CHAPTER 1:

BASIC PHYSICAL CONCEPTS

ATOMS

COMPOUNDS
All matter is made up of countless tiny particles whizzing
around.
Each element has its own unique type of particle,
known as its atom.
Atoms of different elements are always different.
The slightest change in an atom can make a
tremendous difference in its behavior.

NUCLEUS

MOLECULES

The part of an atom that gives an element its identity

Made up of two kinds of particles, the proton and the
neutron.

PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

Different elements join together to share electrons

Compounds often, but not always, appear greatly
different from any of the elements that make them up.

The resulting particles when atoms of elements join

together to form a compound.
The natural form of an element is also known as its
molecule.

CONDUCTORS

A substance in which the electrons are mobile.

Pure Elemental Silver is the best conductor at room temperature.

About the same mass, but the proton has an electric

charge while the neutron does not.
The negative charges therefore exactly cancel out the
positive ones, and the atom is electrically neutral.

ATOMIC NUMBER

Gives the element its identity.

As the number of protons increases, the number of
neutrons also increases.
Elements with high atomic numbers are much denser
than elements with low atomic numbers.

ISOTOPES

The number of neutrons can vary but the element

keeps its identity, based on the atomic number.
Differing numbers of neutrons result in various isotopes
for a given element.

Copper and aluminum are also excellent electrical conductors.

Iron, steel, and various other metals are fair to good conductors
of electricity.
In most electrical circuits and systems, copper or aluminum wire
is used. Silver is impractical because of its high cost.
Liquid:
Mercury is a good electrical conductor.
Salt water is a fair conductor.
Gases are poor conductors of electricity because the atoms or
molecules are usually too far apart to allow a free exchange of
electrons.
INSULATORS

ATOMIC WEIGHT

Approximately equal to the sum of the number of

protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

ELECTRONS

An electron has exactly the same charge quantity as a

proton, but with opposite polarity.

One of the earliest ideas about the atom is like raisins in a cake.
Later, the electrons were seen as orbiting the nucleus, making
the atom like a miniature solar system with the electrons as the
planets.

Pure water is a good electrical insulator, although it conducts

some current with even the slightest impurity.
IONIZATION

Spheres where the electron are orbiting.

The farther away from the nucleus the shell, the more
energy the electron has.

In any case, it is far easier to move electrons than it is to move

protons. Electrons are much lighter than protons or neutrons.
IONS

If an atom has more or less electrons than neutrons,

that atom acquires an electrical charge.
A shortage of electrons results in positive charge
An excess of electrons gives a negative charge.
The elements identity remains the same, no matter
how great the excess or shortage of electrons.

Ionization takes place when electrical insulators are

forced to carry current.

DIELECTRIC

SHELLS

An insulator prevents electrical currents from flowing.

Most gases are good electrical insulators.

An insulating material is sometimes called a dielectric.

It keeps electrical charges apart, preventing the flow of
electrons that would equalize a charge difference
between two places.

Porcelain or glass can be used in electrical systems to keep short

circuits from occurring.
RESISTORS

Allow for the control of current flow.

Electrical resistance is measured in units called ohms.
The greater the resistance, the more difficult it
becomes for current to flow.

In an electrical system, it is usually desirable to have as low a

resistance, or ohmic value, as possible. This is because resistance
converts electrical energy into heat.
SEMICONDUCTORS

In a semiconductor, electrons flow, but not as well as

they do in a conductor.
Semiconductors are not exactly the same as resistors,
the material is treated so that it has very special
properties.

An EMF of 1 volt, across a resistance of 1 ohm, will cause a

current of 1 ampere to flow. This is a classic relationship in
electricity, and is stated generally as Ohms Law.
Voltage, or EMF, is sometimes called potential or potential
difference.

HOLE
VISIBLE LIGHT

A shortage of an electron.
Holes move in the opposite direction from electrons in a
semiconducting material.
When most of the charge carriers are electrons, the
semiconductor is called N-type, because electrons are
negatively charged.
When most of the charge carriers are holes, the
semiconducting material is known as P-type because
holes have a positive electric charge.
The more abundant type of charge carrier is called the
majority carrier.
The less abundant kind is known as the minority carrier.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Whenever there is movement of charge carriers in a

substance, there is an electric current.
Current is measured in terms of the number of electrons
or holes passing a single point in one second.
A coulomb is equal to approximately
6,240,000,000,000,000,000 electrons or holes.

*six quintillion (6 followed by 18 zeroes

* quadrillions (numbers followed by 15 zeroes)

Visible light is converted into electric current or

voltage.

HEAT

CURRENT

Converts electricity into radiant energy that you can

see.

A form of radiant energy called infrared. It is similar to

visible light, except that the waves are longer and you
cant see them.

Electricity can also be converted into other radiant-energy

forms, such as radio waves, ultraviolet, and X rays.
Generator

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, electric

current flows in the conductor.
Converts mechanical energy into electricity.

Motor

AMPERE

The standard unit of electric current.

Current of one coulomb per second is called an
ampere.

STATIC ELECTRICITY

MAGNETISM

An excess or shortage of electrons is created on and in

your body. You acquire a charge of static electricity.
Its called static because it doesnt go anywhere.
You dont feel this until you touch some metallic object
that is connected to earth ground or to some large
fixture; but then there is a discharge, accompanied by
a spark.

It is often abbreviated EMF. This force is measured in units called

volts.
Ordinary household electricity has an effective voltage of
between 110 and 130; usually it is about 117. A car battery has
an EMF of 12 volts (six volts in some older systems).

A changing magnetic field creates a fluctuating

electric field, and a fluctuating electric field produces
a changing magnetic field.

CHEMICAL ENERGY

Converted into electricity in all dry cells, wet cells, and

batteries.

Your car battery is an excellent example. The acid

reacts with the metal electrodes to generate an
electromotive force.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
When the charge builds up, with positive polarity (shortage of
electrons) in one place and negative polarity (excess of
electrons) in another place, a powerful electromotive force
exists.

The science of magnetism is closely related to

electricity.
Magnetic phenomena are of great significance in
electronics.
The oldest and most universal source of magnetism is
the flux field surrounding the earth, caused by
alignment of iron atoms in the core of the planet.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Van de Graaff generator is a machine that an create a charge

buildup large enough to produce a spark several centimeters
long.

Changes electricity into useful mechanical energy.

CHARGING

Then it runs out of juice, and the supply of chemical

energy must be restored by charging.
Some cells and batteries, such as lead-acid car
batteries, can be recharged by driving current through
them, and others, such as most flashlight and transistorradio batteries, cannot.

CHAPTER 2:

ELECTRICAL UNITS

VOLT

Standard unit of electromotive force (EMF) or potential

difference.
Potential difference between two points produces an
electric field, represented by electric lines of flux. (pole that
is relatively positive with fewer electrons and negative pole
with more electrons)(p.18 fig2-1)
Abbreviation for volt is V.
Dry cell voltage = 1.2 1.7 volts
Car battery = 12 14 volts
Electric lights = 117 volts
Washing machine, dryer, oven, stove = 234 volts
Largest voltages on our planet occur between clouds and
the ground, in thunderstorms.
Existence of voltage always means that charge carriers,
which are electrons(e-) in a conventional circuit, flow
between two points if a conductive path is provided.
Voltage represents the driving force that impels charge
carriers to move.

