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Continuity
( u )
x
( v)
y
=0
u
u p xy
u
+ v
+
=
=
x
y x
y
y y
X-Momentum
Y-Momentum
P
=0
y
(1)
(2)
(3)
Lecture 7
Page 1 of 16
Total enthalpy
ht
h
T
uxy +
+ v t =
k
x
y
y
y y
(4)
u2
is the specific total enthalpy, and is the viscosity. For a
2
laminar flow, = ( T ) is a fluid property. Rocket boundary layers are almost always
where ht = h +
turb. u'l'
(5)
where u' is some fraction of the local u, and l ' tends to be of the order of the wall
distance y. The important points about (5) are
(a) turb.
(b) turb. is proportional to density (whereas is not, because the m.f.p. is inversely
proportional to ).
Similarly, the last term on the right in the energy balance, representing the
convergence of heat flux, contains the turbulent thermal conductivity K cpu'l' .
Once again, we notice that K is here proportional to density. We also note that the
turbulent Prandtl number
Pr =
t cp
kt
It is of some interest to note the origin and composition of the viscous term in
equation (4). If we collect the dot products u i t around a fluid element as shown (in
B.L. approximation),
Lecture 7
Page 2 of 16
uxy
y
xy
u
u
u
+ xy
=u
uxy = u
y
y
y
y y
y
(6)
The 1st term in (6) is just the velocity times the viscous net force per unit volume, so
it is the part of the total viscous work that goes to accelerate the local flow. The
second term in (6) is positive definite, and it is the rate of dissipation of energy into
heat due to viscous effects. We will return later to this heating effect.
Approximate Analysis Let us manipulate the right hand side of equation (4):
u T
u K T
+
u
u
+
K
=
y
y y y y y y
and, since
h
T
= cp
, this yields
y
y
u2
2
1 h
+
y y
Pr y
cp
Pr
We note here that, both for laminar and turbulent flows, Pr is a constant,
independent of P and T to a good approximation. In fact, as we noted before, it is
also of order unity ( 0.9 for turbulent flows). So, the RHS of the energy equation
becomes
h u2
2
y Pr
(7)
with ht = h +
y y
2
P
the flat plate approximation
0 , then the pair of equations
x
(1), (4) would become
further to
u
u
u
+ v
=
x
y y y
h
h
ht
u t + v t =
x
y
y y
approximations
(8)
Lecture 7
Page 3 of 16
These are identical equations for u and ht . The same equation would also govern the
linearly transformed variables
u=
u
;
ue
where the
( )e
h=
ht htw
(9)
hte htw
flow (just outside the boundary layer). Both u and h satisfy identical boundary
conditions:
uw = hw = 0;
ue = he = 1
(10)
Pr = 1, x = 0 ,
ht hw
u
=
hte hw
ue
(11)
u2w
= hw . This similarity relation between velocity
2
and total enthalpy profiles is known as Croccos analogy.
y w
K h
K
h
qw =
t
=
cp y
w cp y
(12)
0, since uw = 0
h
h
h
u
where we used t =
h +
= + u
2
y w y
y w y w
w
2
Lecture 7
Page 4 of 16
The group
K
1
should be set equal to unity, for consistency with the stated
=
cp
Pr
approximations. Thus
h
qw = t
y w
ht hw u
u
qw =
hw + hte hw
= e
y
ue
ue
y w
u
and notice that
is the wall shear stress, w . So
y w
qw =
hte hw
ue
(13)
which is also called Reynolds analogy. A more compact form of this can be written in
terms of the Friction Coefficient
cf
(14)
1
u2
2 e e
qw
eue hte hw
(15)
St =
cf
2
(16)
Lecture 7
Page 5 of 16
Tte = Tc = 3000K, while Tw = 1500 < Tt . Are we violating the 2nd Principle of
e
Thermodynamics. Read on.
Simplified Profiles, Across the Boundary Layer
To better understand this situation, let us return to Croccos analogy (equation 11)
2
and write ht = h + u
, and solve for h:
2
h = hte hw
) uu
u2
2
(17)
= hte hw
dy
u
dy
w
w y w
e
or
hte hw
dh
du = u
w
e
(18)
We can use (17) and (18) to sketch h vs. u across the boundary layer. For a case
with he > hw , this looks like
Lecture 7
Page 6 of 16
maximum. But in any case, the wall slope is as if the line were coming from h t e , not
from he . The case when he < hw is more revealing even:
Now the wall slope is seen to be positive (heat into the wall), despite he < hw (as
long as ht > hw )
e
So, the quadratic portion of the Crocco relationship is responsible for the extra wall
heat; this can in turn be traced to viscous dissipation, which accumulates in the
boundary layer and elevates its temperature, so that the wall is heated even when
the outside temperature is low (as long as the flow has high speed).
