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GAS TURBINE

GAS TURBINE
INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINES
Gas turbines have been used for electricity generation for
many years. In the past, their use has been generally limited to
generating electricity in periods of peak electricity demand. Gas
turbines are ideal for this application as they can be started and
stopped quickly enabling them to be brought into service as
required to meet energy demand peaks. However, their previously
small unit sizes and their low thermal efficiency restricted the
opportunities for their wider use for electricity generation.
There are two basic types of gas turbines - aero derivative and
industrial.
As their name suggests, aero derivative units are aircraft jet engines
modified to drive electrical generators. These units have a
maximum output of 40 MW. Aero derivative units can produce full
power within three minutes after start up. They are not suitable for
base load operation.
Industrial gas turbines range in sizes up to more than 260 MW.
Depending on size, start up can take from 10 to 40 minutes to
produce full output. Over the last ten years there have been major
improvements to the sizes and efficiencies of these gas turbines
such that they are now considered an attractive option for base-load
electricity generation. Industrial gas turbines have a lower capital
cost per kilowatt installed than aero derivative units and, because of
their more robust construction, are suitable for base load operation.
HOW DOES A GAS TURBINE WORK?
Gas turbines use the hot gas produced by burning a fuel to
drive a turbine. They are also called combustion turbines or
combustion gas turbines.

GAS TURBINE

The main components of a gas turbine are an air compressor,


several combustors (also called burners) and a turbine. The air
compressor compresses the inlet air (raises its pressure). Fuel is
mixed with the high pressure air in burners and burnt in special
chambers called combustors. The hot pressurized gas coming out of
the combustors is at very high temperature (up to 1350 C). This gas
then passes through a turbine, giving the turbine energy to spin and
do work, such as turn a generator to produce electricity. As the
turbine is connected to its compressor, the compressor uses some
(about 60%) of the turbine's energy. Because some of its heat and
pressure energy has been transferred to the turbine, the gas is cooler
and at a lower pressure when it leaves the turbine. It is then either
discharged up a chimney (often called a stack) or is directed to a
special type of boiler, called a Heat Recovery Steam Generator
(HRSG), where most of the remaining heat energy in the gas is used
to produce steam.

The attached cross section of a typical large gas turbine and photo
of a similar large gas turbine with its top half casing removed, show
these major components.
AIR COMPRESSOR
The air compressors used in gas turbines are made up of
several rows of blades (similar to the blades on a household fan).