It is the flow of electrons (e-). The flow of e- to equalize the

charge between poles.
It is the current , not the voltage that kills. There can only be
a deadly current if there is enough voltage to drive it
through your body.
Standard unit for current is Ampere.
The amount of current that flows in an electrical circuit
depends on the voltage and also on the resistance (V=IR)

The measure of opposition that a circuit offers to the flow of

electric current.
Ohms Law (V=IR) = current flow for a constant voltage is
said to be inversely proportional to the resistance.

CONDUCTANCE & SIEMENS

It is the reciprocal of resistance

Unit is S for Siemens
G = 1/R
R = 1/G
1k ohm = 1m S
1M ohm = 1uS

POWER AND THE WATTS

Whenever current flows through a resistance, heat results.

Heat can be measured in watts(W) and represents
electrical power.
P = EI
P = VI
I = P/V
V = P/I

MAGNETIC UNITS

Energy is power dissipated over a length of time

Power is the rate at which energy is expended.

Mostly used is joules

Page 27 Figure 2-3

Flux density of a magnetic field is given in terms of webers

or maxwells per square meter or per square centimeter.
1 Wb/m2 is called Tesla (1T)
1 Mx/cm2 is called gauss (1G, 0.0001 T)

As the electric current through a wire increases, so does

the flux density near the wire.
A coiled wire produces a greater flux density for a given
current than a single, straight wire.
The more turns in the coil, the stronger the magnetic field
will be.
A magnetic field strength maybe specified in terms of
ampere-turns (At). Unit of a magnetomotive force.
One loop carrying 1A of current, produces a field of 1 At.
Doubling the number of turns, or the current, doubles the
number of ampere-turns.

In terms of joules:
British thermal unit (Btu) =
Electron volts (eV) =
Ergs =
Foot-pounds(ft-lb) = 1.356
Watt-hours =
Kilowatt- hours=

Overall magnitude of a magnetic field is measured in units

called Webers(Wb)
1 weber = 1 volt-second( 1 Vs)
For weaker magnetic fields, a smaller unit called
maxweel(Mx) is used.

ENERGY UNITS

Electric current and magnetic fields are closely related.

When an electric current flows which is when charge
carriers move a magnetic field accompanies the
current.(p.30 fig 2-11)
Magnetic fields are produced when the atoms of certain
materials align themselves. Iron is the most common metal
that has this property.
The intensity of a magnetic field can be greatly increased
by placing a special core inside of a coil. Should be of iron
or some other material that can be readily magnetized,
such substance are ferromagnetic.
A core of this kind cannot actually increase the total
quantity of magnetism in and around a coil, but it will
cause the lines of flux to be much closer together inside the
material.
Magnetic flux of lines are said to emerge from the
magnetic pole, and to run inward toward the magnetic
south pole.

1 maxwell = 0.00000001 (1 hundredmillionth) of a weber or 0.01

microvolt-second( 0.01uVs)

ENERGY AND WATT-HOUR

Rectification is a process in which ac is changed to dc

Common method of doing this uses a device called the
diode.
The point is that part of the ac wave is either cut off, or
turned around upside down, so the output is pulsating dc.
There are two different forms of waveforms of pulsating dc.
(refer to p.29 fig 2-10).
1.
Half wave rectification
2.
Full wave rectification
Peak voltage is the maximum instantaneous voltage.
Instantaneous voltage is never any greater than the peak
voltage for any wave.

MAGNETISM

RESISTANCE

Effective voltage for an ac wave is never the same as the

instantaneous maximum, or peak voltage. (p.28 fig.2-8)
Effective value is 0.70707 times the peak value. Or 1.414
times the effective value
The instantaneous voltage is the voltage at any particular
instant in time.
Whole cycle repeats itself every 1/60 second, the
frequency of the utility ac wave is said to be 60 hertz
Hertz literally translate to cycles per second

RECTIFICATION AND PULSATING DIRECT CURRENT

CURRENT FLOW

ALTERNATING CURRENT AND HERTZ

1055
1.6X10-19
0.0000001 / 10-7
3600
3,600,000 / 3.6x10-6

Less common unit of magnetomotive force is gilbert(Gb).

This unit is equivalent of 0.796 At. 1 At=1.26 Gb
CHAPTER 3:
MEASURING DEVICES

* Galvanometer
* Electroscope
* Ammeter (milli, micro)
* Electrostatic meter
* Voltmeter
* Ohmmeter
* Multimeter
* FET voltmeter
* Wattmeter
* Watt-hour meter
* Frequency Counter
* VU meter
* light meter
* Oscilloscope

A galvanometer is a type of ammeter: an instrument for

detecting and measuring electric current.

Galvanism -it is the induction of electrical current

Eletroscope - The most common device for demonstrating

electrostatic force

Ammeter - is a measuring instrument used to measure the

electric current in a circuit. ( It is placed in series with one of
the device on the circuit)

Electrostatic meter - Can detect ac as well as dc voltages

voltmeter - is an instrument used for measuring the

electrical potential difference between two points in an
electric circuit (Place in parallel)

* Voltmeter should have a high internal resistance *

FET voltmeter - It draws less current from the circuit

Multimeter - also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an

electronic measuring instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter
may include features such as the ability to measure
voltage, current and resistance.

Wattmeter - The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring

the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical energy)
in watts of any given circuit.

Watt-hour meter - is a device that measures the amount of

electrical energy consumed by a residence, business, or
an electrically-powered device.

Frequency Counter - is an electronic instrument, or

component of one, that is used for measuring frequency.

VU meter - is often included in audio equipment to display

a signal level in Volume Units; the device is sometimes also
called volume indicator (VI).

light meter - is a device used to measure the amount of

light. also known as illumination meter.

Oscilloscope - is a type of electronic test instrument that

allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a twodimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences (vertical(Y) axis) plotted as a function of time
or of some other voltage (horizontal(x) axis).

Hot wire ammeter - A device capable of measuring ac.dc

currents

D'arsonval movement - An action caused by

electromagnetic deflection, using a coil of wire and a
magnetized field. When current passes through the coil, a
needle is deflected.

In a simple ammeter, an electromagnet can be use

instead of permanent magnet

A resitor is connected across the ammeter if it is necessary

to measure very large amount of current. also known as
shunt resistance or meter shunt.

"Dont leave voltmeter constantly connected to the circuit",

it will affect the behavior of the circuit due to the resistance
of the voltmeter.

CHAPTER 4:

BASIC DC CIRCUITS

Wiring Diagram is more detailed than Schematic

Voltage/Current/Resistance Circuit Calculations

Chapter 5:

Direct-Current Circuit Analysis

Ohms Law: V = IR
Power, P = VI

Ohms Law triangle.

Current through Series Resistances

*The current in a series circuit is the same at every point
along the way.

NOTE: Wag kalimutang i-take into consideration ang mga PREFIX!

Voltages across Series Resistances

*The voltages across elements in a series circuit always add
up to the supply voltage.

Power Calculations

Resistances in series :

Add directly!