Modification for Pr 1
We leave for now the issue of the non zero pressure gradient, except to note that it
introduces small modifications down to the throat. The deviations of Pr from unity
are small, and, for gases Pr < 1 (~ 0.9 for turbulent flow). This breaks the perfect
balance between dissipation and conduction responsible for Croccos analogy, in the
sense of favoring conduction of the dissipated heat. As a second consequence, the
temperature overshoot is reduced, and so is the wall slope of T and the heat flux to
the wall. The direct effect of higher conduction ( Pr < 1 ) is accounted for
approximately by modifying Reynolds analogy to
St =
cf
2Pr 0.6
(19)
The secondary effect (reduced overshoot) is accounted for by replacing the driving
enthalpy difference ht hw by haw hw , where haw is the Adiabatic-wall enthalpy,
e
defined as
16.512, Rocket Propulsion
Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 7
Page 7 of 16
haw = he + r
u2e
2
;r
(20)
0.9
(turbulent)
cf
2Pr 0.6
(21)
0.046
R 0.2
e
Re =
eueD
(22)
0.2
0.023 e
Tw )
Pr 0.6 eueD
0.026
0.2
(23)
0.026
qw
Taw Tw
(24)
0.026
D0.2
(25)
At this point we note that the formulation so far has ignored the strong variations of
and across the boundary layer since these quantities depend on temperature as
1
(at P=constant) ; T w ( w
T
0.6 )
(26)
Lecture 7
Page 8 of 16
< T >
e e
Te
Te
;
<T>
e e
(27)
and <T> can be evaluated by several empirical rules. For Mach numbers not much
higher than 1, we can simply use
<T>
Te + Tw
2
(28)
0.026
D0.2
( eue )
0.8
0.8 0.2w
Te
< T >
0.2
e cp
(29)
which is one form of Bartz formula. A more useful form follows from the continuity
equation:
i
P At
m
eue =
= c
, with
A
c* A
R g Tc
()
and where A is the local cross-section, and A t the throat cross-section. Substituting
2
A
D
in (29), and using t = t , the final form is
A
D
0.8
hg =
0.026 Pc
D0.2
c *
t
1.8
Dt
Te
cp 0.2
e
< T >
0.8 0.2w
(30)
1
(a) Smaller throat diameter leads to larger heat flux 0.2
D
t
. This comes
(b) Heat flux is almost linear in chamber pressure Pc0.8 . This limits the
feasibility of high chamber pressures, which are otherwise very desirable.
D 1.8
(c) Maximum heat flux occurs at the throat t . One critical design
D
Lecture 7
Page 9 of 16
(d) Lighter gasses lead to higher heat fluxes, through the combined effects of cp
1
and c * hg 0.6
M
0.8 0.2w
0.68
T
Te
(e) The factor e
is greater than unity. This
< T >
< T >
enhancement of heat flux follows mainly from the fact that the gas in the
boundary layer is mostly cooler than in the core, hence denser. We showed
before that the turbulent heat conductivity is proportional to density.
Example
Consider the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME), which is a Hydrogen-Oxygen rocket
with (roughly) these characteristics:
2.2 107 Pa
Pc = 220 atm
Tc = 3600 K
M = 15g / mol
r
1.25
c* =
R g Tc
()
2600 m / s
cp =
R
1 M
3 105 Kg / m / s
Tthroat =
2800 J / Kg / K
2
Tc
+1
3200 K = Te
Tw = 1000 K
We calculate then
Te + Tw
3200 + 1000
=
= 2100 K
2
2
< T >=
0.8 0.2w
Te
< T >
0.61
3000
2100
1.3
Lecture 7
Page 10 of 16
hg
and qw
( Taw )t
qw
1 2
= Tt 1 + r
= 1.057 3200
2
0.9
3400 K
This is a very high level of heat flux. To visualize the implications, suppose this qw
had to be transmitted through a thin metal plate (thickness , thermal conductivity
k).
T
where T is the temperature drop through the metal .