GAS TURBINE

Each row of blades compresses and pushes the air onto the next
row of blades. As the air becomes more and more compressed, the
sizes of the blades become smaller from row to row. The row of
largest blades can be seen at the left end of the compressor in the
photo above; with the smallest blades to the right (the direction of
air flow is from left to right). Note: A row of blades fixed to the
outer casing of the compressor is also located after each row of
moving blades. Filters are used to remove impurities from the inlet
air. However, as they can never completely eliminate all impurities,
"washing" of the compressor blades must be carried out whenever
blade fouling becomes too severe. This washing can be carried out
on line (with the gas turbine operating) or when the compressor is
stopped. Dematerialized water and detergent are commonly used
for washing. Erosion of the blades can be caused by hard particles
in the air entering the compressor. Inspections for fouling and
erosion are usually carried out at defined intervals of operating
time. This type of air compressor can change its capacity (mass of
air sucked through the air compressor) only by changing its speed
of rotation. However, when the gas turbine is used to generate
electricity, the speed of rotation of the generator, gas turbine and air
compressor must remain constant (3000 rpm in Australia). The mass
of air being compressed therefore remains constant regardless of the
amount of air required for combustion of the fuel at partial loads.
The energy used to compress this excess air accounts for most of the
reduction in efficiency of a gas turbine at partial loads.
FUEL
Gas turbines can operate on a variety of gaseous or liquid
fuels, including: Liquid or gaseous fossil fuel such as crude oil,
heavy fuel oil, natural gas, methane, distillate and "jet fuel" (a type
of kerosene used in aircraft jet engines); Gas produced by
gasification processes using, for example, coal, municipal waste and
biomass; and Gas produced as a by-product of an industrial process
such as oil refining. When natural gas is used, power output and
thermal efficiency of the gas turbines are higher than when using
most liquid fuels. The fuel must be free of chemical impurities and
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solids as these either stick to the blades of the turbine or damage the
components in the turbine that operate at high temperature.
The fuels used in gas turbines power generation plants are
often relatively more expensive and in smaller quantities than those
required by power generation plants using other fuels (such as coal).
INLET AIR
The air coming into the compressor of a gas turbine must be
cleaned of impurities (such as dust and smoke) which could erode
or stick to the blades of the compressor or turbine, reducing the
power and efficiency of the gas turbine. Dry filters or water baths
are usually used to carry out this cleaning. The power and
efficiency ratings of a gas turbine are usually based on the inlet air
being at ISO conditions of 15 C and 65% relative humidity. If the
inlet air is hotter and drier than ISO conditions, the power of the gas
turbine decreases. This effect can be reduced by cooling the air (by
equipment similar to air conditioners) or, more usually, by passing
the air through an evaporative cooler (the air evaporates droplets of
water, thus cooling the air).The inlet air is usually passed through
silencers before it enters the compressor.
BURNERS AND COMBUSTORS
The compressed air and fuel is mixed and metered in special
equipment called burners. The burners are attached to chambers
called combustors. The fuel & air mixture is ignited close to the exit
tip of the burners, then allowed to fully burn in the combustors. The
temperature of the gas in the combustors and entering the turbine
can reach up to 1350 C. Special heat resistant materials (such as
ceramics) are used to line the inside walls of the combustors. The
area between the combustors and the turbine are also lined.
Water or steam can be injected into the combustors to reduce
the concentration of NOx (oxides of nitrogen) in the exhaust gas (by
reducing the temperature of the flame). Special burners (usually
called "dry low NOx burners") are used to reduce the concentration
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of NOx in the exhaust gas to less than 25 ppm at full load, without
the use of water or steam injection. These dry low NOx burners
usually cannot operate effectively below about 60% load. At this
point, another type of burner takes over and allows the fuel to be
burnt stably down to low loads. These "low load" burners produce
significantly higher concentrations of NOx (over 100 ppm). Some
burners incorporate both types of burner into the one arrangement
(called "hybrid" burners). Note: the values of NOx concentrations
and loads depend on the design of the equipment and on the fuel
used. When a gas turbine starts, the combustor quickly heats up.
When the gas turbine shuts down, the combustor cools. This rapid
heating and cooling produces stresses in the combustor and can
cause cracking, particularly in the heat resistant lining material. The
combustors must be inspected for cracks after a certain number of
starts.
TURBINE
The turbine (also called the "power" turbine) consists of several
rows of blades (the "moving" blades) that are fastened to the
rotating shaft of the turbine. A row of "fixed" blades is located after
each row of the "moving" blades. These fixed blades are attached to
the casing of the turbine and do not rotate.
As the hot gas from the combustors passes through the
moving and fixed blades of the turbine, energy is transferred from
the hot gas to the turbine, causing it to rotate. This energy transfer
reduces the pressure of the gas and causes the gas to become cooler
as it passes through the turbine. The blades of the turbine become
larger from row to row to accommodate the expansion of the gas as
its pressure reduces. The smallest row of blades can be seen at the
left end of the turbine in the photo of the gas turbine with its top
half casing removed, with the largest blades to the right (the
direction of gas flow is from left to right).
The moving blades in the turbine are subjected to extreme
temperature (from the hot gas exiting the combustors) and stress

GAS TURBINE

(from the combination of their rotation and the pressure of the hot
gas). The efficiency of the gas turbine improves if the hot gas
temperature rises. New materials and techniques used to
manufacture the turbine blades have resulted in a significant
increase in operating temperatures. Currently, turbine blades are
made from exotic alloys that retain their strength at the high
temperatures experienced in the turbine. Ceramic blades offer the
possibility of still higher operating temperatures. However,
materials to withstand the higher temperatures are usually more
expensive than those that can withstand lower temperatures. The
materials for the turbine blades (and other components of the
turbine) are therefore selected to give a balance between hot gas
temperature (and efficiency) and material selection (and cost).
Research into better (and cheaper) materials for this high
temperature, high stress duties are ongoing.
Turbine blades can be manufactured with passages inside the
blades that allow air to pass through the blades to keep them cool.
The compressor section of the gas turbine provides this cooling air.
This allows the blades to operate in combustion temperatures that
would otherwise be too hot for the material of the blades.
At these high operating temperatures, hard particles and chemical
impurities in the air and fuel (even at extremely low levels) can
damage the blades of the turbine, thus reducing their effectiveness.
The ability of the gas turbine to do work and the efficiency of the
gas turbine are consequently reduced. Some of this reduction can be
regained by maintenance of the gas turbine. The type and
cleanliness of the air and fuel used therefore has a major impact on
the amount of maintenance performed on the gas turbine. Various
coatings for turbine blades have been developed as another way to
minimize this high temperature damage to the blades. The hot
components of the turbine, particularly the blades, are also subject
to "creep" failure. Metals at high temperature & high stress
gradually change their metallurgical properties and plastically
deform ("creeps"). This deformation could result in the moving
parts touching the fixed parts with possible catastrophic results. The
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turbine components most subject to conditions causing creep are


