March/April 2009

Issue 68

Plus
News Briefs
Conference Calendar
Letters
Reviews
THE INFORMATION SOURCE FOR ESL/EFL PROFESSIONALS WORLDWIDE

Teaching Reading in
a Second Language
Captioning Comprehension: Using
Movies in the ESL Classroom
The Shyness Myth: Questioning
Student Stereotypes
Integrating Information Technology
in Learning and Teaching EFL in
Saudi Arabia

Number 68

March/April 2009

Contents
Departments
4

Editorial

News Briefs

Conference Calendar

34

Reviews

Features
10

Teaching Reading in a Second Language

Beatrice S. Mikulecky

18

Captioning Comprehension: Using Movies in the

ESL Classroom
Majid Hayati

22

28

The Shyness Myth: Questioning Student

Stereotypes
Christian Burrows
Integrating Information Technology in Learning
and Teaching EFL in Saudi Arabia
Yousef H. Al-Maini

ESL Magazine is the leading magazine for teachers of American English and
ESL/EFL professionals worldwide. Drawing from decades of diverse ESL/EFL
experience, top educators and other professionals keep our readers informed
of the latest news, trends, methods, products and services that matter to
ESL/EFL professionals. Each issue contains relevant and timely features
and department articles relating to the K-12, college and adult levels. If you
find this combination to be an asset to your profession, spread the word!
Questions can be sent to info@eslmag.com

FREE RESOURCES
FOR TEACHERS AT
WWW.ESLMAG.COM

SUBSCRIBE online at www.eslmag.com

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

EDITORIAL

Breaking Down Barriers to

English Language Learning

he spring issue of ESL Magazine features articles

from educators working in the U.S. and around the
world. The challenges to learning that they confront
and the solutions they offer illustrate the common threads
that bind together ESL teachers working in all corners of the
global village.
Effective reading is essential for success in acquiring a
second language. It forms the core of instruction in all aspects
of language learning: using textbooks for language courses, writing, revising, developing
vocabulary, acquiring grammar, editing, and using computer-assisted language learning
programs. Reading instruction, therefore, is an essential component of every second-language
curriculum and in our lead article (Teaching Reading in a Second Language) Beatrice S.
Mikulecky reveals some important facts about reading, literacy, and teaching methods that
are indispensable in providing effective instruction in reading
Hollywood has long provided an impetus for English language learners to hone their
linguistic skills. In fact, many non-native speakers say that they acquired idiomatic English
from repeated viewing of their favorite flicks. But ESL teachers face a dilemma when choosing
a movie to show to their students: L2 subtitled movies? L1 subtitled movies? Or movies
without subtitles? In Captioning Comprehension: Using Movies in the ESL Classroom
Majid Hayati examines the pros and cons of each choice so that teachers can determine
which type of presentation will be of most aid to improving the listening comprehension of
their students.
Asian EFL students are commonly regarded by their teachers as being shy, reticent,
and quiet. As a result teachers fall into the trap of labeling students for no other purpose than
to reinforce a certain stereotype. In The Shyness Myth: Questioning Student Stereotypes,
Christian Burrows analyzes teacher-student interactions in the Asian EFL classroom and
concludes that when teachers understand the reasons behind this apparent shyness, then they
will be able to adjust their methodology to overcome perceived barriers.
The power of Communication Technology (ICT) to improve education is vast and many
countries, including Saudi Arabia, are keen to adopt this technology in their education
systems. However, in order to take advantage of ICT, educators and planners need to consider
a few essential issues including those of access, availability, and funding. In Integrating
Information Technology in Learning and Teaching EFL in Saudi Arabia, Yousef H. AlMaini discusses these challenges with particular reference to teaching and learning English
as a foreign language in the Saudi context.
We hope you enjoy this issue of ESL Magazine and look forward to hearing your
comments regarding articles and other magazine content.

The information source for

ESL/EFLprofessionals worldwide
ESL Magazine
Editor
Ben Ward
Contributing Editors
YOUSEF H. AL-MAINI
CHRISTIAN BURROWS
MAJID HAYATI
BEATRICE S. MIKULECKY
Book Reviews
LYNN OLCOTT
Design
Matrix Print Consultants Ltd
Keyways Publishing
(Part of the OLM Group)
Publisher
Tony Greville
Editorial Director
Peter Collin
Advertising Sales
Sophie Dickson
tel:312-283-3756
adverts@eslmag.com
Subscription Information
To subscribe, contact:
Keyways Publishing
tel: 312 283 3756
www.eslmag.com
info@eslmag.com
To subscribe outside the USA contact:
Keyways Publishing
tel:+44 (0)1243 576444
fax:+44 (0)1243 576456
ESL Magazine is published bimonthly
by Keyways Publishing
444 North Michigan Avenue,
12th Floor, Chicago, IL 60611
tel:312-283-3756
info@eslmag.com www.eslmag.com
ISSN:1098-6553
ESL Magazine is indexed with ERIC.
All text, logo & magazine title 2009
Keyways Publishing Ltd
Printed by Matrix Print Consultants Ltd.
email: info@matrixprint.com

www.eslmag.com

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

News Briefs

n Afghanistan, thousands of students are signing up for classes at privately run

English language schools. The surge in demand for EFL lessons is a result of the
expanding influence of American popular culture and the requirement of English
language skills for Afghanis seeking lucrative but scarce employment with the United
Nations and other international NGOs as well as within their own governmental
departments. A number of private educational institutions, including the American
University of Afghanistan, have opened branches in Kabul and in other major cities
where the medium of teaching is English.

Chartering a Future
Course for ELLs

he U.S. Education Secretary Arne

Duncan has voiced support for
proposals that would permit English
language learners to use alternative
assessments under the No Child Left
Behind Act. Duncans poor track record, as
former superintendent of Chicagos Public
Schools, in improving scores for limited
English proficient students has led to some
concerns about the future direction of ELL
education. Critics point out that the reading
scores of LEP students consistently failed
to meet Illinois state standards set under
NCLB for the past five years. Duncans
signature initiative, Renaissance 2010 which
is replacing about 60 schools deemed to be
failing with 100 smaller schools, has also
alarmed ELL educators some of whom argue
that many of these new schools are charter
schools that serve fewer LEP students than
established public schools and often employ
teachers who have received inadequate
training in ESL instruction.

English Recall Proposed in Hong Kong

elected schools in Hong Kong could return to teaching in English,

eleven years after a mother-tongue policy ordered them to teach in
Chinese. The proposal aims to improve English language standards
which have fallen since Hong Kong ceased to be a British colony in 1997.
Education Secretary Michael Suen also announced a package of support
measures including scholarships aimed at attracting graduates and training
Chinese teachers to conduct classes in English. A 2008 survey of Chinese
professionals by the Polytechnic University revealed that English was still
considered to be the most important language for business.

Court to Decide on AZ ELL Funding Dispute

he Supreme Court has agreed to decide whether Arizona is providing

enough money for programs for ELL students. The justices say that
they will consider overturning lower court rulings that the state
has failed to provide adequate funding for programs for students who are
learning English and that the failure violates a federal law requiring equal
opportunities in education. Arizonas state school superintendent and the
leaders of the state House and Senate urged the court to hear their appeal,
arguing that a 2006 law essentially eliminated long-standing funding
inequities. The state itself asked the court to stay out of the dispute, saying
Arizona would be better off working to comply with the lower court
judgments.

www.eslmag.com

Planner
March 2009
< 31-4. 43rd IATEFL (International Association
of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language)
Annual International Conference and
Exhibition, Cardiff City Hall and Museum,
Cardiff, Wales.

Website: www.iatefl.org/content/conferences/
index.php
April 2009
< 4. 12th ATEL (Association of Teachers of
English in Lebanon) Annual Conference,
Stretching Educational Boundaries in a
Changing World, Lebanon.

Email: zenasaadeh@yahoo.com
< 10-11. The Asian EFL Journal and Linguistics
Journal Conference, The Multiple Roles of
the EFL Teacher, Grand Hotel, Pusan, South
Korea.

Website: www.asian-efl-journal.com/
conf_2009_schedule.php

< 16-19. CATESOL (California Teachers of English

to Speakers of Other Languages) Annual State

Conference, Whole Learner, Whole Teacher,
Pasadena Convention Center, Hilton Pasadena,
& Sheraton Pasadena, Pasadena, California.
Website: www.catesol2009.org

< 18-19. 5th International Seminar, Teaching English

in Multilingual Contexts: Current Challenges, Future

Directions, Centre of English Language, Aga Khan
University Institute for Educational Development,
Aga Khan University Auditorium, Stadium Road
Campus, Karachi, Pakistan.
Website: www.aku.edu/events/cel2009

< 22-24. PELLTA (Penang English Language

Learning & Teaching Association, Matters :

New Ways of Looking at English Language
Teaching & Learning, Bayview Hotel,
Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia.
Website: http://eltcon.webs.com

< 25-29. 2nd International ELT Conference,

< 13-17. AERA (American Educational Research
Association) Annual Meeting, Disciplined
Inquiry: Education Research in the Circle of
Knowledge, San Diego Convention Center,
San Diego, California.

Website: www.aera.net
< 15-18. 32nd Sunshine State TESOL Annual
Convention, Miami Marriott Biscayne Bay Hotel
and Marina, Miami, Florida.