Resistance in Parallel: Get the Reciprocal

Add
Get the Reciprocal Again

For Parallel Resistors having the same values, just divide one value by
the number of resistors.
Example: May 4 resistors connected in parallel each having a value
5 k. Total resistance = 5 k 4 = 1.250 k
Division of Power

Total Power Load = Evenly distributed among the

resistances of the circuit if they have the same ohmic
values.

Construction of Series Parallel Matrix (Resistances)

-To increase the power handling capacity
Conditions to consider:
--Identical resistors should be used!
--(n) x (n) x (power rating) = total power capacity
--Consider the resistances youre going to need i.e. #18
-- Most likely n x n is better than n x m due to resistance issues i.e.
#17

Voltage across Parallel Resistances

*In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is
always the same and it is always equal to the supply or
battery voltage.
Currents through Parallel Resistances
*The currents through elements in a parallel circuit always
add up to the total current drawn from the supply.
Conventional/Theoretical Current Flow
*Current flows from the positive to the negative voltage
point.
Power Distribution in Series Circuits
P = I2R
Power Distribution in Parallel Circuits
P = V2/R
*The total power consumed in a series or parallel circuit is always
equal to the sum of the wattages dissipated in each of the elements.
Kirchhoffs First Law (Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL)
*Conservation of Current: At any node (junction) in an
electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node
is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.
Kirchhoffs Second Law (Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, KVL)
*Conservation of Voltage: The sum of the EMFs in any
closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops
in that loop.
Voltage Divider Networks
*The voltage divider fixes the intermediate voltages best
when the resistance values are as small as the currentdelivering capability of the power supply will allow.

CHAPTER 6:

RESISTORS

5.

PURPOSE OF THE RESISTOR:

1.

Voltage Division

2.

Bleeding Off Charge

Bleeder resistors, connected across the filter
capacitors, drain their stored charge so that servicing
the supply is not dangerous.

The resistors dissipate some power but the resulting

voltages can provide the proper biasing of electronic
circuits.
For example, an amplifier or oscillator will function in
the most efficient and reliable way possible.

Bias

Bias, in the case of bipolar transistor, a field-effect

transistor or a vacuum tube, that the control
electrode - the bias, gate or grid is provided with a
certain voltage, or carry a certain current, relative to
the emitter, source or cathode.

6.

Impedance Matching

In order to produce the greatest possible

amplification, the impedances must agree between
the output of a given amplifier and the input of the
next.

FIXED RESISTORS

1.
3.

Current Limiting

Carbon-Composition Resistors

Resistors interfere with the flow of electrons in a circuit.

This is essential to prevent damage to a component or
circuit.
A good example is in a receiving amplifier. A resistor
can keep the transistor from using up a lot of power
just getting hot.

2.
4.

Power Dissipation

In radio, a resistor can be used to take the place of an

antenna. A transmitter can then be tested in such a
way that it doesnt interfere with signals on the
airwaves. The transmitter output heats the resistor,
without radiating any signal.
The circuit driving the amplifier has too much power
for the amplifier input. A resistor, or network of resistors,
can dissipate this excess so that the power amplifier
doesnt get too much drive.

Units whose resistance does not change, or cannot be

adjusted.

Carbon-composition resistors can be made to have

quite low resistances, all the way up to extremely high
resistances.
Nonreactive - introduces almost pure resistance into
the circuit, and not much capacitance or
inductance.
Useful in radio receivers and transmitters.

Most of the carboncomposition resistors can handle 14 W or 1/2 W.

Wirewound Resistors

The resistance is determined by how well the wire

metal conducts, by its diameter or gauge, and by its
stretched-out length.
Precision Components.
Can handle large amount of power.
Disadvantage: Act like inductors.
Low moderate Values of resistance.

3.

Film-Type Resistors

Metal-film resistors can be

made to have nearly exact
values.

Low to medium resistance.

Advantage: Do not much

have inductance or
capacitance.

Disadvantage: Cant handle as much power as

carbon-composition or wirewound types.

4.

Integrated-Circuit (IC) Resistors

Resistors can be fabricated on a semiconductor

wafer known as an IC also called a chip.

Can handle only a tiny amount of power

because of their small size.

THE POTENTIOMETER

1.

Linear-Taper Potentiometer

One type of potentiometer uses a strip of resistive material

whose density is constant all the way around.
The resistance between the center and one end terminal
will increase right along with the number of angular
degrees that the shaft is turned.
Linear taper potentiometers are commonly used in
electronic test instruments and in various consumer
electronic devices.

2.

Audio-Taper Potentiometer

The resistance between the center and the end terminal

increases as a nonlinear function of the angular shaft
position.
Also called logarithmic-taper potentiometer or log-taper
potentiometer.

3.

The Rheostat

A variable resistor made from a wire wound element.

Either have a rotary control or a sliding control.
Rheostat can be placed between the utility outlet and the
transformer. This results in a variable voltage at the powersupply output.

THE DECIBEL

dB= 10 log (Q/P)

Q = P antilog (dB/10)

RESISTORS SPECIFICATIONS

Ohmic Value
Tolerance

Power Rating
Temperature Compensation
The Color Code for Resistors

CHAPTER 7:

CELLS AND BATTERIES

CELL a unit source of DC energy.

shelf life is much longer than zinc-carbon

costs more

TRANSISTOR BATTERIES
BATTERY two or more cells connected in series.
ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY

Voltages appeared between pieces of metal when

came into contact with certain chemical solutions.
Chemicals and the metals have an inherent ability to
produce a constant exchange of charge carriers.

Note: The chemical energy in a battery or cell changes

to electrical energy when the cell is used.

consists of 6 zinc-carbon or alkaline cells in series that

supplies 1.5V each. Thus, the battery supplies 9V.
used in low-current electronic devices
preferred for use in remote-control garage door
openers, TV and hi-fi remote controls and electronic
calculators
*The voltage produced by a battery of multiple cells
connected in series is more than the voltage produced
by a cell of the same composition.

LANTERN BATTERIES
PRIMARY CELLS

electrical cells which chemical energy has all been

changed to electricity and used up must be thrown
away and cannot be recharged.
i.e. batteries used in flashlight or transistor radio; AAA
batteries, D batteries, watch and camera batteries, 6-V
lantern batteries [dry cell, zinc-carbon cell or alkaline
cell]

SECONDARY CELLS

cells that can get chemical energy back by means of

recharging.
i.e. A, C or D batteries, car batteries [nickel-based cells]

has much greater mass than a common dry cell or

transistor battery
lasts much longer
deliver more current
usually rated 6V
good for scanner radio receivers in portable
locations(two-way portable radio), camping lamps,
and other medium-power needs

MINIATURE CELLS AND BATTERIES

used in wristwatches, small cameras, and various

miniature electronic devices

SILVER-OXIDE CELLS AND BATTERIES

WESTON STANDARD CELL

produces 1.018V at room temperature.

*generally used as voltage reference source

STORAGE CAPACITY

Ampere-hours (Ah) unit of electrical energy in a cell.