regularly inspected and tested.
EXHAUST GASES
The temperature of the exhaust gas from the gas turbine is
typically in the range of 500C to 640C, depending on the design of
the gas turbine and the fuel used. The heat energy in this gas can be
extracted in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to produce
steam that can be used to produce electricity (Combined Cycle
generating plant) or used for process heating.
If the exhaust gas is not passed to a HRSG, it is ducted through
a silencer and then discharged up a stack. The exhaust gas is
usually visually clear and free of particles. Refer to "emissions" for
information on the chemical compositions of the exhaust gas.
EMISSIONS
The main chemical emissions from a gas turbine are dependent
on the type of fuel used. However, some generalizations can be
made .NOx (oxides of nitrogen) can be controlled either by injecting
water or steam into the combustors or by using special dry low
NOx burners. Further details of these are given in the "burners and
combustors" section above.
SOx (oxides of sulphur) are usually not a problem as most fuels
used in gas turbines have low sulphur contents. The concentration
of CO2 (carbon dioxide) in the exhaust gas is dependent on the
carbon content of the fuel used. The amount of CO2 produced per
unit of electrical energy is also highly dependent on the thermal
efficiency of the gas turbine.
POWER OUTPUT
Gas turbine output power values are usually given for ISO
conditions of 15 C, 60% relative humidity and an atmospheric
pressure equivalent to average sea level conditions. Variations in
these conditions during the operation of the gas turbine will result

GAS TURBINE

in changes to the power output of the gas turbine as indicated


below.
In general, the power output from the gas turbine is influenced by:
1. The energy used by the air compressor - if less energy is used to
compress the air, more energy is available at the output shaft;
2. The temperature of the hot gas leaving the combustors increased temperature generally results in increased power
output;
3. The temperature of the exhaust gas - reduced temperature
generally results in increased power output;
4. The mass flow through the gas turbine - in general, higher mass
flows result in higher power output;
5. The drop in pressure across the inlet air filters, silencers and
ducts - a decrease in pressure loss increases power output;
6. The drop in pressure across the exhaust gas silencers, ducts and
stack - a decrease in pressure loss increases power output;
7. Increasing the pressure of the air entering or leaving the
compressor - an increase in pressure increases power output.
Various methods that have been used to achieve an increase in
power output include:
1. Using the exhaust gas to heat the air from the compressor
(mainly used in cold weather conditions);
2. Divide the compressor into two parts and cool the air between
the two parts;
3. Divide the turbine into two parts and reheat the gas between the
two parts by passing the gas through additional burners and
combustors located between the two parts;
4. Cooling the inlet air - mainly used in hot weather conditions;
5. Reducing the humidity of the inlet air;
6. Increasing the pressure of the air at the discharge of the air
compressor;
7. Inject steam or water into the combustors or turbine;

GAS TURBINE

8. Wash or otherwise clean the fouling from the blades of the air
compressor and turbine at regular intervals; and
9. Combinations of the above methods.
However, all these methods increase costs and some decrease the
thermal efficiency of the gas turbine. The methods used are
therefore a compromise between cost, power and efficiency for each
application.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine is the proportion of the
energy in the fuel that is converted to mechanical energy in the
output shaft. Gas turbine efficiency values are usually given for ISO
conditions of 15 C (dry bulb), 60% relative humidity and an
atmospheric pressure equivalent to average sea level conditions.
Variations in temperatures and relative humidifies during the
operation of the gas turbine will result in changes to the thermal
efficiency of the gas turbine as indicated below.
In general, thermal efficiency is influenced by:
1. The energy used by the air compressor - if less energy is used to
compress the air, more energy is available at the output shaft;
2. The temperature of the hot gas leaving the combustors increased temperature generally results in increased efficiency;
3. The temperature of the exhaust gas - reduced temperature
generally results in increased efficiency;
4. The mass flow through the gas turbine - in general, higher mass
flows result in higher efficiencies;
5. The drop in pressure across the inlet air filters, silencers and
ducts - a decrease in pressure loss increases efficiency;
6. The drop in pressure across the exhaust gas silencers, ducts and
stack - a decrease in pressure loss increases efficiency.
Various methods have been used to achieve the above goals:

GAS TURBINE

1. Using the exhaust gas to heat the air from the compressor
(mainly used in cold weather conditions);
2. Divide the compressor into two parts and cool the air between
the two parts;
3. Divide the turbine into two parts and reheat the gas between the
two parts by passing the gas through additional burners and
combustors located between the two parts;
4. Cooling the inlet air - mainly used in hot weather conditions;
5. Reducing the humidity of the inlet air;
6. Increasing the pressure of the air at the discharge of the air
compressor;
7. Inject steam into the combustors or turbine;
8. Wash or otherwise clean the fouling from the blades of the air
compressor and turbine at regular intervals; and
9. Combinations of the above methods.
However, all these methods increase costs and some decrease the
amount of power able to be output by the gas turbine. The methods
used are therefore a compromise between cost, power and
efficiency for each application.
RELIABILITY
The reliability of a gas turbine depends mainly on the design
of its components and the selection of materials used in critical
components. Operational factors such as the cleanliness of the fuel
and inlet air, the way the gas turbine is operated and the quality of
the maintenance practices also have an effect of reliability.
New models of gas turbines often have significant changes to
critical components in an effort to improve power output, increase
thermal efficiency and reduce costs. However, the use of unproven
designs and technologies can result in unforeseen failures. The
manufacturers analyze these failures and improve the component.
The reliabilities of the models improve as these types of failures are
designed out.
NOISE
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Gas turbines are very compact and occupy small ground area.
Statutory limits on noise levels at site boundaries can be achieved
either by increasing the distance from the boundary to the plant or
by installing noise abatement equipment on the machines. Silencers
are usually fitted in the inlet air and exhaust gas ducts.

The inlet air (blue) enters the compressor at the left. The
exhaust gas (red) leaves the turbine at the right. The burners and
combustors are located between the compressor and turbine.
The photo shows what such a gas turbine looks like when its
top half casing has been removed for inspection or maintenance.
The air compressor is on the left and the turbine is on the right. The
section that would hold the burners and combustors is between the
compressor and the turbine. Note the large bolts that are used to
hold the two halves of the casing together.
The photo shows, for a large gas turbine, the cross-section of a
typical burner/combustor combination, the arrangement of these
combustors and the area between the combustors and the turbine.

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The heat resistant ceramic tiles used in these hot areas can be clearly
seen.

The combustion (gas) turbines being installed in many of


today's natural-gas-fueled power plants are complex machines, but
they basically involve three main sections:
The compressor which draws air into the engine, pressurizes
it, and feeds it to the combustion chamber literally at speeds of
hundreds of miles per hour.
The combustion system, typically made up of a ring of fuel
injectors that inject a steady stream of fuel (e.g., natural gas) into the
combustion chamber where it mixes with the air. The mixture is
burned at temperatures of more than 2000 degrees. The combustion
produces a high temperature, high pressure gas stream that enters
and expands through the turbine section.

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The turbine is an intricate array of alternate stationary and rotating


aerofoil-section blades. As hot combustion gas expands through the
turbine, it spins the rotating blades. The rotating blades perform a
dual function: they drive the compressor to draw more pressurized
air into the combustion section, and they spin a generator to produce
electricity.

Land based gas turbines are of two types: (1) heavy frame
engines and (2) aero derivative engines. Heavy frame engines are
characterized by lower compression ratios (typically below 15) and
tend to be physically large. Aero derivative engines are derived
from jet engines, as the name implies, and operate at very high
compression ratios (typically in excess of 30). Aero derivative
engines tend to be very compact.
One key to a turbine's fuel-to-energy efficiency is the
temperature at which it operates. Higher temperatures generally
mean higher efficiencies which, in turn, can lead to more
economical operation. Gas flowing through a typical power plant
turbine can be as hot as 2300 degrees F, but some of the critical

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metals in the turbine can withstand temperatures only as hot as