Website: www.sunshine-tesol.org

Deep Into ELT: Transforming Our Knowledge to

Innovations, Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Website: http://elt.fatih.edu.tr

< 30-2. CCAE (California Council for Adult

Education) Annual State Conference, Adult

Education...Changing Lives Every Day!
Pasadena Hilton Hotel, Pasadena, California.
Website: www.ccaestate.org/ccae_news.
html#2009_state_conference

May 2009
< 1-2. 22nd UC LMRI (University of California
Linguistic Minority Research Institute) Annual
Conference, The Preparation of Teachers
of English Learners, University of California
Riverside, California. Website: www.lmri.ucsb.
edu/events/09_conf.php
< 1-3. 3rd Brazilian Bilingual Schools
Conference, Improving & Defining Brazilian
Bilingual Programs, Bilingual Education
Center, Escola Cidade Jardim - Play Pen,
Praa Professor Amrico de Moura, 101, So
Paulo SP, Brazil.

Website:www.playpen.com.br/registro
< 3-6. National Association of State Directors of
Migrant Education (NADSME) Annual National
Migrant Education Conference, We can. We
will. We must. Podemos. Haremos. Debemos,
Marriott Rivercenter and Riverwalk Hotels, San
Antonio, Texas.

Website: www.nasdme.org
< 3-7. 54th IRA (International Reading Association)
Annual Convention North Central, Beyond
the Horizon, Minneapolis Convention Center,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Website: www.reading.org/association/meetings/
annual_mn.html

< 7-8. MATSOL (Massachusetts Association of
Teachers of Speakers of Other Languages)
Annual Conference, Multiple Literacies:
Launching English Language Learners into a
New Era, Sheraton Four Points, Leominster,
Massachusetts.

Website: www.matsol.org

www.eslmag.com

Teaching Reading in a
Second Language
Effective reading is essential for success in acquiring a second language. Understanding
some important facts about reading, literacy, and teaching methods is essential for providing
effective instruction in reading, writes Beatrice S. Mikulecky.
Reading is the basis of instruction in
all aspects of language learning: using
textbooks for language courses, writing,
revising, developing vocabulary, acquiring
grammar, editing, and using computerassisted language learning programs.
Reading instruction, therefore, is an
essential component of every secondlanguage curriculum.

What is Reading?

Reading is a conscious and unconscious

thinking process. The reader applies many
strategies to reconstruct the meaning that
the author is assumed to have intended. The
reader does this by comparing information in
the text to his or her background knowledge
and prior experience.
A reader approaches a text with a huge
store of prior knowledge and experience,
including preconceptions about the uses
of spoken and written language. All of a
persons prior knowledge, experience,
and values are organized in categories,
or schemata. Each category, or schema,
is connected to many other schemata in
a complex mental network. As he or she
notices particular ideas or facts in a text,
the reader matches that information with
background knowledge and is able to
construct a version of the texts meaning.
Researchers in text comprehension have
applied an information-processing analogy
to understanding how people think,
learn, and remember what they read.
When a person reads, two aspects of this
human information processing system
continuously interact. When the reader
focuses primarily on what he or she already
knows, this is called a concept-driven or
top-down mode. On the other hand,
when the reader relies primarily on textual
10

features and information to comprehend,

this is called a data-driven or bottomup mode (Kintsch and van Dijk 1978;
Rumelhart and Ortony 1977; Winograd
1977; Rumelhart 1980). In other words,
the reader is constantly noticing parts of
the text and comparing that sample with
what he or she already knows. The diagram
below shows how the reader continuously
and simultaneously employs both top-down
and bottom-up processes while reading.
The diagram shows that the reader (top
of diagram) samples the text (bottom of
diagram) and instantaneously (and usually
unconsciously) compares what he or she
notices in the text with what he or she
already knows, trying to find a match.
The textual information activates prior
knowledge, and the prior knowledge, in
turn, activates expectations about what is
in the text. This primarily unconscious,
interactive process continues until the reader

is satisfied with the match between text and

prior knowledge, and comprehension has
occurred. (AHA!)
Readers first language and mental
schemata, however, determine what they
notice in a text and how they apply the
mental schemata to that information, and
second language readers mental schemata
are based on their first language and cultural
background. This means that what secondlanguage readers notice in the text and how
they interpret it will vary due to differing
expectations about language structure and
cultural attitudes toward literacy.
It is important to clarify the relationship
between reading and literacy, since research
has shown that they are not the same thing.
In fact, the definitions and uses of literacy
vary culturally, and the cultural contexts
of literacy are the underpinnings of the
acquisition and use of reading and writing.

Reader processes text in light of mental schemata:

Background knowledge
Knowledge about language and literacy
Cultural values and beliefs
AHA!
The reader matches
the data and a schema.
Comprehension!
Text provides new data to be processed:
The shapes and sounds of the letters
The meaning of words/phrases
Grammatical information

www.eslmag.com

What is literacy?

Literacy is a set of attitudes and beliefs

about the ways of using spoken and written
language that are acquired in the course of a
persons socialization into a specific cultural
context.
Language and culture cannot be separated.
Language knowledge and thinking patterns
are socially constructed within a cultural
setting, and each language/culture fosters its
own way of understanding the world. In other
words, each culture fosters the development of
different schemata of the world. That is why
readers from two different cultural backgrounds
can read the same text and construct very
different models of what the text means. They
have different schemata (different background
knowledge), different expectations about how
a text should present information, and different
ways of creating meaning.
Consequently, teachers cannot assume that
students who are good readers in their native
language can simply apply successfully the
same skills to reading in English. Reading
in English requires a set of thinking skills
and attitudes that grow out of the spoken
and written use of the English language.
Teaching reading in standard English to
second-language learners and other limited
English proficient students means helping
them acquire the literate behaviors, the ways
of thinking about text, that are practiced by
native speakers of English. In fact, learning
to read and comprehend a second language
requires learning a secondary literacy:
alternative cultural interpretations, cultural
beliefs about language and discourse, and
culture-specific formal and content schemata.
It is important to realize that learning to read
effectively in a second language literally
alters the learners cognitive structures and
values orientations.

Teaching Reading: Applying

Theory and Research to Practice

We can conclude, therefore, that secondlanguage students need to learn to think

in English in order to read effectively in
English. Reading instruction needs to be
based on training ESL and EFL students
in new ways of talking and thinking about
texts. In teaching reading, instructors need to
take into account the following conclusions
and recommendations of educational
researchers.
Cognitive psychologists have shown in their
research that students learn new strategies
or thinking processes most effectively when
ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

they are consciously aware of what they are

doing (Brown, Armbruster, and Baker, 1986).
Once students are conscious of the processes,
they can monitor their comprehension and
apply appropriate strategies as needed for
comprehending a text (Brown, 1978).
Interacting and talking about text in
particular ways is essential (Casanave 1988).
Heath (1984), Vygotsky (1962), and others
found that students develop literate skills
when teachers encourage them to talk about
written language, when teachers model
comprehension strategies for them, and when
students have opportunities to talk to each
other about how they make sense of a text
(Hoffman and Heath, 1986).
Research has also shown that literacy is not
a neutral technology, but is, in fact, a cultural
artifact laden with the values and beliefs of
the culture in which it arises (Street, 1984;
Cook-Gumperz, 1986). Ones native language
literacy (or primary Discourse, as Gee terms
it) is acquired from birth by being socialized
into the native language and the local cultures
ways of using language. Literate behaviors
grow out of the spoken and written language
practices of a local culture. And according
to Gee, serving as an apprentice to a native
is the way one acquires a new literacy, or
secondary Discourse. (Schiefelin and Ochs,
1986; Gee, 1996).

Reading
instruction needs
to be based on
training ESL and
EFL students
in new ways
of talking and
thinking about
texts.

Research also confirms that students must

read faster and with more fluency if they wish
to read effectively (Eskey, 1986; Anderson,
2005). Faster reading promotes reading in
thought units instead of one word at a time,
and that leads to improved comprehension.
11

Krashen (1985) posited that the best way to

improve reading is by reading. In recent years,
research and practice have validated that idea
(Day and Bamford, 1998). The benefits of
extensive reading include fluency, vocabulary
acquisition, awareness of grammar, models
for writing, and an immersion in the culture
of the second or foreign language.
Finding effective methods of promoting
second-language vocabulary acquisition
seemed, for many years, to be an impossible
goal. Thanks to recent work by Nation
(2001), Coxhead (2000), Cobb, and others,
word frequency lists are available that will
allow teachers to focus on the words that will
be the most useful for their students. Nations
approach combines direct instruction,
extensive reading, and multiple exposures to
the same words by any means necessary to
promote learning.

Finding effective
methods of
promoting
second-language
vocabulary
acquisition
seemed, for many
years, to be an
impossible goal.

In order to read well in English, then, students

need to do the following:
1. Develop a schema of the reading process
that includes the idea that reading is more
than translatingreading is thinking.
2. Talk about their reading, and explain how
they make sense of a text.
3. Read extensively for pleasure in English,
and discuss their reading with someone
who can model the literate behaviors
expected in an English-language context.
4. Break the habit of reading every word by
reading faster.
5. Learn to vary their reading rate to suit
their purpose in reading.
6. Employ top-down processes effectively
by learning to make connections between
what they already know and what they
are reading.
7. Learn reading and thinking skills
that fluent readers of English employ
unconsciously to strengthen both topdown and bottom-up processing abilities.
8. Enhance bottom-up processing by
acquiring the most useful vocabulary
and by learning strategies for guessing
meaning in context.
9. Master the basic 2,000 words that
constitute approximately 80 percent of
texts in English.
10. Acquire specific reading comprehension
skills they can apply strategically.
Putting this all together, it is clear that
students will learn to read in English best in
12

a class that includes, on a regular basis, the

following components:
Substantial amounts of extensive reading
for pleasure, with opportunities for
talking about their books with people
who can model the literate skills required
in English-language contexts.
Focused, interactive lessons on specific
reading skills, with opportunities for
students to explain their thinking, and
direct instruction on applying the skills
strategically to a variety of texts.
Training and practice in fluency
development (skimming, scanning,
previewing)
and
reading
rate
improvement.
Vocabulary activities that include direct
instruction in high-frequency words,
multiple opportunities for exposure to
and manipulation of the target words, and
plenty of extensive reading.