Shelf life length of time the battery will last if it is never
used.
Maximum deliverable current highest amount of
current that the battery can provide before its voltage
drops because of its own internal resistance.
Small cells: 100-200 mAh
Medium-sized cells: 500 mAh to 1Ah
Large automotive or truck batteries: 50Ah and up
**A direct short-circuit of a large battery can cause a
physical rupture or explosion.
Note: The energy in a cell or battery depends mainly on
its physical size.
AAA very small
AA small
C medium large
D large

ZINC-CARBON CELLS

Inexpensive
good at moderate temperature and not very good in
extreme cold
good in applications where the current drain is
moderate to high

buttonlike shape and can fit inside a small wristwatch

cells supply 1.5V
cells can be stacked up to make batteries that can
provide 6, 9 or 12V
used for transistor radio and other light-duty electronic
devices

MERCURY CELLS AND BATTERIES

properties similar to silver-oxide

cells supply 1.35V
when dead, they must be discarded because mercury
is toxic to human and animals

LITHIUM CELLS AND BATTERIES

cells supply 1.5-3.5V

used for memory backup for electronic
microcomputers, LCD watch or clock
have superior shelf life; can last for years in very low
current applications

LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

rechargeable
used in consumer electronic devices that require
moderate amount of current
ie. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) that can keep a
PC running for a few mins when power fails
automotive battery is a large lead-acid battery
not expensive

NICKEL-BASED CELLS AND BATTERIES

ALKALINE CELLS

can work at lower temperatures than a zinc-carbon

cell
lasts longer in most electronic devices
preferred for use in transistor radios, calculators and
portable cassette players

rechargeable
cylindrical cells ordinary dry cells
button cells used in watches, cameras, memory
backup
flooded cells used in heavy-duty applications; storage
capacity in excess of 1000Ah

spacecraft cells
**Never discharge nickel-based cells all the way until
they totally die

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND BATTERIES

converts visible light, infrared (IR) and/or ultraviolet (UV)

directly into electric current

SOLAR PANELS

photovoltaic cells combined in series-parallel

often very large; consist of 50x20 cells
series scheme boosts the voltage to desired level
parallel scheme increases the current-delivering ability
of the panel
used in satellites
can be used in conjunction with rechargeable
batteries to provide power in commercial utilities
interactive solar system allows a homeowner to sell
power to the electric company

FUEL CELLS
HYDROGEN FUEL

hydrogen combined with oxygen

hydrogen oxidizes at a lower temperature
proton exchange membrane (PEM) is widely used and
generates approximately 0.7Vdc

METHANOL

advantage of being easier to transport and store than

hydrogen

PROPANE

stored in liquid in tanks; used in heating system

METHANE
natural gas

CHAPTER 8:

MAGNETISM

Geomagnetic Field

Electric monopole

earths core made up of iron and has poles.

North geomagnetic pole

located far northern Canada

a charged particle, such as proto or electron hovering

all by itself in space

Electric lines of flux

South geomagnetic pole

charged particle in free space are straight and run off

to infinity Fig. 8-4

Magnetic dipole

located near Antarctica

Geomagnetic axis

a pair of magnetic poles

Magnetic field strength

relative to the axis on w/c earth rotates.

Solar wind

stream of particles from the sun that distort the

geomagnetic lines of flux (sun ejects protons & helium
nuclei constantly which is a positive electric charge)
Fig. 8-1

Webers(Wb) *strong; Maxwell(Mx) *weak

1Wb = 108Mx ; 1Mx = 10-8Mx

Tesla and gauss

Lode stones

concentration or intensity of magnetic field w/ in a

certain cross section

Flux density

rock used in ancient times as a navigating tool

Magnetic compass

no. Of lines per square meter or per square cm

1Tesla(T) = 1Wb/m2 ; 1Gauss(G) = 1Mx/cm2

1G = 10-4T ; 1T = 104G

needle tries to align parallel to the lines of flux

*geomagnetic inclination and geomagnetic declination

Ferromagnetic material

(iron,nickel & alloys) stick to magnets and can be

permanent magnets.

Ampere-turn(At)

unit of magnetomotive force and counterpart of emf

1Gb = 0.796At ; 1At = 1.26Gb

Electromagnet

Magnetic force

magnet is brought near a ferromagnetic material,

atoms lined-up and the material temporarily
magnetized

Attraction and repulsion

force gets stronger as the magnets are brought near

each other.

Magnetic field

occurs when ferromagnetic materials are aligned;

caused by the motion of electric charge carriers, either
in wire or free space.

Solar flare

sun ejects far more charged particles than normal and

disrupts the geomagnetic field.

Geomagnetic storm

disruption of geomagnetic field w/c causes the earths

ionosphere to change and affect long distance radio
comm. At certain frequency

Flux lines
determines the intensity of a magnetic field
*bar magnet- N to S Fig. 8-2
*current-carrying wire- circles around the wire Fig. 8-3

type of magnet which produces a magnetic field with

the use of electric current
*DC types- large bolt wrapping a few dozen of wire
around it with a battery to provide current Fig. 8-5
*AC types- wall outlet as a source; magnetic
levitationFig. 8-6

Magnetic Properties of Materials

1.Ferromagnetism

when substance cause magnetic lines of flux to bunch

closer together.

2.Diamagnetism

when substance decreases the magnetic flux density

by causing the magnetic flux to diverge.

3.Permeability

indicator of extent to w/c a ferromagnetic material

concentrates magnetic lines of flux.

4.Retentivity

also called remanence; is a measure of how well the

substance memorizes the magnetism and becomes
a permanent magnet.
Br= 100(y/x)% (y- current removed; x- current subjected)

Practical Magnetism
1. Permanent Magnets

manufactured using a high-retentivity ferromagnetic

material.

2. Ringer Device

bell ringer or chime Fig. 8-7

main component called solenoid

3. Relay

remote control switching of high current circuits Fig. 8-8

4. DC motor

converts DC energy to rotating mechanical energy

attraction of opposite pole and repulsion of like poles;
constant torque Fig. 8-9

Armature coil
set of coils rotate w/ the motor shaft
Field coil- stationary
Commutator

keeps the rotational force going in the same angular

direction to rotate not to oscillate.

5. Magnetic Tape

recording head which polarizes the ferro-particles

6. Magnetic Disks

hard drives which stores the most data, found inside

the computer

7. Bubbling Memory

sophisticated method of storing data

a type of non-volatile computer memory that uses a
thin film of a magnetic material to hold small
magnetized areas, known as bubbles or domains,
each of which stores one bit of data.

CHAPTER 9:

ALTERNATING CURRENT

2.

Slow-rise, fast-decay - sometimes called a ramp,

because it looks like an incline going upwards. It is
useful for scanning in television sets and oscilloscopes

3.

Variable rise and decay - slopes in an infinite number

of different combinations.

Characteristics of AC
1.
2.
3.

polarity reverses again and again at regular intervals.

Amplitude varies
Frequemcy-dependent

PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

Complex and irregular waveforms

PERIOD (T)

the length of time between one repetition of the

pattern, or one cycle, and the next

FREQUENCY(f)

cycles per second (cps)

Hertz(Hz)
1 cps = 1 Hz

Relationship between Period and Frequency

As long as it has a definite period, and as long as the

polarity keeps switching back and forth between
positive and negative, it is ac.

Frequency spectrum
Oscilloscope

timedomain instrument

Spectrum analyzer

frequency-domain instrument

Pure sine wave

Pure

ac waves that have only one frequency

Fundamental: ac waves that have components at

multiples of the main.