1500 to 1700 degrees F. Therefore air from the compressor is used
for cooling key turbine components; however, the requirement for
cooling the turbine limits the ultimate thermal efficiency.
One of the major breakthroughs achieved in the Department of
Energy's advanced turbine program was to break through previous
limitations on turbine temperatures using a combination of
innovative cooling technologies and advanced materials. The
advanced turbines that emerged from the Department's research
program were able to boost turbine inlet temperatures to as high as
2600 degrees F - nearly 300 degrees hotter than in previous turbines.
Another way to boost efficiency is to install a recuperate or
aster heat boiler onto the turbine's exhaust. A recuperate captures
waste heat in the turbine exhaust system to preheat the compressor
discharge air before it enters the combustion chamber. A waste heat
boiler generates steam by capturing heat from the turbine exhaust.
These boilers are also known as heat recovery steam generators
(HRSG). High-pressure steam from these boilers can be used to
generate additional electric power with steam turbines, a
configuration called a combined cycle.
A simple cycle gas turbine can achieve energy conversion
efficiencies ranging between 20 and 35 percent. With the higher
temperatures achieved in the Energy Department's turbine
program, future gas turbine combined cycle plants are likely to
achieve efficiencies of 60 percent or more. When waste heat is
captured from these systems for heating or industrial purposes, the

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overall energy cycle efficiency could approach 80 percent.

TURBINE SUCCESSES - BREAKTHROUGH" GAS TURBINES


For years, gas turbine manufacturers faced a barrier that, for
all practical purposes, capped power generating efficiencies for
turbine-based power generating systems.
The barrier was heat. Above 2300 degrees F, the scorching heat
of combustion gases caused metals in the turbine blades and in
other internal components to begin degrading. Since higher
temperatures are the key to higher efficiencies, this effectively
limited the generating efficiency at which a turbine power plant
could convert fuel into electricity.

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The Department of Energy's Fossil Energy took on the


challenge of turbine temperatures in 1992, and nine years later, two
of its private sector partners produced "breakthrough" turbine
systems that pushed firing temperatures to 2,600 degrees F and
permitted combined cycle efficiencies that surpassed the 60 percent
mark - the "four-minute mile" of turbine technology.
Moreover, the advanced turbines achieved the higher firing
temperatures while actually reducing the amount of nitrogen oxides
formed to less than 10 parts per million (NOx is a product of high
temperature combustion).
Among the innovations that emerged from the Department's
Advanced Turbine Systems program were single-crystal turbine
blades and thermal barrier coatings that could withstand the high
inlet temperatures, along with new firing techniques to stabilize
combustion and minimize nitrogen oxide formation.

THE GE H-SYSTEM TURBINE

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On February 18, 2000, GE Power Systems unveiled the first gas


turbine slated for the U.S. market that would break through the
temperature barrier and push efficiencies to unprecedented levels.
Using advanced materials and revolutionary new steam-cooling
technology, the new turbine is capable of operating at 2600 degrees
F.
The H System was the first turbine to surpass the 60 percent
efficiency threshold, nearly five percentage points better than the
prior best available system, in an industry where improvements are
typically measured in tenths of a percent. Using an innovative dry
low-NOx combustion system, the turbine achieved nitrogen oxide
emission levels of 9 parts-per-million, half the average of the
turbines in commercial use.
The unit announced in February 2000 was slated to be one of
two 60-hertz turbines that would have powered the 800-megawatt
Heritage Station being built in Scribe, New York. The power plant,
however, was not built when the anticipated demand for electric
power in the region failed to materialize. A 50-hertz version,
specially designed for the European power grid, was shipped to
Baglan Bay Power Station near Cardiff, South Wales, in December
2000 and began test operations in November 2002.

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SIEMENS WESTINGHOUSE W501G ADVANCED GAS TURBINE


In May 2001, the Energy Department's other advanced turbine
development partner, Siemens Westinghouse, announced that its
advanced W501G turbine had gone into commercial operation at
the 360-megawatt, combined cycle Millennium power plant in
Charlton, Massachusetts.
In addition, the City of Lakeland, Florida's McIntosh Unit 5, a
249-megawatt simple cycle plant, also went into operation using the
advanced turbine at about the same time. The Siemens
Westinghouse engine has demonstrated a net efficiency of
approximately 58 percent in combined cycle application.
REFERENCE
Website:
http://www.energy.qld.gov.au/electricity/infosite/index.htm
http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/turbines/turbines_h
owitworks.shtml

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