Extensive reading

Extensive reading is a highly individualized

approach to reading improvement. Students
select their own books and read at their own
pace. The teacher should guide students to
select books at a level of comprehension that
allows for comprehensible input (Krashen).

The emphasis is on the quantity of books read

and the students enjoyment of their books.
Students are never tested formally on their
extensive reading. However, they are required
to talk about the books they read in structured
activities, including book conferences with
the teacher, brief oral reports to the class,
and discussions in small group settings. Day
and Bamford (1998) have documented the
benefits of extensive reading, which include:
Development of a positive attitude toward
reading in a second language.
Motivation to read more.
Increased reading fluency.
Gains in vocabulary and grammar
knowledge.
Improvement in writing in the second
language.
According to Day and Bamford, extensive
reading can be included in a second-language
curriculum as a separate course; as part of
an existing reading course; as a non-credit
addition to an existing course; and as an
extracurricular activity (p. 41, 1998).

Reading skills

Reading skills are the cognitive processes that

a reader uses in making sense of a text. For
www.eslmag.com

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

13

Every language
requires a different
repertoire of
reading skills,
based on the
structure of the
language and the
literacy habits
of the native
speakers of that
language. ESL
and EFL teachers,
therefore, should
train students
in the skills that
will give them
the power to
comprehend in
English.

fluent readers, most of the reading skills are

employed unconsciously and automatically.
When confronted with a challenging text,
fluent readers apply these skills consciously
and strategically in order to comprehend.
Every language requires a different repertoire
of reading skills, based on the structure of
the language and the literacy habits of the
native speakers of that language. ESL and
EFL teachers, therefore, should train students
in the skills that will give them the power to
comprehend in English. As Brown and others
pointed out, learning a new thinking process
is best accomplished when the learner is
consciously aware of the process, and an
approach to teaching reading skills should
take that into account. In fact, the more
students talk about their thinking processes,
the more they learn.
Many teachers believe that they can teach
reading skills by instructing students to
read a text and then showing them how to
apply a variety of skills to the text for better
comprehension. It is more effective for
students, however, to focus on one reading
skill at a time and talk about their application
of that skill in a number of text samples.
Eventually, students will be able to apply the
skill unconsciously so that they can call it up
to consciousness and apply it strategically
whenever they face a challenging text.

Reading skills

1. Automatic decoding. Being able to

recognize a word at a glance.
2.

Previewing and predicting. Giving the

text a quick once-over to be able to guess
what is to come.

3. Specifying purpose. Knowing why a text

is being read.
4. Identifying genre. Knowing the nature of
the text in order to predict the form and
content.
5. Questioning. Asking questions in an inner
dialog with the author.
6. Scanning. Looking through a text very
rapidly for specific information.
7. Recognizing topics. Finding out what the
text is about.
8. Classification of ideas into main topics
and details. Categorizing words and
ideas on the basis of their relationships;
distinguishing general and specific.
9. Locating topic sentences. Identifying the

14

general statement in a paragraph.

10. Stating the main idea (or thesis) of a
sentence, paragraph or passage. Knowing
what the authors point is about the
topic.
11. Recognizing patterns of relationships.
Identifying the relationships between
ideas; the overall structure of the text.
12. Identifying and using words that signal
the patterns of relationships between
ideas. Being able to see connections
between ideas by the use of words such
as first, then, later.
13. Inferring the main idea, using patterns
and other clues.
14. Recognizing and using pronouns,
referents, and other lexical equivalents as
clues to cohesion.
15. Guessing the meaning of unknown words
from the context. Using such clues as
knowledge of word parts, syntax, and
relationship patterns.
16. Skimming. Quickly getting the gist or
overview of a passage or book.
17. Paraphrasing. Re-stating texts in the
readers own words in order to monitor
ones own comprehension.
18. Summarizing. Shortening material by
retaining and re-stating main ideas and
leaving out details.
19. Drawing conclusions. Putting together
information from parts of the text and
inducing new or additional ideas.
20. Drawing inferences and using evidence.
Using evidence in the text to know things
that are unstated.
21. Visualizing. Picturing, or actually drawing
a picture or diagram, of what is described
in the text.
22. Reading critically. Judging the accuracy
of a passage with respect to what the
reader already knows; distinguishing fact
from opinion.
23. Reading faster. Reading fast enough to
allow the brain to process the input as
ideas rather than single words.
24. Adjusting reading rate according to
materials and purpose. Being able to
choose the speed and stategies needed
for the level of comprehension desired by
the reader. (Mikulecky, 1990)
www.eslmag.com

means not being able to finish it. Fluency

training should include:
Practice with timed reading passages
followed by comprehension questions.
Lessons in such skills as scanning
and skimming that help students learn
how to move their eyes quickly and
purposefully over a text.
Opportunities for large quantities of
extensive reading.

Vocabulary development

Reading comprehension depends on

vocabulary knowledge and vice versa.
The more students read, the better their
vocabulary becomes.
And the more
vocabulary they know, the better they can
read. The question for teachers and secondlanguage students, however, was always,
Which words should the students learn?

An approach to teaching reading

skills

8. In future lessons, lead the students to

apply the skill, as well as previously
mastered skills, to a variety of texts.

2. Explain the purpose of working on this

skill, and convince the students of its
importance in reading effectively.

Reading Fluency

1. Focus on one skill at a time.

3. Work on an example of using the skill

with the whole class. Explain your
thinking aloud as you do the exercise.
4. Assign students to work in pairs on an
exercise where they practice using the
same skill. Require them to explain their
thinking to each other as they work.
5. Discuss students answers with the
whole class. Ask them to explain how
they got their answers. Encourage polite
disagreement, and require explanations
of any differences in their answers.
6. In the same class, and also in the next few
classes, assign individuals to work on more
exercises that focus on the same skill with
increasing complexity. Instruct students
to work in pairs whenever feasible.
7. Ask individual students to complete an
exercise using the skill to check their
own ability and confidence in using it.
ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

Reading fluency can be defined as reading

fast with good comprehension and adjusting
the reading rate to suit the purpose for
reading. It is important to note that reading
fluency does not refer to oral reading,
however, because it is possible for someone
to read a passage aloud fluently and not
comprehend it at all. Fluency in silent
reading promotes improved comprehension
by allowing the student to read for ideas
rather than for individual words.
Studies have indicated that training in reading
fluency should constitute about 25 percent
of instructional time (Anderson 2005). In
addition to improving reading comprehension,
fluency will help ESL/EFL students in
academic settings who are unable to keep up
with their reading assignments, often a cause
of failing a course or dropping out of college.
Taking too much time in the first reading of
an assignment means there is not enough time
for reflecting on and reviewing the reading
materials. Reading slowly during a test often

Thanks to research in corpus linguistics,

teachers have a good source for the most
important words to teach first. According to
Nation, about 2,000 high-frequency words
constitute 80 percent of all texts in English.
Students who master those 2,000 words,
therefore, are well on their way to being
able to comprehend texts in English. And
for students in academic settings, Coxhead
(2000) has published a list of 570 highfrequency words (the Academic Word List),
which students should also learn. Students
can learn these 2,570 words through a
combination of direct instruction and selfstudy in a relatively short time.
According to Nation (2001), direct
teaching of vocabulary should constitute
about 25 percent of a vocabulary program.
Instruction should be planned so that the
students encounter a new word at least
seven or more times in meaningful contexts.
To motivate students, it is important to
explain the usefulness of mastering the
high-frequency words and how that will
improve reading comprehension. In addition
to direct instruction, teachers can do a lot
to enhance vocabulary building. They can
teach students how to:
Study and learn words effectively.
Choose new words they want to learn.
Use a dictionary.
Keep a vocabulary notebook with
sentences, syllable break-downs, and
definitions.
Make and use word study cards.
15

Extensive reading,
comprehension
skills, reading
fluency, and
vocabulary
building these
four components
clearly overlap,
as they should,
because they
are all an integral
part of the
development of
effective secondlanguage reading.

Review their word study cards alone,

with a partner, and in class
Use Web pages, such as www.lextutor.
ca, to find out more about words and
collocation from concordances.

Conclusion

Extensive reading, comprehension skills,

reading fluency, and vocabulary building
these four components clearly overlap, as
they should, because they are all an integral
part of the development of effective secondlanguage reading.

References
Anderson, Neil J. (2005). Fluency in L2
Reading and Speaking. TESOL 2005
colloquium.
Birch, Barbara M. (2002). English L2
Reading: Getting to the Bottom. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brown, A. L. (1978). Knowing When,
Where, and How to Remember: A Problem of
Metacognition. In R. Glaser (ed.) Advances
in Instructional Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brown, A. L., Armbruster, B. B. and Baker,
L. (1986). The Role of Metacognition in
Reading and Studying. In J. Orasanu, (ed.),
Reading Comprehension: From Research to
Practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Casanave,
C.
P.
(1988).
Adding
communication to the ESL reading class.
TESOL Newsletter Vol. XII (3).
Cobb, Tom. Research. The Compleat Lexical
Tutor. http://www.lextutor. ca.
Cook-Gumperz, J. (ed.) (1986). The Social
Construction of Literacy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A New Academic Word
List. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 34 (2): 213-238.
Day, R. & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive
Reading in the Second Language Classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eskey, D. (1986). Theoretical Foundations.
In F. Dubin, D. Eskey, and W. Grabe (eds.),
Teaching Second Language Reading
for Academic Purposes. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Gee, J. P (1996). Social Linguistics and
Literacies: Ideology in Discourse. 2d. Ed.
Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis, Inc.
Heath, S. B. (1984). Literacy or literate skills:
Considerations for ESL/EFL learners. In P.