THE SINE WAVE

Sine wave means that the direction of the current

reverses at regular intervals
current-versus time curve is shaped like the
trigonometric sine function.

single pip

Fundamental: contains harmonic energy along with

energy at the fundamental frequency.

FRACTIONS OF A CYCLE
1 cycle = 1 rev around a circle
Degrees

SQUARE WAVES

an AC wave whose instantaneous amplitude remains

constant even though the polarity reverses.

ASYMMETRICAL SQUARE WAVES

squared off wave that are lopsided.

Radians

SAWTOOTH WAVES

ac waves that rise and fall in straight lines as seen on an

oscilloscope screen

Slope

indicates how fast the magnitude is changing

Three kinds of Sawtooth Waves

1.

Fast-rise, slow-decay - The positive-going slope (rise) is

extremely steep, as with a square wave, but the
negative-going slope (fall or decay) is gradual.

One method of specifying the phase of an ac cycle is

to divide it into 360 equal parts, called degrees or
degrees of phase.
Starts at 0 where magnitude is zero and positive-going
and ends at 360.

A cycle can be divided into

equal parts.
1 rad phase =
rad =
the angular frequency of a wave, in radians per
second, is equal to about 6.28 times the frequency in
hertz.

PHASE DIFFERENCE
Composite wave produced by adding ac waves together
frequency

amplitude

phase

identical

identical

identical

Identical

Differ by
180
In phase

Composite
output
Does not exist
Same
frequency;
amplitude =
twice
amplitude of

identical

Different

identical

Different

identical

Different

Differ by
180

identical

Differ by
odd
amount

either signal
Same
frequency;
amplitude =
difference
between the
two
Same
frequency;
amplitude =
sum between
the two
Same
frequency;
variety is
infinite

EXPRESSIONS OF AMPLITUDE

THE GENERATOR

Amplitude

magnitude level, strength or intensity

Instantaneous amplitude

the amplitude at some precise moment in time.

constantly changes

Peak amplitude

the maximum extent, either positive or negative, that

the instantaneous amplitude attains.

Peak-to-peak amplitude

the net difference between the positive peak

amplitude and the negative peak amplitude.

Root-mean-square amplitude

It literally means that the value of a wave is

mathematically operated on, by taking the square root
of the mean of the square of all its values

Effective level of an ac wave

is the voltage, current or power that a dc source would

have to produce, in order to have the same general
effect.

For a perfect sine wave,

rms value = 0.707 x peak value, or

= 0.354 x pk-pk value
peak value = 1.414 x rms value
pk-pk value = 2.828 x rms value

For a perfect square wave,

rms value = peak value

pk-pk value = 2 x rms value or the peak value

Superimposed direct current

Sometimes a wave can have components of both ac

and dc
If the dc component exceeds the peak value of the ac
wave, then fluctuating, or pulsating, dc will result

The ac voltage that a generator can develop depends

on the strength of the magnet, the number of turns in
the wire coil, and the speed at which the magnet or
coil rotates.
The ac frequency depends only on the speed of
rotation.
for utility ac, this speed is 3,600 revolutions per minute
(rpm), or 60 complete revolutions per second (rps), so
that the frequency is 60 Hz.
The efficiency of a generator is the ratio of the power
output to the driving power, both measured in the
same units multiplied by 100 to get a percentage.

Why AC?

Alternating current lends itself well to being transformed

to lower or higher voltages, according to the needs of
electrical apparatus

CHAPTER 10:

INDUCTANCE

INDUCTORS

electrical components that oppose the flow of AC by

temporarily storing energy as magnetic fields.

INDUCTANCE, L

directly proportional to the number of turns in a wire,

and diameter and length of a coil
1H represents a potential difference of 1V across an
inductor which the current is changing at the rate of
1A/s
*Small coils w/ few turns of wire produce small
inductances, in which the current changes quickly
*Large coils w/ ferromagnetic cores and having many
turns of wire, current changes slowly

L = L1+L2+L3++Ln

1/L =1/ L1+1/L2+1/L3++1/Ln

COEEFICIENT OF COUPLING, k

SOLENOIDAL COILS

INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL

ranges 0 (no interaction) to 1 (maximum possible

interaction)
k=0 when two coils are separated by a sheet of solid
iron or by a great distance
k=1 when two coils wound on the same form, one right
over the other

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE, M

if two ac waves are in phase, the inductance is

increased
it two waves are in opposing phase the inductance is
decreased

*When two inductors are connected in series and there is

reinforcing mutual inductance between them
L = L1+L2+2M
* When two inductors are connected in series and there is
opposing mutual inductance between them

AIR-CORE COILS

excellent efficiency
used mostly in radio-frequency transmitters, receivers
and antenna networks
*the higher the frequency of ac, the less inductance is
needed to produce significant effects
By using heavy-gauge wire and making the radius of
the coil large, air-core coils have almost unlimited
current-carrying capacity
disadvantage: low permeability

FERROMAGNETIC CORES

common at high and very high radio frequencies

used at audio frequencies, as well as at low, medium
and high radio frequencies

advantage: fewer turns of wire are needed to get a

certain inductance
: physically smaller for a given inductance and currentcarrying capacity
: all the flux is contained within the core material
reduces unwanted mutual inductances
disadvantage: difficult to permeability-tune
: harder to wind
: mutual inductance between or among physically
separate coils is actually desired

same advantages as toroids

better than toroids if the main objective is to get a
large inductance in a small space
disadvantage: tuning or adjustment of inductance is
impossible

FILTER CHOKES

large coil used to smooth out the pulsations in direct

current that result when ac is rectified in a power supply

INDUCTORS AT AF

range in value of a few millihenrys up to about 1H

INDUCTORS AT RF

L = L1+L2-2M

used in adjusting frequency of a radio circuit

can be made to have a variable inductance by sliding
ferromagnetic cores in and out of them controlled by a
screw shaft
moving the core further in the solenoidal coil increases
the inductance

POT CORES

M= k(L1L2)1/2

has high permeability, causing a great concentration

of magnetic flux lines within the coil
smaller than air-core coils
disadvantage: has potential for the core to saturate;
when a core becomes saturated, any further increase
in coil current will not produce a corresponding
increase in the magnetic flux in the core
can also waste considerable power as heat making the
coil lossy

TOROIDS

INDUCTORS IN SERIES

ranges from a few kilohertz to well above 100 Ghz.

as the frequency increases, cores having lower
permeability are used

TRANSMISSION LINE INDUCTORS

used to get energy from one place to another

used at frequencies about 100Mhz

LINE INDUCTANCE

Scm=7500v/f


CHAPTER 11:

CAPACITANCE

Capacitance

impedes the flow of ac charge carriers by temporary

storing the energy as an electric field

Property of Capacitance

Fig. 11-1 the size of the plate has a major factor; Fig. 112 capacitor charge over a period of time
*Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface
area of the conducting plates or sheets, and inversely
to the separation between conducting sheets
*the closer the sheets are to each other, the greater
the capacitance
Unit of capacitance - ratio between the current that
flows and the rate of voltage change between the
plates as the plate become charged
1 farad(1F)
o
- 1A while there is a voltage increase 1V/s
o
1V potential difference for an electric charge
of 1C.
1 F = 10-6F ; 1 pF = 10-12F

Capacitors in Series:

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + . . . + 1/Cn

*net capacitance is roughly equal to the smallest
capacitance

Plastic-Film Capacitors
plastics make good dielectrics for capacitors
polyethylene & polystyrene are used, manufactured
same as paper capacitors
range from 50pF to several tens of F, most often at
0.001F to 10F
Electrolytic Capacitors

Fixed Capacitors

has a value that cannot be adjusted and does not vary

when environmental or circuit conditions change

Dielectric materials

accommodate electric fields well, but poor conductors

of electric currents
good insulators Fig. 11-5

Paper Capacitors

placing a paper soaked w/ mineral oil between strips

of foil.
ranging about 0.001F to 0.1F; low to moderate
voltages up to about 1000V

Mica Capacitors

alternately stacking metal sheets & layers of mica Fig.

