skin surface

Functions of Integumentary System

A. Protection
1. Chemical: acid mantle, skin secretions (pH 4-6), and melanin
Low pH slows down bacterial multiplication
Many bacteria are killed by dermicidin in sweat and bactericidal substances in
sebum
Skin cells secrete defensins-natural antibiotics, that punch holes in bacteria
2. Physical barrier: skin (keratinized cells), waterproofing glycolipids
3. Biological barrier: Langerhans cells (macrophage of the skin)-active elements of immune
system
B. Excretion-mostly nitrogenous wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid)
C. Body Temperature Regulation

1. Maintaining constant body temp of 37 C or 98.6 F

2. Increase in Temperature:
Heat stimulates receptors in skin
It sends an impulse (afferent pathway) to the brain
Brain (hypothalamus) interprets impulse and selects appropriate response
Sends impulse to sweat glands (via efferent pathways)
Sweat glands respond by releasing perspiration
Evaporation of sweat on skin causes cooling
Temperature moves back to normal
3. Anastomoses: junction of two or more vessels supplying the same body region. Alternate
route by which blood can reach a tissue (in case of obstruction); conserves heat due to
blood largely bypassing skin capillaries
4. Vasodilation (blood vessels dialage); warm blood flushes skin, heat is dissipated