16

Larson, E. L Judd, and D. S. Messerschmitt

(eds.), On TESOL 84. Washington, DC:
TESOL.
Hoffman, D. M. and Heath, S. B. (1986).
Inside Learners. Stanford University,
Stanford, CA.
Johnston,
P.
H.
(1983).
Reading
Comprehension Assessment: A Cognitive
Basis. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Kintsch, W. and Van Dijk, T. A. (1978). Toward
a model of text comprehension and production.
Psychology Review Vol. 85 (5): 363-394.
Koda, K. (2004). Insights into Second Language
Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. (1985). Insights and Inquiries.
Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.
Mikulecky, Beatrice S. (1990). A Short Course
in Teaching Reading Skills. Longman.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary
in Another Language. Cambridge University
Press.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980).
Schemata:
The building blocks of cognition. In. R.
J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, and W. F. Brewer
(eds.). Theoretical Issues in Reading
Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Rumelhart, D. E. and Ortony, A. (1977). The
representation of knowledge in memory.
In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, and W.
E. Montague, (eds.), Schooling and the
Acquisition of Knowledge.
Hillsdale, NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Schiefelin, B. and Ochs, E. (1986).
Language Socialization. Annual Review of
Anthropology. Vol. 15: 163-191.
Street, B. (1984). Literacy in Theory and
Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and
Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Beatrice Mikulecky holds a masters degree in

TESOL and a doctorate in Applied Psycholinguistics
from Boston University. In addition to teaching
reading, writing, and ESL, she has worked as a
teacher-trainer in the Harvard University Summer
ESL Program, in the Simmons College MATESL
Program, and in Moscow, Russia. She is the
author of A Short Course in Teaching Reading
Skills and co-author of the Reading Power series.
This article is published with permission of Pearson
Longman ESL, White Plains, NY.

www.eslmag.com

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

17

Captioning Comprehension:
Using Movies in the ESL Classroom
Teachers face a dilemma when choosing a movie to show to their English language learning
students: L2 subtitled movies? L1 subtitled movies? Or movies without subtitles? Majid
Hayati examines the choices and explains which type of presentation will be of most aid to
listening comprehension.

Introduction

In recent years, English language teachers

have begun to use movies in their classes
at different levels. But they have to decide
whether they should show a film with or
without subtitles and in what language.
They also need to think about in what way
will the presentation benefit their students
most in relation to listening comprehension.
Richards and Gordon (2004) maintain that the
employment of video enables learners to use
visual information to enhance comprehension.
It allows learners to observe the gestures,
facial expressions and other aspects of body
language that accompany speech. It presents
authentic language as well as cultural
information about speakers of English.

Watching subtitled
movies requires
a fair mastery
of reading. It
develops both fast
reading and recall
and retention
of the structure
especially if used
with other skills
such as speaking
and writing.
18

Although a widespread view on audio

comprehension held that both target-language
captions and native-language subtitles
were anathema to developing listening
comprehension (Robin, 2007), a group of
studies focusing exclusively on L2 subtitling
has looked at its effects on comprehension,

language recall and retention (Kikuchi; King;

Weyer; Ryan,; Meskill; Kothari, Pandey, and
Chudgar). Until recently, however, the use of
films in teaching English has been downplayed
because teachers felt they were time-consuming
and too difficult to tackle. Yet with the spread
of video equipment and audiovisual resources
into educational institutions, the use of films
is becoming more common (Canning-Wilson;
Secules, Herron & Tomessello; Balatova).
In my own experience of teaching listening to
Persian learners of English, I found on several
occasions that motivation in communicating
with the content of the film in general and the
idea of listening in particular was encouraged.
In one class, the learners even asked if they
could take some subtitled movies to watch at
home so that they could keep in touch with the
atmosphere of learning English. I remember
one student who said it was quite difficult
for him to understand all the words, phrases,
and sentences uttered by the characters of the
film. He continued, I would like to get what
the characters mean by what they say. More

www.eslmag.com

than that, there seem to be some idioms

and expressions which I miss during the
listening task. I am very much interested in
using them in my daily conversations with
my friends and classmates.
Watching subtitled movies requires a fair
mastery of reading. It develops both fast
reading and recall and retention of the
structure especially if used with other skills
such as speaking and writing. The choice of
the language to be used as captioning should
be of concern to the teacher who should base
his or her decision on the likes and dislikes
of the class itself. There is no fixed rule for
selecting the type of captioning to be used
with non-native learners of English. Even
native-speaking students, such as those
majoring in fields such as Chemistry, Physics,
etc. who deal with technical terms may enjoy
watching subtitled films of different types
(imaginary, documentary, etc.).
The teacher can design a syllabus based on
which s/he intends to teach, for example,
idiomatic expressions. Next, s/he might
decide to concentrate learners attention on
the various ways greetings are used according
to a specific situation. After making sure of
the learners mastery of the items, the teacher
may create similar situations, probably
simulations, to help the learners establish the
correct forms of the materials in their minds.

Presenting subtitled materials

Depending on the students level of

proficiency, I suggest the following
procedures to be followed in presenting a
subtitled film:
(1) Show them the film with no subtitles. Before
it starts, give students a short description about
the content. Take the film Wild Hogs as an

example. This would be the description: The

film is about four friends who are tired of their
monotonous lives and decide to have a road
trip. Throughout the film they face interesting
adventures which cause them to refresh their
thoughts about life.
(2) Ask them some general questions orally
or in written form, multiple-choice or openended. This all depends on the level of the
class. You may move from the recognition
part to the most productive stage. In other
words, students memory is tested on the
grounds of their explicit memory, measured
by recognition and recall, combined with
their underlying implicit memory (Caimi,
2006). Evaluate their understanding by
giving them grades. Do not forget to tell
them that the grades they take are only for
measuring their comprehension. In this way,
the activity will become fun.
(3) Show them the film with English subtitles.
This time they do not need any description
since they have watched the film once.
(4) Ask them some general and specific
questions about the events which have
happened in the film. The questions may
include the name of the characters, the
places they went, the dates, etc.
(5) If you see that comprehension is still
difficult for the students, show them the
film with L1 (first language) subtitles. The
question-answer type of activity could again
be used at this stage.
This stage should not last for more than
two or three sessions because the students
may get used to watching the film with L1
subtitles which is not the objective of the
listening class.

Remember when selecting a film to use

criteria such as class time available, number
of students in the class, the level of language
used in the film, etc.

Practical implications

One possibility would be to add English

subtitles to educational television programs
that normally have English dialogs only. For
those who are poor readers or illiterate in
English, this simple addition could become
a valuable aid over time for enhancing and
enriching listeners general comprehension
in English.
In addition, radio can be used as a
dependable educational adjunct for those
who have not access to television. For
instance, audio input in the form of radio
programs of reading could be coordinated
with script versions of textbooks. For adults
not in school settings, stories and daily
events taken from newspapers could be read
by radio broadcasters at appropriate speeds
so as to provide a useful bimodal L2 input
for those with little formal education. In
other words, they would be taught how to
follow the newspaper text while listening to
the same materials read over the radio.
It would be beneficial in teaching to have the
students follow the subtitles of the materials
while the teacher reads the same materials
aloud to them. Because beginners do not have
native-like command of English, they might
be discouraged from reading aloud until their
listening skills have improved. Similarly,
taped material could be played in English
while students follow the same texts in L2.
Finally, there is another activity in which
learners hear a message in English and are
required to supply the English input on
their own. This is considered an excellent
example of a form of bimodal L2 input and
when reutilized could help learners to focus
on both the spoken and written forms of
English messages.

Conclusion

When learners hear incorrectly or cannot

make sense of sounds, they panic and the
result is a comprehension breakdown (Tatsuki,
1998). Moreover, when it comes to watching
movies, the communication becomes
more complicated, because the students
are sometimes faced with complex visual
behavior. Therefore, as a result of personal
experience with my classes, I believe that
films with English subtitles will help students
improve their listening comprehension more
than the other programs. However, watching a
ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

19

In sum, using a
film with English
subtitles and
soundtrack has
a significant
effect on
students listening
comprehension
which can
be applied in
the language
laboratories
of schools,
institutions,
colleges,
universities and
even at home.

film with L1 (in our case Persian) subtitles can

be appropriate for beginners due to their limited
range of vocabulary and so they can use their
native language for the better comprehension of
the film.
On the other hand, films with no subtitles seem
to be beneficial for advanced students because
their proficiency levels are higher and they have
fewer problems in understanding the films. But
immersing students in a foreign language film
without any preparation (e.g. using a subtitled
version in advance) may be of little help for
learners at any level. Of course those students
who practice listening a lot and spend a lot of
their time listening to and viewing films, can
often watch subtitle-free English language films
without difficulty, because they are accustomed
to the medium and their ears have become tuned
in to English as a spoken language.
In sum, using a film with English subtitles and
soundtrack has a significant effect on students`
listening comprehension which can be applied
in the language laboratories of schools,
institutions, colleges, universities and even at
home. Teachers can consider using various types
of movies such as documentaries (depending on
the learners special field of interest History,
Geography, and the like), news (brief, late
night, sport) feature films (drama, hilarious,
imaginary), comedy shows, etc. to motivate the
language learners sense of self-confidence.