11-6; main application for radio receiver and
transmitter
ranging little lower than paper capacitors ranging from
few tens of pF up to 0.05F

Ceramic Capacitors

meshing & layering like mica, ranging from few pF to

about 0.5F; voltage comparable to paper capacitors
disk ceramic capacitor- for small values only one layer
of ceramic is needed & 2 metal plates glued to the disk
shaped material on each side.

replacement for aluminium; used in military

applications because they almost never fail.
electrolytic capacitor

Semiconductor Capacitors

embedded on an IC or chips Fig. 11-7

Semiconductor Diode

C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn

provides greater capacitance, polarized component

can have thousands of F & can handle thousands of
volts

Tantalum Capacitors

If C1 = C2 = C3 = ... = Cn ; C = C1/n
Capacitors in Parallel:

tubular capacitors- tube or cylinder of ceramics can be

inside & outside of tube

conducts current in one direction, & refuse to conduct

in the other direction
*when a voltage source is connected across a diode
so that it does not conduct, the diode acts as a
capacitor.
*the greater the reverse voltage, the smaller the
capacitance

Variable Capacitors

adjusting the mutual surface area between the plates

changing the spacing between the plates

Air Variables

connecting 2 sets of metal plates so that they mesh,

and by affixing one set to a rotable shaft, Fig. 11-8
max capacitance depends on the no. Of plates &
spacing between plates
common values 50-500pF

Trimmer Capacitors
Fig. 11-9
few pF up to about 200pF
Coaxial Capacitors

TL < /4 acts as a capacitor. Capacitance increases

with length Fig. 11-10

Capacitor Specifications
1. Tolerance

the lower the tolerance no. The more closely you

expect the actual component value to match the
rated value

2. Temperature Coefficient (%/oC)

Positive temp. Coefficient- increase in value as the

temperature rises
Negative temp. Coefficient- decrease in value as the
temperature rises

Zero temp. Coefficient- value remain constant within a

span of temperature

Interelectrode Capacitance
when two piece of conducting material are brought
near each other
CHAPTER 12: PHASE

INSTANTANEOUS VALUES

If two sine waves are in phase coincidence, the peak

amplitude of the resultant wave, which will also be a
sine wave, is equal to the sum of the peak amplitudes
of the two composite waves.
The phase of the resultant is the same as that of the
composite waves.

PHASE OPPOSITION

+1V positive peak; negative going

-1V negative peak; positive going
INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE

Two waves begin exactly 180 apart.

INTERMEDIATE PHASE DIFFERENCE

0 and 360 phase coincidence

90 and 270 quadrature
180 phase opposition

LEADING

The Graph 12.2 is the instantaneous rate of change of a

sine wave but is 1/4 phase difference than the original
sine wave, that makes is cosine.

If wave X begins a fraction of a cycle earlier than wave

Y, then wave X is said to be leading wave Y in phase.

VECTOR

Is a quantity with two independent properties called

magnitude (amplitude) and direction.
Amplitude is independent of time. The vector length
never changes but its direction does.

PHASE DIFFERENCE

Also called phase angle. The Phase difference

between two waves can have meaning only when two
waves have identical frequencies.

PHASE COINCIDENCE

Two waves begin at exactly the same moment but of

different amplitudes.
Phase difference in this case is 0.

LAGGING
Imagine that wave X starts its cycle later than wave Y, by some
value between 0 and 180 degrees. Then wave X is lagging,
wave Y.

VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF PHASE DIFFERENCE

TIME

Is represented by counterclockwise motion of both

vectors at constant angular speed.

CHAPTER 14:

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

The capacitive-reactance ray goes in a negative

direction and is assigned negative ohmic values.

CAPA
CITAN
CE
AND
RESIST
ANCE

Capacitors

f R is
small
comp
ared
with
the
absolu
te value of XC, the difference is almost a quarter of a
cycle. As R gets larger, or as the absolute value of XC
becomes smaller, the phase difference decreases.
A circuit containing resistance and capacitance is
called an RC Circuit.

PURE CAPACITANCE

Capacitive reactance, like inductive reactance,

varies with frequency. But XC gets LARGER
(negatively) as the frequency goes down.
Capacitive reactance is talked about in terms of its
absolute value, with minus sign removed.
The absolute value of XC increases as the frequency
goes down, or that the absolute value of XC
decreases as the frequency goes up.

Capacitive Reactance and Frequency

XC = -1/(2fC)
XC = -1/(6.28fC)
Current Leads Voltage

In a circuit containing capacitive reactance, the

voltage lags the current in phase. Thus, current leads
voltage.

PURE CAPACITANCE

XC is extremely large
compared with the
resistance R.
Current leads the
voltage by just about
90o

The absolute value of the capacitive

reactance gets small enough, the circuit acts
as a pure resistance, and the current is in
phase with the voltage.

CHAPTER 15:

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

ADMITTANCE

the extent to which an ac circuit allows current flow,

rather than impeding it.

Resistance is one-dimensional. Reactance is also onedimensional. But impedance is two-dimensional.

Absolute-value impedance

Imaginary numbers

i is the . It is the number that, when multiplied by itself,

gives 1. So i =j, and j x j =1.
In electronics, real numbers represent resistances.
Imaginary numbers represent reactances.

Characteristic impedance

Complex numbers

This term doesnt mean complicated; it would better

be called composite.

Adding and subtracting complex numbers

The general formula for the sum of two complex

numbers (a +jb) and (c + jd) is

The product of (a + jb) and (c +jd) is equal to

(a + jb)(c + jd) = (ac - bd) + j(ad + bc)

The complex number plane

Characteristic impedance or surge impedance. It is

abbreviated Zo, and is a specification of transmission
line

Transmission lines

is required any time that it is necessary to get energy or

signals from one place to another
take either of two forms, coaxial or two wire

Factors affecting Zo

(a +jb) + (c +jd) = (a + c) + j(b +d)

Multiplying complex numbers

the capital letter Z is used in place of the word

impedance
If youre not specifically told what complex impedance
is meant when a single number ohmic figure is quoted,
its best to assume that the engineers are talking about
nonreactive impedances.

of the wires,
spacing between the wires,
The nature of the insulating material separating the
wires.
diameter In general, Zo increases as the wire diameter
gets smaller, and decreases as the wire diameter gets
larger, all other things being equal.
In a coaxial line, the thicker the center conductor, the
lower the Zo if the shield stays the same size. If the
center conductor stays the same size and the shield
tubing increases in diameter, the Zo will increase.