Lecture 7
Page 11 of 16
More rationally
The St or hg should depend on x, distance from start of nozzle, since the B.L. is still
developing (not fully developed). In addition, there should be some accounting for
acceleration
property variation through B.L.
cylindrical geometry
The article by Rubsin and Inonye (ch. 8 in Rosenhow and Hartnetts Handbook of
Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1973) gives a general formula for turbulent B.L. In an
cylinder, with acceleration:
St ( x ) =
s=
(and hg = euecpSt )
u x
s e e eff Fc1n FRn
e
cf 2
ch
1 found walls.
A
= constants, depending on Reynolds no. based on mom. th.
n
R e > 4000 , A = 0.0131, n =
1
7
1
5
Fc
= Factors for property variability. Can take several nearly equivalent forms. A
FR
Fc =
FR =
(< >)
e
(< >)
Taw = Te + r
< >
Te
Te
< >
(w
T
T
< >
= 0.28 + 0.50 w + 0.22 aw
Te
Te
Te
0.6 )
u2e
1 2
= Te 1 + r
Me
2
2
Lecture 7
Page 12 of 16
The effective distance xeff is related to the actual distance x through an integral
(accounting for memory of past acceleration)
xeff ( x ) =
where f =
z=
f ( x ')
f (x)
dx '
eue zRne
haw hw
hte hw
1
1n
n
Fc FR1 n
u2
haw = he + r e
0.0128 R1 4
e
cf
with
=
2
0.0065 R1e 6
dR e
dR ex
or
(R
(R
e
e
) , and with
> 4000 )
< 4000
0.0128
4 5 4
14
5 R e = 0.0128 R ex
R e
=
R e
0.0065
6 R 7 6 = 0.0065R
ex
R1 6
7 e
e
R e
R ex
dR e
d
=
dx dR ex
0.0366 R 4 5
ex
0.0152 R 6e 7
x
R e < 4000
(R
ex
R e > 4000
0.0366
0.2
R ex
=
=
x 0.0152
R1 7
ex
Lecture 7
Page 13 of 16
throat
be better, despite the common use of Bartzs formulae, which are based on the low
R e formulation. Fortunately, differences tend to be small, and are marked often by
other uncertainties (surface films, fluid properties).
Example and Comparisons:
x=
R R 2 R 2t
2 tan
R c R 2c R 2t
with origin at x = xc =
and
R 2t
1
4 tan x
2 tan
Rc
= 1.5 , = 15o
Rt
Rt
2 tan
xeff
Rt
throat
where
xt
Rt
xc
Rt
5
M 12
1.125
2
1 + 0.125M
R
x
=
tan15o +
Rt
Rt
x
Rt
1 1 + 0.125M2
and 1
1.125
M 2
2.25
1.875
0.6979
2
0.6515 + 0.0464 M
0.9
x
d
Rt
R
4
(x)
R
t
o
tan15
R
M (x)
Rt
x
The integration gives eff
= 1.0892
R t throat
Compared to
x t xc
= 1.153
Rt
xc
= 0.713
and
Rt
Lecture 7
Page 14 of 16
throat) is insignificant.
The throat St is then
( Taw
(0.9)
= 3263 )
(St )throat
Te
2
=
3300 = 2933K )
t
2.25
0.0131
u ( x t xc ) 7
throat
0.771
< T >
Te throat
(3263)
(0.6952)
1000
3300
<T >
= 0.28 + 0.50
+ 0.22
= 0.6979
Te
2933
2933
Take Pc = 2 107 N / m2 ,
M= 25 g/mol
c =
R g Tc
( u ) t =
8.314
3300
0.025
2.25
= 1592 m / s
2 0.5
1.25
2.25
Pc
*
= 12560 Kg / s / m2
xc 1.5 1.52 1
=
= 0.7128
Rt
2 tan15o
xt
1
=
= 1.866
Rt
2 tan15o
T
6.8 105
3000
Lecture 7
Page 15 of 16
One gets,
(St )throat
= 0.00133
(St )throat
0.0293
0.68
0.2
< T >
uxeff
throat Te throat
(0.000933 using xt )
For comparison, the fully developed pipe flows formulation would give
St =
0.2
Rg
ue cp
0.026 c*
D0.2
Pc
t
0.8 0.2w
Te
0.2
e
< T >
At
0.9
1 at throat
(St )throat
= 0.000958
This is close to the R < 4000 results above (and, indeed, the coefficients are for
R < 4000 ). But this appears coincidental, based on the fact that for most nozzles,
x R t .
Lecture 7
Page 16 of 16