References
Balatova, I. (1994). The impact of video on the
comprehension skills of core French students.
The Canadian Modern Language Review.
50(3), 507-532. Retrieved September 23,
2005 from http://www.sfu.ca/ccrel/strategies/
abstracts/abstr75.html
Caimi, A.(2006). Audiovisual Translation
and Language Learning: The Promotion
of Intralingual Subtitles. The Journal of
Specialised Translation. 6, 85-98.
Canning-Wilson, C. (2000). Practical aspects
of using video in the foreign language
classroom. The Internet TESL Journal. VI
(11), Nov. http://iteslj.org/Articles/CanningVideo.html. Accessed December 23, 2007.
Kikuchi, T. (1997). A review of research on
the education use English captioned materials
in Japan. pp. 1-7. Retrieved October 14, 2005,
from http://www.robon.org/gary/captioning/
kikuchi.html.
King. J. (2002). Using DVD feature films
in the EFL classroom. The weekly column.

20

No.88, 13-18. Retrieved May 15, 2005

from http://www.elt newsletter.com/ back /
February2002 /art882002.htm
Kothari, B., Pandey, A. & Chudgar, A. R.
(2004). Reading out of the Idiot Box:Samelanguage subtitling on television in India.
Information Technologies and International
Development. 2(1), 2344.
Lewis, M & Anping, H. (2002). Videoviewing tasks for language teacher education.
RELC. 33(1), 122-136.
Meskill, C. (1996). Listening skills through
multimedia.
Journal
of
Educational
Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(2), 179-201.
Richards, J.C. & Gordon, D.B. (2004). New
Interchange Intro: Video teachers guide.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Robin, R. (2007). Commentary: Learnerbased listening and technological authenticity.
Language Learning & Technology, February
2007, 11(1), 109-115.
Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language
listening comprehension research. The
Modern Language Journal. 78(2), 199-221.
Ryan, S. (1998). Using films to develop
learner motivation. The Internet TESL Journal,
IV(11), Nov. http://iteslj.org/Articles/RyanFilms.html. Accessed December 23, 2007.
Secules, T., Herron, C., & Tomessello, M.
(1992). The effect of video context on foreign
language learning. The Modern Language
Journal. 76, 480- 490.
Tatsuki, D. H. (1998). Comprehension Hot
Spots in Movies: Scenes and Dialogs That Are
Difficult for ESL/EFL Students to Understand.
The Internet TESL Journal, IV(11), Nov.
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Tatsuki-HotSpots.
html. Accessed December 23, 2007.
Weyer, J.R. (1999). The effect of authentic
video on communicative competence. The
Modern Language Journal. 83 (3), 339-349.
Vanderplank, R., (1990). Paying attention to
the words: Practical and theoretical problems in
watching television programmes with unilingual
(Ceefax) subtitles. System. 18, 221- 234.
Majid Hayati, an Associate Professor of
Linguistics at Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz,
Iran, holds a doctorate degree in Linguistics from
the University of Newcastle, Australia and has
published articles in numerous ESL teaching
publications.
www.eslmag.com

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

21

The Shyness Myth: Questioning

Student Stereotypes
Christian Burrows analyzes teacher-student interactions in the Asian EFL classroom and
examines the perceived problem of reticence among learners .

Introduction

Many native English language teachers argue

that shyness poses such a problem for Asian
students that it is in their best interest to
attempt to overcome this feeling, but without
offering clear advice on how to go about
this task. As a result they fall into the trap
of labeling something for no other purpose
than to reinforce a certain stereotype, serving
no positive function. Many teachers would
agree that it is possible to label Asian students
shy, reticent, and quiet, but unless you are
proposing ways to overcome this handicap
(Doyon, 2000) it appears to do little to further
the research. Doyon (ibid) touches upon the
real implications that need to be addressed
when he lists the traits that are manifestations
of shyness in the classroom. It is how this
feeling interferes with the language learning
process that is most relevant to teachers
since teaching in foreign cultures can lead to
problems of communication and even conflict
due to certain cultural misunderstandings.
One reason is because people from different
cultures react differently to various situations,
meaning the cultural basis of the teacherstudent relationship tends to make crosscultural learning situations fundamentally
problematic for both parties as:
teaching to a student or student body
with a cognitive profile different from what
the teacher is accustomed to is evidently
problematic
(Hofstede, 1986:305)
This can sometimes lead to any differences
being viewed unfavorably and negative
assessments being reached. The significance
of the cultural aspect in the learning of a
second language is illustrated in the five traits
Doyon (ibid) points out trouble native English
teachers:
They are that Asian students:

22

(a) rarely initiate discussion

(b) avoid raising new topics
(c) do not challenge the teacher
(d) seldom ask questions
(e) are reluctant to volunteer answers
Although these traits could be used to
reinforce the shyness myth, more tellingly
they represent certain traditions of learning
and teaching in Asia which differ from
Western countries, thus necessitating the
need for a sound, culturally sensitive
foundation (Jones, 1995:229) that recognizes
these differences and tries to incorporate the
different ways of learning. These traditions
include students expectations, risk-taking,
and student autonomy.

Students expectations

Students knowledge about their role in

the learning process will be shaped and
maintained by other beliefs they hold about
themselves as students (Wenden, 1991:54).
This knowledge about language learning has
been acquired throughout their schooling and
has contributed to their beliefs, insights and
concepts in regard to the language learning
process (Wenden, 1991:34). Several of the
traits (a e) are not due to inherent shyness
but the expectations of the students, who
after years of being evaluated through tests
are simply unused to an environment which
requires skills they have little practice in. For
many Asian students who enter university
these expectations of what appropriate
behavior is are applied to their new situation,
meaning they expect teacher-centered, rotelearning rather than independent, creative,
autonomous learning. As a result when Asian
students encounter a communicative class they
can often experience difficulty adapting to the
www.eslmag.com

change of learning styles, and understanding

exactly what is expected of them.
If these expectations remain unfulfilled they
may result in hotspots, (Oxford, 1990:80)
where students notice discrepancies between
what they expect and what is actually
happening in the classroom. This is one of the
numerous problems students encounter when
they learn a second language. There are other
students who experience certain psychological
blocks and other inhibiting affects, feelings
of alienation, anger and frustration (Brown,
1994:174). From my own experience these
are feelings which affect many Asian students
especially those participating in group classes
where there is the extra pressure from the
other group members. I have observed many
Asian students writing their answers during
speaking activities instead of using the time
more productively, as they assume their
answers will be checked and that having the
correct answer is the most important thing.
Other students quickly complete speaking
exercises, as opposed to using the tasks
as a means to communicate and develop
their linguistic proficiency. Reliance on
the teacher can also lead to confusion when
asked to perform independently, leading some
students to even question whether they should
complete the speaking exercise in English or
Japanese!
ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

These differences illustrate that students and

teachers do not share the same understanding
of what compromises proper classroom
behavior. Any resistance to a new approach
will be because of these beliefs (Wenden,
1991:55). Students knowledge and attitude
are the key to success, so incorporating their
cognitive and learning style preference in
the collaborative process appears to be an
important element. It is also important to
recognize that because of these different
cognitive approaches teachers need to adopt a
wide range of strategies which enable students
to improve their learning abilities (Bialystok,
1990:28). Some language learners may agree
with the notion that they should be more
responsible for their learning, while for others
an independent role is something they may
prefer to avoid. This reticence shows that
they do not study the same way and so must
be taught ways to engage, and to avoid student
frustration teachers need to supply outlines of
the rules expected (Jones, 1995:230). These
kinds of false assumptions and prejudices
which underlie their attitudes towards their
role in learning must be changed, a process
Holec (1981) terms de-conditioning.
Once a range of possible strategies has been
obtained, the teacher will be able to provide
an environment which should enable students
to identify those strategies that work best

I have observed
many Asian
students writing
their answers
during speaking
activities instead
of using the time
more productively
23

Students also
tend to restrict
their use of
vocabulary and
structures to
avoid making
mistakes thus
reducing the
risk of losing
face, a powerful
deterrent in
many Asian
countries
including Japan.

for them. The aim of which is to make

students realize the importance of skills that
include taking charge, organizing, practicing,
memorizing, guessing, and accepting
uncertainty (Rubin and Wenden,1987:99).
By not stressing strategies, teachers in essence
discourage students from developing and
exploring new skills, and in so doing, limit
their awareness of their cognitive capabilities
(Wenden, 1991:14). Offering the learners
the reward of mastering skills that will equip
them to proceed would appear to be a basic
requirement for teachers. If the students
can learn some of these skills they may help
overcome any cultural barriers that arise,
as good language learners develop and use
these strategies for coping with difficulties in
communicating (Brown, 1994).

Risk-taking

In a country like Japan that values conformity

and group feelings over individual expression,
trying to inspire some kind of rigorous
challenge or competitive interaction can
sometimes prove frustrating. Like many
Asian students Japanese students tend to value
consensus rather than confrontation resulting
in activities such as discussions that require
active involvement appearing somewhat
passive and orderly. Students also tend to
restrict their use of vocabulary and structures
24

to avoid making mistakes thus reducing the

risk of losing face, a powerful deterrent in
many Asian countries including Japan. This
inhibition can stand in the way of progressing
in speaking a foreign language. Feeling
uncomfortable in unstructured situations
can also prevent learners from seizing
opportunities to practice and learn (Rubin
and Thompson, 1982:7), another important
element of learner autonomy. Such risks are
inherently unavoidable as it is recognized
that language learning involves some risk to
the speaker who must therefore extend the
available resource (Bialystok, 1990:28).
In Asia, the teacher bestows knowledge while
the learners are passive, letting the teachers
wisdom pour into him (Brown 1994:17).
This type of formal environment means that
learners have a reluctance to engage, interact,
and fully question the teacher because of this
status. If the students continue to perceive
the teacher as a distant authority they are
unlikely to approach thereby limiting their
contact. It seems preferable for students to be
able to approach teachers if they need help to
overcome any linguistic difficulties. Therefore
in order to facilitate more interaction activities
that promote group work tend to reduce the
students apprehension while at the same
time building confidence. Also if teachers
actively participate in activities and games
www.eslmag.com

during class students can see that they are not

there just there to teach but also interact and
so will gain confidence and also understand that
to interact fully with the teacher is an expected
and beneficial exercise of learner-centered
learning. This type of interaction will help them
to be aware that they need to contribute and will
need to be coached in what to do and what the
teacher expects from them personally. It is also
necessary to make the students aware that the
risks cannot be completely avoided merely
reduced.