Impedance Matching

Is the process of making sure that the impedance of

the load is purely resistive, with an ohmic value equal to
the characteristic impedance of the transmission line
connected to it.

Conductance (G)

Absolute value

The absolute value of a complex number a +jb is the

length, or magnitude, of its vector in the complex
plane, measured from the origin (0,0) to the point (a,b).
In the case of a pure real number a +j0, the absolute
value is simply the number itself, a.
In the case of a pure imaginary number 0 +jb, the
absolute value is equal to b.
If the number is neither pure real or pure imaginary:

Susceptance (B)

Resistances are represented by nonnegative real

numbers. Reactances, whether they are inductive
(positive) or capacitive (negative), correspond to
imaginary numbers.
Capacitors act like negative inductors

Vector representation of impedance

Any impedance R +jX can be represented by a

complex number of the form a +jb. Just let R =a and X
=b.

It is the reciprocal of reactance

Can be either capacitive or inductive
BC = 1/XC, and BL = 1/XL
1/j = -j and 1/-j = j

Admittance (Y)

The RX plane

works the same way as it does in a dc circuit.

G=1/R

Conductance and susceptance combine to form

admittance.
a complex quantity and represents the ease with which
current can flow in an ac circuit
As the absolute value of impedance gets larger, the
absolute value of admittance becomes smaller
negative j factors mean that there is a net inductance
in the circuit, and
positive j factors mean there is net capacitance.

CHAPTER 16:

RLC AND GLC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Admittance to Impedance Conversion:

RLC (Resistance-Inductance-Capacitance)

R = G / (G2 + B2)
X = B / (G2 + B2)

GLC (Conductance-Inductance-Capacitance)
RX (resistance-reactance)

>> series ckt analysis

GB (conductance-admittance) >> parallel ckt analysis

Complex Impedances in Series
Z = (R1+R2) + j (X1 + X2)
Pure Reactances:
X = XL + XC

Series resonance
for series-connected components, the condition in
which the capacitive and inductive reactances
cancel

Adding Impedance Vectors

*In reality, there is resistance, as well as reactance, in

an ac series circuit containing a coil and capacitor
because the coil wire has significant resistance (its
never a perfect conductor) or because a resistor is
deliberately connected into the circuit.

Series RLC Circuits

Z = R + j (XL + XC)
Complex Admittances in Parallel
Y = (G1+G2) + j(B1 + B2)
Pure Susceptances:
B = BL + BC
>>always negative
>> always positive

Parallel resonance

for parallel-connected components (LC circuit), the

condition in which the capacitive and inductive
susceptances cancel

Parallel GLC Circuits

*The resistance is thought of as a conductance, whose

value in Siemens (S) is equal to the reciprocal of the
value in ohms. Also, the conductance is imagined to
belong to the inductor

Y = G + j (BL + BC)

Series Combination
R >> Series
L >> Series
C >> Parallel
Parallel Combination
R >> Parallel
L >> Parallel
C >> Series
Impedance bridge

measures R and X at various frequencies

Ohms Law for AC Circuits

Purely Resistive Impedances

*Resistance R can be imagined as belonging entirely

to the coil

jBL = -j / (2fL)
jBC = j2fC

Find the conductance G = 1/R for the resistor. (It will be

positive or zero.)
2. Find the susceptance BL of the inductor using the
appropriate formula. (It will be negative or zero.)
3. Find the susceptance BC of the capacitor using the
appropriate formula. (It will be positive or zero.)
4. Find the net susceptance B = BL + BC (It might be positive,
negative, or zero).
5. Compute R and X in terms of G and B using the
appropriate formulas.
6. Assemble the vector R + jX.
Reducing Complicated RLC Circuits

jXL = j2fL
>> always positive
jXC = -j / (2fC) >>always negative

1.

V = IZ
Complex Impedances
Series RLC: Z2 = R2 + X2
Parallel RLC: Z2 = R2X2 / (R2 + X2)
*Consider only the positive square root of the answer for Z
Note: In an RX ac circuit, there is always a difference in phase
between the voltage across the resistance and the voltage
across the reactance. The voltages across the components
always add up to the applied voltage vectorially, but not always
arithmetically. It is also the same case for current computations.

CHAPTER 17:

POWER AND RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

What is power(P)?

Resonant frequency (Fo)

Power is the rate at which energy is expanded,

radiated or dissipated. (W,Kw,Mw,mW,nW)

Watt = joule/sec
P = EI
where E - volts
I - ampere

Fo = 1/[2pi(LC)^1/2]
standing wave

Then P is in volt-ampere (VA) or VA power or Apparent Power

instantaneous power
The constant change in power

in a pure resistance circuit true power = V power

If ac circuit contains reactance (inductive, capacitive)
VA > true power and the extra power is called
"imaginary power" or "reactive power"
* In a circuit with inductive reactance, the current lags
the voltage by up to 90 degrees
* In a circuit with capacitive reactance, the current
leads the voltage by up to 90 degrees

Power factor (PF)

ratio of true power to VA, Pt/Pva or PF= cos phase

angle
* If there is no reactance Pt = Pva therefore PF=1
* If there is no resistance and purely reactance Pt=o
then PF = 0

Phase angle

the extent to w/c the curent and voltage differ in

phase
* If there is no reactance phase angle = 0
* If pure reactance phase angle = 90 and -90
elsewhere

impedance mismatch

occurs when pure resistance is not equal to

characteristic impedance, and it can be corrected by
means of "Matching transformer".

Maxima

current/voltage is high, also called loops

Minima

current/voltage is low, also called nodes

* At current loop the voltage is minimum (voltage
node) and at current node voltage is max (voltage
loop)

Transmission line mismatch loss

also known as standing wave loss, occurs in the form of

heat dissipation

resonance

condition where in the capacitive and inductive

reactance cancels out.

lowest frequency at w/c resonance occurs. also known

as fundamental frequency

also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that

remains in a constant position. This phenomenon can
occur because the medium is moving in the opposite
direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary
medium as a result of interference between two waves
traveling in opposite directions

series resonance

There is no opposition of alternating current at resonant

frequency

Parallel resonance

There is a large opposition to alternating current @ Fo.

CHAPTER 18 :

TRANSFORMERS AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Transformers can:

Stepping up or down a voltage

Matching impedance
Provide DC isolation
Balanced to Unbalanced (vice versa)

In its simplest definition, a TRANSFORMER CHANGES one voltage

to another voltage value, either higher or lower (step-up or step
down); kaya siya tinawag na TRANSFORMER!
How does a transformer do that?

Note:

As the frequency increases, the needed inductance

decreases. At high-resistive impedances, more
inductance is generally needed than at low-resistive
impedances.