Student autonomy

Student autonomy and other learning styles

and strategies are mental steps that students use
to learn a new language (Wenden, 1991:18).
Unfortunately they are not possessed by
everyone and appear to be age-related skills
which students acquire as they get older. It
therefore seems unrealistic for younger learners
(including university students) to possess
such skills. Successful students, it has been
pointed out, are those who learn to adopt active
strategies for themselves, rather than relying on
the teacher (Tyacke and Mendelsohn in Wenden,
1991:12). This psychological proportion
(Allwright, 1981) is part of helping students
take responsibility for their learning. However
the cultural aspect of autonomous strategies
are concepts which Asian students have little
experience of as their teaching methods, as
mentioned, are mainly teacher dependent
(Jones, 2005:229) where teachers are viewed as
the respected bearers of knowledge (Stapleton
2002). Therefore this way of learning must be
explicitly taught to Asian university students,
otherwise due to different learning styles it will
be unknown by all. This process of attitude
change in adults is intended to teach learners
to recognize the right attitude (Petty and
Cacioppo, 1986 in Wenden).
This concept of student autonomy is a broad
field which incorporates numerous definitions,
including autonomy (Rubin and Thompson,
1982); independence (Nunan, 1988:3;
Cooker and Torpey, 2004); and responsibility
(Wenden, 1991:53). Research has led to some
general agreement on the key factors of what
characteristics a good learner should possess.
They include that the learner:
1. Is actively involved in the language
learning process
2. Attempts to decipher how the language
works
3. Adapts even in situations they dont like
4. Knows that
communicate

language

is

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

used

to

5. Adopts strategies to assist with their

language learning
(Naiman et al, 1978; Rubin, 1989; O`Malley,
1978; Rubin and Thompson, 1982; SavilleTroike, 1982).
In other words if students made more effort
to decipher what is involved in learning a
language, and attempted to overcome any
shortfalls, this would have a beneficial
influence on their learning. It would therefore
seem appropriate to promote the qualities,
which make a good student as:
one reason for the widespread acceptance
and growth of autonomous ... activities, it tends
to be regarded as promoting autonomy, which
we all know to be a highly valued goal.
(Technology, autonomy: A word of caution)
Due to the difference in cognitive profiles the
culturally insensitive approach would be to
expect learners from other cultures to be able
to adopt these foreign strategies immediately.
Why would Japanese students, who have
experienced years of passive learning,
suddenly realize that they have to take more
responsibility? This lack of awareness of
alternative learning techniques obviously
limits a learners ability in situations requiring
the use of these learning strategies (Dansereau
in Wenden, 1991:4) thus appearing shy.

Overcoming shyness

As stated earlier, Asian students could benefit

greatly in the long run if a substantial portion
of the lesson were given to teaching them
ways of leaning for themselves. This would
include strategies, activities and techniques
students need to use to improve their progress
in apprehending, internalizing and using
English (Oxford, 1990:235).
Students,
especially those from collectivist societies
(Hofstede, 1986) such as Japan need to
build self-confidence in their capability to
work independently of the teacher (Sinclair
and Ellis, 1985). Activities are also useful
for developing pragmatic awareness and
opportunities for communicative practice,
especially role-playing (Kasper, 1983:20)
which also helps promote the process of
cross-cultural dialogue. As second language
learning is a highly interactive process the
quality of this interaction is thought to have a
considerable influence on the learning process
(Ellis, cited in Richards and Lockheart,
1994:138) with research showing that the
conscious use of such strategies is related
to language achievement and proficiency
(Oxford, 1990; Rubin and Thompson 1982).
This can help turn the learning experience into

Asian students
could benefit
greatly in the
long run if a
substantial
portion of
the lesson
were given to
teaching them
ways of leaning
for themselves.
25

one of increased cultural and self-awareness

by encouraging greater cooperation and
teamwork.
In teaching an alien language teachers need to
be sensitive to the fragility of using techniques
that promote cultural understanding (Stevick,
1976: 173). Therefore we should not expect
learners to deny the frustration they feel. The
reason that these methods play a more significant
role in Asia is because the teachers role is more
of a factor in helping students progress through
their development stages of language learning
(Brown, 1994:174).
Becoming partners,
however, imposes its own responsibilities, ones
which have again not traditionally been accorded
to the recipients of teaching. Important among
these responsibilities is that of consciousness
about ones own learning process and strategies.
To force one technique onto students as a
means of becoming a better learner will only
lead to problems when it is surely realized that
one fit does not suit all (Jones, 1995). This
focus on the learner changes quite radically the
typical distribution of power and authority in
the classroom. How learners go about making
sense of language data therefore becomes of
central importance and it is these psychological
traits (attitude, personality) that appear to be
related to successful language learning (Rubin
and Thompson, 1982:6).

Conclusion

While it is acknowledged that there are many

significant factors which affect the relationship
in the classroom, if teachers are aware of them
there are strategies which can be adopted
which reduce their effect. These other factors
are much more difficult to quantify than by
directly asking the students. So the onus
of responsibility must be on the teacher to
recognize and to be aware of factors affecting
the success of the class. Once the teacher
is aware and understands the reasons (e.g.
shyness), then they will be able to adjust their
methodology to overcome perceived barriers.
Teachers should also be sensitive and perceptive
to the unique situation and not expect learners
to deny the anger and frustration they may feel.
These are real feelings and they need to be
openly expressed. To smother these feelings
may delay and actually prevent progress. So
it is important to recognize the influence of
shyness rather than dismiss it as a problem.
This mental handicap (Doyon, 2000) may
cause students to feel uncomfortable in
unstructured situations resulting in taking a
longer time to process what is expected; or
a reluctance to fully participate in the lesson
(e.g. answer questions, volunteer information
etc.); or a general restriction and limiting of
26

their answers due to uncertainty. Also worries

about accuracy may make students feel
reluctant to take a risk or venture an opinion.
These traits are often observed especially in
the Japanese language class that I join every
week. I would observe that many of the
foreigners appear shy when asked to answer to
the whole class in a language they do not have
full command of. I have not considered these
people handicapped merely unaccustomed to
the situation and lacking the linguistic ability
to express themselves freely.

References
Allwright, R.L. (1981). What do we want
teaching materials for? English Language
Teaching Journal, 36/1.
Bialystok, E.
(1990). Communication
Strategies A Psychological Analysis Of
Second Language Use. Cambridge, MA :
Basil Blackwell.
Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles Of Language
Learning And Teaching. (3rd ed.) New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Cooker, L. & Torpey, MM. (2004). From the
classroom to the self-access centre: A chronicle
of learner-centred curriculum development .
The Language Teacher, 28(6), 11-16.
Dansereau, D. (1978). The development of
a learning strategies curriculum. in ONeil,
Harold F., Jr. (ed.) Learning Strategies. pp.
1-29. New York: Academic Press. pp1-29.
Doyon, P. (2000). Shyness in the Japanese
EFL class: Why it is a problem, what it is,
what causes it, and what to do. The Language
Teacher (24/01).
Faerch, C. and Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies
in Interlanguage Communication. London:
Longman.
Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural Differences in
Teaching and Learning. International Journal
of Intercultural Relations. 10/301-320.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and Foreign
Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon. (First
published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe.)
Jones, J. (2001).Technology and autonomy:
A word of caution. Learning Learning, 8(1),
JALT Learner Development N-SIG (http://
coyote.miyazaki-mu.ac.jp/learnerdev/
LLE/8.1/jonesE.html).
Jones, J. (2005). Self-access and culture:
retreating from autonomy. ELT Journal 49(3):
228-234.
Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H.H. &
Todesco, A. (1978). The Good Language
Learner. Toronto: Modern Language Centre,

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Nunan, D. (1988). The Learner-centred
Curriculum.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University Press
OMalley, J.M. (1987). The effects of training
in the use of learning strategies on learning
English as a second language. In A. Wenden
& J. Rubin (Eds.). Learner Strategies in
Language Learning. Cambridge: PrenticeHall. 133-43.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning
Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know.
Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Petty, R. E. & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986).
Communication and Persuasion: Central and
Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Richards, J.C. & Lockhart, C. (1994).
Reflective Teaching in Second Language
Classrooms.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University Press.
Rubin, J. (1989). How learner strategies can
inform language teaching. In V. Bickley
(Ed.), Proceedings of LULTAC, sponsored
by the Institute of Language in Education,
Department of Education, Hong Kong.
Rubin, J., & Thompson, I. (1982). How To Be
a More Successful Language Learner. Boston:
Heinle.
Rubin, J. &Wenden, A. (1987) Learners
Strategies in Language Learning. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Saville-Troike, M. (1982). The Ethnography
of Communication. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sinclair, B. & Ellis, G. (1985). Learner
training: preparation for learner autonomy.
Paper presented at the 19th Annual TESOL
Convention, New York.
Stapleton, P. (2002).Critical thinking in
Japanese L2 writing: Rethinking tired
constructs. ELT Journal, 56(3), 250-257.
Stevick, E.W. (1976). Memory, Meaning and
Method. Rowley, M.A.: Newbury House.
Tyacke, M, & Mendelsohn, D. (1986). Student
needs: Cognitive as well as communicative.
TESOL Canada Journal, Special Issue 1,
171-183.
Wenden, A. (1991). Learner Strategies For
Learner Autonomy. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Christian Burrows has taught at various levels
within the Japanese education system and is
currently working at the International Pacific
University, Okayama, Japan.

www.eslmag.com

Integrating Information
Technology in Learning and
Teaching EFL in Saudi Arabia
Dr. Yousef H. Al-Maini discusses the problems and challenges, especially financial ones, that
confront users of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), with particular reference
to teaching and learning English as a foreign language in the Saudi context.

Introduction

Saudi Arabia has

in the last two
decades sought
to implement
technology in
education
28

The power of ICT to improve education is

vast as many writers and educators argue
(Eastment, 1999; Atkinson, 1998, Williams,
1999). Saudi Arabia is keen to adopt this
technology in its education system. However,
in order to take advantage of ICT, educators
and planners need to consider a few essential
issues. These include issues of access,
availability, and funding whether funding
is available, and whose responsibility it
is, as well as training to overcome teacher
resistance and develop relevant skills.

Background

Communication technologies have come

to play a very important role in shaping
education, not only in developed but also
in the developing countries (Al-Showaye,
2002). However, in spreading the use of
information and communications technology

(ICT) some major difficulties are felt by the

policy makers as well as the implementers
(Al-Showaye, 2002). Teachers familiarity
with information technology is often too
limited to give optimum outcomes and results.
Al-Agla (2002) notes resistance towards
ICT, no or only limited participation in inservice training courses or developmental
tasks, resistance to teamwork in the school,
and perceptions of teaching as one-way
communication i.e. teacher to student.
Saudi Arabia has in the last two decades
sought to implement technology in education,
as part of the countrys overall development
and human resources strategy. In 1986, the
Ministry of Education decided to introduce
computer studies as a trial subject in
secondary schools. At this stage, computer
studies were divorced from other subject
areas. The objectives of the syllabus were
to overcome fears of computers, to equip
www.eslmag.com

students with knowledge of technology, to

enable them to cope with changes in society,
to promote investigation and scientific ways
of thinking; and to equip students with
technology skills in order to help them in their
careers (Al-Salloom, 1995). Later, computer
studies were extended to higher education
and other educational institutions. More
recently, efforts and concerns have centered
on developing teaching methodologies and
on how computers may effectively assist in
supporting and achieving educational goals
(Sabbak, 1996).
In early 2000 Crown Prince Abdullah
announced the Watani project, an ambitious
national project to incorporate computers
and the Internet into school classrooms and
lessons (Saudi Press Agency, 2000). The
Watani project also aims at linking Saudi
Arabias schools with an integrated network,
enabling the Ministry of Education to contact
all its schools and education departments
around the Kingdom (Saudi Information
Resource Centre, 2000).
The project master plan (Watani, 2007)
highlights the impact of globalization and
the need, in the Information Age for young
Saudis to be equipped for a future that
depends heavily on computers, in order to
play their role in national development and
the international economy.
The project is planned in four phases: phase
1, design of network and trial project in a
few schools; phase 2, extension to half the
Kingdoms schools; phase 3, completion of
linkage; phase 4, follow-up, maintenance
and upgrading.
When complete, Watani is intended to provide
students and teachers with educational
references, e-books, Teachers Guides, series
for students with special needs, multimedia,
teacher training, school management systems
and a Q & A bank.
These initiatives, however, are still in their
early stages, and in many schools they
have as yet had little impact, as shown, for
example, in a survey by Al-Showaye (2002)
of teachers and students in public and private
sector intermediate and secondary schools in
the Al-Qasseem area of Saudi Arabia. He
found shortages of computers compared
with the large number of students in schools.
For example, one secondary school with 300
students had only 15 computers, and another
with 500 students had only 13 computers.
Consequently, opportunities to use computers
were very limited.
ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

The Present Study: Context,

Methods and Participants
What follows is based on an interpretive,
qualitative study carried out in Unaizah, one
of the main cities in Al-Qasseem, in the centre
of Saudi Arabia, to explore the teaching of
English as a foreign language. One of the
issues investigated was the availability and
use of educational technology resources, and
how this influences teaching and learning.
An intensive case study was carried out in
one state secondary school containing 415
students, age 15-18 years, distributed in
three years or grades and 13 classes. Class
sizes varied from 28 to 39 students. The
headteacher, all three English teachers and
more than 60 students were interviewed,
and 15 classroom observations carried out,
covering all three years of study. In addition
to the main case study, visits were made
to four other secondary schools in the city,
and interviews conducted with a further
nine English teachers. A number of parents,
educational supervisors and a training officer
were also interviewed.

Status and Use of ICT Facilities

The case study school had a computer

laboratory, but no language laboratory and
no computers in classrooms. The computer
laboratory was provided specifically for the
teaching of Computer Studies, and English
classes were not allowed to use it. Thus, the
only computer access was in the Learning
Centre (LC) containing seven circular tables
and a computer connected to a data projector.
With 13 classes in the school, and 33 lesson
periods in the school week, in theory, each
class might be able to use the LC twice
a week. However, such access would be
spread across the full range of academic
subjects. In practice, priority seemed to be
given to Physics and Chemistry, although
this was perhaps not so much an institutional
policy as a de facto situation arising from
the exceptional interest in technology of
the teachers concerned, and their vigor in
asserting their need to use this facility. In
practice, therefore, it would be difficult for
English teachers to use the LC regularly, for
example for one of the four English periods
week timetabled for each class.

In early 2000
Crown Prince
Abdullah
announced the
Watani project,
an ambitious
national project
to incorporate
computers and
the Internet
into school
classrooms and
lessons

Even if a teacher succeeded in booking the

LC, in practice, since there was only one,
teacher-controlled computer, the computer
was used only as an aid to enhance the
existing teacher-centered, drill-focused
teaching, rather than enable a more
constructivist, communicative approach to
language learning.
29

holiday courses in such institutes, in order

to supplement the teaching in their schools
and increase their chances of achieving good
examination grades.
In the government schools, however, despite
recent initiatives, the potential of ICT has yet
to be realized in Saudi Arabia, for a variety
of reasons, including teacher resistance and
inadequate teacher preparation.

Teacher Resistance

During my time in the school, I observed

only one teacher use the LC; he followed
basically a standard lesson from the centrallyprescribed textbook, involving a reading
passage and comprehension questions,
but enhanced it by displaying the assigned
text using the data projector. After giving
the students some time to formulate their
answers to the comprehension questions, he
played them the correct answers, recorded
by native English speakers, using software
he had himself supplied for this purpose.

Language
labs are not
everything. I think
language labs
may solve part
of the students
problems in
English, but not all
of them
30

The benefits of using modern technology in

teaching English were clearly recognized
by Bandar, one of the English teachers
whom I interviewed outside the case study
school. Bandar had initiated what he called
an English Room in his school, for his
own use. That room contained a computer
and over-head projector, which Bandar had
paid for himself. During my investigations
and observations in the educational area
as a whole, I found only one government
intermediate school which had a language
laboratory, and this had been financed by the
teachers themselves. In the case of private
schools, language laboratories were provided
by the owners.
Although there was no language laboratory
available in the case study school, several
students had experience of such facilities
in Ibn Saleh Institute, a private college
specializing in EFL, the only one of its kind
in Unaizah. The institute has two state-ofthe-art language laboratories, with network
link. Students can speak with the lecturer,
with members of a group, or with other
individual students. Each student is given
a card which entitles him or her to use the
library and language laboratories at any time,
which means they can choose a convenient
time to attend, for example, before or after
normal school hours. It is common in Saudi
Arabia for students to attend after-school or

One factor in the failure to integrate computer

technology into subject teaching can be the
unwillingness of teachers to depart from the
tried and tested methods with which they
are familiar. Yousef, an English teacher in the
case study school, for example, expressed a
marked reluctance to take students into the
LC. Yousef reported that he did not think
that this kind of activity would lead to any
improvement in students performance. He
went on to express similar doubts regarding
language laboratories:
Language labs are not everything. I think
language labs may solve part of the students
problems in English, but not all of them.
(Al-Maini, 2006, p.262)
Further comments by the same teacher
suggested that his view may have been
colored by his feeling of being under
pressure. For example, he said that he had no
time to use language laboratories, because
he had to teach 20 classes per week and
this did not leave enough time for language
laboratories; if there was an increase in the
time allocated for English, perhaps he would
have time to use English laboratories. In
other words, he seemed to view use of the
language laboratory as an extra chore that
would have to be fitted in, in addition to his
normal classroom teaching. It did not appear
to occur to him that work in the language
laboratory might facilitate or even replace
some of his classroom activity. He had never
used the Learning Centre, so he did not know
what it could offer and how the use of such a
facility might affect teaching and learning.
Another reason for teacher resistance
appeared to be a concern that any departure
from the current methods, particularly in
the direction of more student participation,
would result in a breakdown of discipline and
a failure to take learning seriously. This was
related to a general perception, even among
those who favored the use of technology, that
the purpose was primarily entertainment to
make the subject more fun rather than to
achieve desired learning outcomes. In this
www.eslmag.com

respect, they seemed to misperceive, not

only the potential role of computers, but also
the attitudes of students, who in discussions
with me expressed a strong need for access to
computer facilities in order to develop their
linguistic ability. For example, they thought
that English classes should be given access to
the schools ICT laboratory, in order to search
information from English language websites.
Access to the laboratory would also enable
students to use the Internet as a medium for
creative work.
Over and above time constraints and
concerns about discipline and learning
outcomes, however, a major reason for
teacher resistance to using ICT in subject
teaching is that they simply do not know
how to use it. This raises the issue of
training, to which I now turn.