Turns Ratio:

ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the

number of turns in the secondary
E = voltage ; T = turns

For a transformer with excellent coupling; the relationship is:

When two wires are near each other, and one of them
carries a fluctuating current, a current will be induced in the
other wire. This effect is known as electromagnetic induction
(Isipin niyo antenna).
-

Mas malapit mas malakas ang induced current

Pero mas lalakas kung the wires are wound into coils
and placed along a common axis

Primary to Secondary turns ratio

Step Down:
Ratio is greater than 1 :
Smaller number

Larger number over

Step Up
:
Larger number

Smaller number over

Ratio is less than 1

(Siyempre babaliktad yung mga conditions kapag Secondary to

Primary na yung ratio)
-

Pero di pa dyan natatapos, even more coupling, or

efficiency of induced-current transfer, is obtained if the
two coils are wound one atop the other

Transformer Cores:
Why use cores?

To confine the flux thus increasing the coupling or the

efficiency of the induced-current transfer

First Coil = Primary Winding

----------Secondary Coil = Secondary Winding
Air Core
Laminated Iron

Used at 60-Hz utility ac and low audio frequency

Sheets of silicon steel glued together in LAYERS
Called transformer iron or plain iron
Layers are used instead of a single mass of metal to
prevent eddy currents
Eddy currents go in circles, heating up the core and
wasting energy; pero pag layered hindi maka-flow ng
maayos yung mga eddy currents in circles kaya
napipigilan
Laminated cores exhibit high hysteresis loss
above
audio frequencies
Therefore not good above a few kilohertz.

Ferrite

Frequencies up to FEW megahertz and works well for RF

(radio-frequency) transformers

High Permeability and concentrates flux efficiently

High permeability REDUCES the number of turns
needed in the coils
Higher than few megahertz; shows losses and becomes
ineffective

Permeability

Hysteresis loss

core materials become sluggish (bumabagal yung

response) in accepting fluctuating magnetic field

Ferro-Magnetic Core

is a measure of how well a material will "conduct" a

magnetic field.

Powdered Iron Core

works well at VHF (very high frequency); 100 Mhz

pataas.
permeability is less than that of ferrite but at high
frequencies it doesnt matter
At Radio Frequency above a few megahertz; air cores
are preferred!

Transformer Geometry:
Utility Transformer
E-core

common core is the E-core so called because of its

shape
winding method includes the shell and the core
winding method
shell method provides the best coupling however
capacitance occurs (may or may not be tolerated)
and also cannot handle very much voltage
nasa middle bar lang yung winding ng primary and
secondary
core winding method; primary is at the bottome of the
E-section and the secondary is placed at the top
capacitance is much lower and can handle higher
voltages
both are universally employed at 60 Hz

Solenoidal Core

more commonly used as a loopstick antenna in

portable radio receiver and in radio direction finding
equipment
as a loopstick; primary serves as receiver and
secondary matches impedance

found sometimes on radio-frequency receiver or

transmitter
works well in impedance matching
Can be (but not often) used in utility circuits stepping
down by a large factor but only step up a few percent

Power Transformer
At the generating plant:

extremely high voltages are used

why? Because lower current means reduced loss in the
transmission line
recall P = IE
cant control the wire resistances and the power used
at the loads; the only parameter we can change is the
voltage
as a result massive transformers are used to handle the
high voltage

Along the line:

core windings may be on top of each other or

separated (to reduce capacitance)

Toroidal Core

step down transformers are used. Why?

voltage from plants amount to around kilovolts, (isipin
niyo kung ang outlet niyo sa bahay naglalabas ng
ganung kataas na voltage baka lalapit palang kayo
may tumalon ng kuryente sa inyo), that is why there is a
need to step down the voltage

At individual houses and buildings:

donut-shaped ring of powdered iron or ferrite

used for radio frequency transformer
windings maybe on top or on separate parts
confines the magnetic flux in the core material
(pwedeng itabi sa ibang components)
provides more inductance per turn

voltage is further stepped down to 234-V electricity in

three phases (separated by 120 degrees) or 117-V
outlet supplies just one phase (ground yung third
prong)

Audio-Frequency Transformer
Pot Core

even more inductance per turn can be obtained

Frequencies are higher and exist as band of

frequencies (20 Hz to 20 kHz)
transformers used are still similar but instead of
changing voltages; they MATCH IMPEDANCES

Isolation Transformer

self shielding
primary and secondary must be wound on top or next
to each other (no choice)
therefore capacitance is rather high
generally employed at lower frequencies because you
dont need much inductance at higher frequencies

Balanced and Unbalanced load (Balun)

Autotransformer

when its not necessary to provide DC isolation

single- tapped winding

isolating two circuits by not directly connecting them

only allows AC but not DC
the amount of capacitive coupling can be greatly
reduced (by separating the wires)

balanced = terminals can be reversed without any

effect on the circuit (resistor , antenna)
unbalanced =must be connected in a certain way to
work properly (usually when one side is connected to
the ground) ex. Coaxial lines
the transformer can allow for the mating of the
balanced and the unbalanced load
the turns ratio might be 1:1 if the impedances are
matched; if the impedances doesnt match the turns
ratio should be changed

Transformer Coupling

used in amplification by offering some advantages

(usually in radio-frequency receiver and transmitter)
too many feedback, amplifiers would start to oscillate
degrading the performance BUT transformer minimize
the capacitance preventing oscillation

Reactance

Impedance Transfer Ratio

To match the impedances in radio-frequency and

audio frequency circuits

For purely resistive impedances:

major disadvantage is working only at certain

frequencies

unfortunately hinde purely resistive ang mga

impedance
Reactance makes a perfect match impossible!! No
matter what the turns ratio or Zo of the transformer, a
reactance would always exist which can be tolerated
at lower radio frequencies (below about 30 MHz) but a
near-perfect match becomes more important at
higher frequencies
although hinde sakop ng chapter na ito. Recall na
kapag may reactance (X) not equal to zero, to cancel
it, add an equal and opposite (-X) which can be done
by adding an inductor or capacitor in series sa load

transmatch
Z=impedance ; E = voltage ; T = turns
Radio-Frequency Transformer
Coil types

Powdered-iron cores
frequencies
Toroidal cores
because self-shielding

----->>>

quite high

----->>>

most common

Number of turns depends on the frequency, and also on the

permeability of the core

Air-core ----->>> although low permeability also has

low hysteresis loss

One disadvantage is the magnetic flux extends outside the coil

Major advantage of coil type transformer, (especially toroidal
core) is that they can be used over a wide band of frequencies
such as from 3.5 MHz to 30 MHz (broadband transformers)
Transmission-Line types

transmission lines are sometimes used as impedance

transformer due to its own characteristic impedance
always made from quarter wave sections
or
(length
of quarter wave section)

where Lft is the length of the section in feet, v is the

velocity factor expressed as a fraction, and fo is the frequency of
operation in megahertz. If the length Lm is in meters,
-Let a quarter-wave section of line, with characteristic
impedance Zo, be terminated
in a purely resistive impedance Rout. Then the input impedance is
also a pure resistance
Rin, and the following relationship holds:

These relationship will hold at frequency fo, a line 1/4

wavelength long; Neglecting losses will also hold true for
odd harmonics at 3fo, 5fo, 7fo, and so on.
the quarter wave matching section should be made
balanced (for loads that are balanced) and
unbalanced (for unbalanced loads)

is a device that is wide band and has adjustable

impedance-matching and reactance cancelling
networks located between the antenna and the
transmitter (from 1.8 Mhz to microwave).