Training

In order to integrate computer technology into

their teaching, teachers must have a degree
of competence and confidence in using the
technology, as well as some understanding of
how ICT relates to learning theories, and of
its potential in specific subject areas. Teacher
preparation in Saudi Arabia, however, does
not routinely cover such issues.

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

In Saudi Arabia, in order to overcome the

shortage of indigenous teachers during a time
of rapid quantitative expansion, graduates
in any subject are allowed and encouraged
to teach, without specific pedagogical
preparation. Graduates in Arts and Social
Sciences, in particular, may have had little
or no exposure to computers, as computer
skills are not a requirement of graduation;
any computer access or training available
tends to be confined to students of science
and mathematics. Those teachers who have
an Education degree will perhaps have
attended a lecture on the use of computer
technology in teaching, but will have had
no opportunity to practice integrating
computers in their subject teaching, even
during the final-term teaching practice
placement.
In this situation, in-service training could
clearly have an important role to play.
Concerning the in-service training courses
available, the headteacher reported that
there are different kinds of courses. One
type is the special training courses, provided
free of charge, at the Training Centre in
each educational area. The Centre for the
research area was located in the city of
Unaizah. The Centre sends an official letter

to the specific school, inviting teachers

to attend. These courses are held during
the working day and may last one or two
days, depending on the topics and lectures
prepared for them. Second, there are general
training courses held in the evenings, which
are open to all teachers and headteachers.
They last for four days and cover general
teaching methods and, sometimes, school
management. I did not, however, have an
opportunity to observe any such courses.
Sami, a training officer, told me that there
are a few courses about using ICT in the
classroom, for teachers at both intermediate
and secondary stages. Sami coordinates
the ICT courses and lectures teachers who
attend training sessions in connection with
teaching a variety of subjects. These courses
accommodate 12 people, in three groups of
four, and include both theory and practical
experience. However, as Sami pointed
out, they provide only a basic introduction
to computer operation. Thereafter, it is
left to teachers to develop their skills
independently. In fact, I did not come across
any teacher who had received even this
limited training. Indeed, Maher told me he
had never, in all his teaching career, been
given an opportunity of in-service training

31

for countries like Saudi Arabia, seeking

to promote educational improvement
through ICT. Teachers need opportunities to
familiarize themselves with the technology,
guidance on its application in their subject
areas, and evidence that ICT is both feasible
and effective in their particular teaching
context. Most important of all, however, is
an environment in which teachers are not
simply passive implements of educational
directives, but are encouraged to be
dynamic professionals, engaged in careerlong learning, and actively sharing in the
development of policy and practice.

References
on any subject. He was one of many teachers
who asserted a wish for training in aspects
of teaching methodology, to increase their
professionalism and improve learning
outcomes for students.

Conclusion

Teachers need
opportunities
to familiarize
themselves with
the technology,
guidance on its
application in their
subject areas, and
evidence that ICT
is both feasible
and effective
32

This article has highlighted important issues

associated with the use of ICT in schools in
Saudi Arabia. Despite the intentions of the
recent Watani project, in practice, ICT
equipment was often unavailable and even
where available was underused. It seems
that the explanation for lack of computer use
must be sought in a complex interaction of
factors, including bureaucratic confusion,
lack of teacher awareness, perceptions of
student roles, and the nature of the centrallyprescribed curriculum. Another factor may
be the lack of clear research evidence for the
effectiveness of ICT (Buckingham, 2007).
Nevertheless, in the Saudi context, there is
anecdotal evidence from supervisors, students
and teachers who have experienced EFL
teaching with ICT that student participation
is increased, and motivation and learning
enhanced. Many Saudi teachers, however,
are unaware of these success stories, due
to the absence of a professional culture and
lack of opportunity for sharing ideas and
experience (Al-Maini, 2006).
The growth and application of new ICT
in the field of education is fraught with
immense difficulties. Projects such as
Watani will only succeed if accompanied
by opportunities for teacher training and
development. Supervisors could play a vital
role through disseminating information,
liaising with trainers to develop courses that
meet teachers needs, enlisting headteachers
support for new educational initiatives and
arranging opportunities for teachers to
observe examples of good practice. Teacher
competence and commitment is crucial

Al-Maini, Y.H. (2006). The learning and

teaching of English as a foreign language
with particular reference to developing
reading skills: a case of a Saudi secondary
school, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to University
of East Anglia, UK.
Al-Salloom, H. (1995).
Science and
technology in Saudi Arabia, New Jersey:
Amona Publications.
Al-Showaye, M. (2002). Use of computerbased information technology and the
internet in Saudi Arabian intermediate and
secondary schools, Ph.D. Thesis submitted
to the University of Manchester, UK.
Atkinson, T. (1998). WWW, the Internet.
London: CILT.
Buckingham, David (2007).
Beyond
Technology: Childrens Learning in the age
of Digital Culture, Blackwell Publishing.
Sabbak, H. (1996). The potential of using
computers for language learning in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, unpublished
Master dissertation, University of Leeds.
Saudi Information Resource Centre (2000):
http://www.saudiinf.com/main/start/htm
Saudi Press Agency (2000): http://www.spa.
gov.sa/
Williams, B. (1999). The Internet for
teachers. Chicago: IDG Books.
Watani (2007), http://www.watani.org.sa
Dr. Yousef H. Al-Maini, Assistant Professor
at College of Languages and Translation, Imam
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

www.eslmag.com

ESL MAGAZINE March/April 2009

33

Language of the Tossing Mane

Lynn Olcott discovers how equines can teach educators about communication.
Horses have shared the planet
with us for more than 50 million
years, yet we hardly know them,
according to this new book by Joe
Camp. In The Soul of a Horse, the
author describes how he and his
wife opened their lands, their hearts
and their minds to these amazing
creatures, and learned more than
they ever would have predicted.

Roberts taught the Camps a horse

care technique called Join up
where the horse is given the
opportunity to choose the human in
his life as his leader. Horses operate
out of their reactive brains or their
thinking brains. And yes, horses
can look at life and puzzle out a
cause and effect sort of reasoning
rather well. They are stressed and
uncomfortable away from the herd,
and in the wild, they choose a leader
to trust and follow. Horses still live
wild in parts of Australia, New
Zealand, Mongolia, France, Africa,
the Greek islands, the Bahamas,
Nova Scotia, the Canadian West, the
American West, Virginia and North
Carolina.

Heres the plot. A man is at a turning

point in his life and his work. He
and his wife have property that
includes stalls for horses, but they
have no horses. They buy a horse,
and another and another. Not being
people experienced in the care of
horses, they set out to learn the
basics. They discover that there is
a large and sometimes dangerous
discrepancy between conventional
human perception of proper horse
care and how horses really want and
need to live if they are to be healthy
and strong.
The first Camp horse is Cash, a
surprise birthday present to Joe
from his wife Kathleen. Cash is
a big horse with ideas of his own,
and a mystery past. Cash is the first
horse to choose Joe as his leader.
Then comes Mariah, a dancing Arabian
mare, small and smart with expressive ears.
Next comes Scribbles, a striking looking
paint with deep brown eyes, and Pocket,
another paint and Handsome with his quiet
heart and Skeeter, a horse with a sense of
humor.
Camp believes that we humans erroneously
think of domestic horses as if they are big
dogs. This is incorrect because dogs are
essentially cave dwelling predators like
us. Horses are neither cave dwellers nor
predators. Horses have been carrying
people and their possessions around for
only about three or four thousand years.
Before that, millions of years of wild prairie
genetics gave them wide-angle vision, herd
affinity and a need to run and run and run.
Much of the health and strength of horses
34

depends on them keeping their blood

circulating vigorously through their bodies.
Standing around in stalls makes them
sluggish and lonely. Our metal shoes make
them lame. Blankets and heat interfere with
their thermostats. High alfalfa diets make
calcium stones in their organs.
The book contains a forward written by
Monty Roberts, the man whose work, skills
and best selling book inspired the film The
Horse Whisperer. Roberts calls Joe Camp
a man who knows how animals tick and is
a genius at telling their stories. Camp is no
stranger to figuring out how animals think.
Hes been doing it for decades. He was the
owner and trainer of a series of dogs named
Benji, the sweet-faced little canines whose
intuitive acting skills delighted viewers of
all ages.

Gradually, the Camps learned what

is called in horse circles the wild
horse model. Their horses are
barefoot and do not live in stalls.
The Camps pay careful attention to
the dynamics of the herd and the
responsibilities of leadership. They
spend time with their horses and
learn their individual languages.
They focus on developing a trusting
relationship with their horses, not
on dominating their horses will.
It works. In incident after incident
related in the book, horse and human
communicate and everyone wins.
Chapters about the Camps own horses are
interspersed with chapters from the life of
a wild horse herd. The book contains many
fine photographs, most of them taken by
Kathleen Camp. A clear, engaging writing
style keeps the reader interested in what will
happen next. Joe Camp is an honest writer,
sharing his mistakes and misgivings as well
as the moments of triumph and success.

The Soul of a Horse Life Lessons From

the Herd
Joe Camp
Harmony Books 2008
$25.95 hardcopy
www.TheSoulofaHorse.com
www.eslmag.com