AET2114 Ch6 PDF

AET 2114
11/23/2014
CHAPTER 6:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
1
Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

6.1 Introduction
Why Study the Mechanical Properties of Metals ?
It is important for engineers to understand

How the various mechanical properties are measured, and
What these properties represent
The role of structural engineers is to determine stresses and

stress distributions within members that are subjected to welldefined loads
By experimental testing
Theoretical and mathematical stress analysis.
Design structures/components using predetermined materials

such that unacceptable levels of deformation and/or failure will
not occur.
2
By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh
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6.2 Concepts of
Stress and Strain
Static load changes

relatively slowly with
time
Applied uniformly
over a cross-section or
surface of a member.
Tension
Compression
Shear
Torsion
6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain (Contd.)
TENSION TEST
Most common mechanical stress-strain test
Used to ascertain several mechanical properties that are important in design
A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing

tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of the specimen.
A standard specimen is shown in Figure 6-2.
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The specimen is mounted by its ends

into the holding grips of the testing
apparatus (Figure 6-3).
Tensile testing machine

To elongate the specimen at a
constant rate
To continuously and
simultaneously measure the
instantaneous load and the
resulting extension
Load using load cell
Extension using extensometer
Takes few minutes and is destructive.

5
Engineering Stress () = Instantaneous applied

load (F) / Original Area (Ao)
F
A0
Unit: MPa, GPa, psi
Engineering strain ()
l
l l
li = instantaneous length
i 0
l0
l0
lo = original length
COMPRESSION TESTS
Similar to tensile test, compressive load
Sign convention, compressive force is taken negative
stress negative
Since lo > li , negative strain
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SHEAR AND TORSIONAL TESTS
Shear stress : = F / Ao
F: Load or force imposed
parallel to the upper and
lower faces
Ao: shear or parallel area
Shear strain () is defined as the

tangent of the strain angle .
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GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS OF
THE STRESS STATE
Stress is a function of orientations of the
planes
1 cos 2
)
2
sin 2
sin cos (
)
2
cos 2 (
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ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
Linearelastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linearelastic
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior
Elastic deformation:
Non-permanent,
completely reversible,
conservative
Follow same loading and
unloading path
Linear elastic deformation
Hookes Law
Modulus of elasticity or
Youngs Modulus
stiffness or a materials
resistance to elastic
deformation
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6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior (Contd.)
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Nonlinear Elastic
Behavior
Gray cast iron,

concrete, many
polymers
Not possible to
determine a
modulus of
elasticity
Either tangent
or secant
modulus is
normally used.
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6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior

(Contd.)
On an atomic scale, macroscopic

elastic strain is manifested as
small changes in the interatomic
spacing and the stretching of
interatomic bonds.
E is a measure of the
resistance to separation of
adjacent atoms
Modulus is proportional to the

slope of the interatomic forceseparation curve (Fig 2.8a) at
equilibrium spacing
dF
dr ro
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6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior (Contd.)
With increasing
temperature, the modulus
of elasticity diminishes
Shear stress and strain
are proportional to each
other:
Shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity (
Table 6.1)
G
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6.4 Anelasticity
Up to this point, it is assumed that

Elastic deformation is time-independent
An applied stress produces an instantaneous elastic strain
Strain remains constant over the period of time the stress is maintained
Upon release of the load, strain is totally recovered (immediately returns
to zero)
In most engineering materials, there will also exist a time-dependent elastic

strain component , i.e.
elastic deformation will continue after stress application
Upon load release some finite time is required for complete recovery
Loading and unloading path are different
Anelasticity : time-dependent elastic behavior
For metals, the anelastic component is normally small and neglected.

For some polymers, it is significant and known as viscoelastic behavior
(Sec. 16.7)
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6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials
Poissons ratio
lateral strain
axial strain
y
x
z
z
E = 2G(1 + )
Example 6.1
Example 6.2
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PLASTIC DEFORMATION
For most metals, elastic deformation persists only to

strains of about 0.005
Plastic deformation
Stress not proportional to strain (Hookes law cease
to be valid)
Permanent
Nonrecoverable
Non-conservative
Transition from elastic to plastic deformation
Gradual for most metals
Some curvature results at the onset of plastic
deformation
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PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

1. Initial
2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
plastic
elastic + plastic
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
plastic
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3
PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)
Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
tensile stress,
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain,
plastic strain
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Plastic deformation (Contd.)

From as atomic perspective
Plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds
with original atom neighbors
Reforming bonds with new neighbors
Large number of atoms and molecules move relative to one
another
Upon removal of stress, they do not return to their original
position
Mechanism of plastic deformation:
Crystalline Solids:
accomplished by a process called slip
Involves the motion of dislocations (Sec 7.2)
Non-crystalline solids (as well liquids)
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Occurs by a viscous flow mechanism (Sec 13.9)
YIELD STRENGTH, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
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15
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6.6 Tensile Properties

YIELDING and YIELD STRESS
Typical stress strain behavior (Figure)
Proportional Limit (P)
Yielding
Yield strength
In most cases, the position of yield
point may not be determined
precisely.
Established convention: a straight
line is constructed parallel to the
elastic portion at some specified
strain offset, usually 0.002 (0.2%)
Fig. 6.10a corresponding
intersection point gives yield
strength.
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6.6 Tensile Properties (Contd.)
Some steels and other materials exhibit the behavior as

shown in Fig 6.10b
The yield strength is taken as the average stress
that is associate with the lower yield point.
Magnitude of yield strength is a measure of its

resistance to plastic deformation
Range from 35 MPa to 1400 MPa
35 MPa for low-strength aluminum
1400 MPa for high-strength steel
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6.6 Tensile Properties (Contd.)
TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile strength TS (MPa or psi)

is the stress at the maximum on
the engineering stress-strain curve
All deformation up to this point is

uniform.
Onset of necking at this stress at

some point all subsequent
deformation at this neck.
Range: 50 - 3000 MPa
50 MPa for aluminum
3000 MPa for high strength steel
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Tensile Strength, TS
After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
All deformation up to the maximum stress
is uniform throughout the tensile sample.
However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
Subsequent deformation will be confined
to this neck area.
Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
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In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains in
the entire gage length
have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
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Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
UTS
necking
Strain
Hardening
yield
strength
Fracture
5
2
Elastic region
slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture
Plastic
Region
Elastic
Region
E
E
1
E
y
2 1
4
Strain (
) (L/Lo)
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Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Elastic Region (Point 1 2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
or
: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will

no longer return to its original length.)

Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
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Tensile Strength (Point 3)
- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
VMSE
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm
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Example 1
Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy
Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering stress
and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.
Example 1 SOLUTION
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DUCTILITY, %EL
%EL
Plastic tensile strain at failure:

Engineering
tensile
stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
smaller %EL
(brittle if %EL<5%)
L f Lo
x100
Lo
Lo
larg er %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Ao
Af
Lf
Callister 6e.
Engineering tensile strain,
Another ductility measure:
%AR
Ao Af
x100
Ao
Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.

--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
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Effect of Temperature
As with modulus of elasticity (E), the magnitudes of both
yield and tensile strengths decline with increasing
temperature
Ductility usually increases with temperature
Figure shown stress-strain behavior of iron
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RESILIENCE
Resilience is the capacity of a material

to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically and then, upon unloading, to
have this energy recovered.
Modulus of resilience (Ur)

Associated property
Area under the engineering stressstrain curve
Strain energy per unit volume
required to stress from an unloaded
state to yielding
Mathematically,
1
U r d y y y
2
2E
0
2
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Toughness is
the ability to
absorb energy
up to fracture
Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics
Higher toughness: metals
(energy per unit

volume of material).
A tough
material has
strength and
ductility.
Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve.
41
TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material

Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,
smaller toughness (ceramics)

larg er toughness
(metals, PMCs)
smaller toughnessunreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain,
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TOUGHNESS
A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to
fracture.
Specimen geometry and the manner of load application are

important in toughness determination:
Notch toughness: dynamic (high strain rate) loading, specimen
with notch (or point of stress concentration) (Sec 8.6)
Fracture toughness: property indicative of a materials resistance
to fracture when crack is present (Sec 8.5)
For static (low strain rate) condition, modulus of toughness is equal

to the total area under the stress-strain curve (up to fracture ):
For Ductile Material :
For Brittle Material:
U T u f
1
y (0.2%) u f
2
2
U T u f
3
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6.7 True Stress and Strain
Engineering stress-strain curve

beyond maximum point (M) seems
to indicate that the material is
becoming weaker.
Not true, rather it becomes
stronger.
Since cross-sectional area is
decreasing at the neck reduces
load bearing capacity of the
F
T
material
Ai
True stress: Actual or current or
l
instantaneous force divided by the
l
A
D
dl
T
l li i ln l0i ln A0i 2 ln D0i
instantaneous cross-sectional area.
True Strain: Change in length per
Ai li A0l0
44
unit instantaneous length
i
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6.7 True Stress and Strain (Contd.)
Relation between two

definitions
Above equations are valid

only to the onset of necking;
beyond this point true stress
and strain should be
computed from actual load,
area and gauge length.
Schematic comparison in Figure
6.16
Corrected takes into
account complex stress
state with in neck region.
T ln(1 )
T (1 )
45
6.7 True Stress and Strain (Contd.)
For some metals and alloys, the true stressstrain curve is approximated as
Parameter n
strain-hardening exponent
A value less than unity
Slope on log-log plot
Parameter K
Known as strength coefficient
True stress at unit true strain
T K Tn
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6.8 Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
Upon release of load,

some fraction of total
strain is recovered as
elastic strain
During unloading,
straight path parallel to
elastic loading
Reloading
Yielding at new yield
strength
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Strain Hardening
An increase in y due to
plastic deformation.
large hardening
y
1
y
small hardening
unloa
d
reload
T C T
true stress (F/A)
hardening exponent:
n= 0.15 (some steels)
to n= 0.5 (some copper)
true strain: ln(L/L o )
Strain Hardening (n, K or C values)
T C T
true stress (F/A)
hardening exponent:
n= 0.15 (some steels)
to n= 0.5 (some copper)
true strain: ln(L/L o )
50
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Example 2:
Youngs
Modulus - Aluminum Alloy
From the data in Example 1, calculate the modulus of elasticity
of the aluminum alloy.
Example 2: Youngs Modulus - Aluminum Alloy - continued

Use the modulus to determine the length after deformation of
a bar of initial length of 50 in.
Assume that a level of stress of 30,000 psi is applied.
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Example 3: True Stress and True Strain

Calculation
Compare engineering stress and strain with true stress and
strain for the aluminum alloy in Example 1 at (a) the maximum
load. The diameter at maximum load is 0.497 in. and at fracture
is 0.398 in.
Example 3 SOLUTION
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to
localized plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch).
Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed where a small indenter is forced into the
surface of a material.
The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and
corresponds to a hardness number.
The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
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Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
e.g.,
10mm sphere
apply known force

(1 to 1000g)
D
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
measure size
of indent after
removing load
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
d
easy to machine
steels
file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels
diamond
increasing hardness
55
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Hardness Testers
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Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell Scales
- Prepare surface: cleaning and polishing
No major sample damage (Nondestructive)
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
Rockwell Scales
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
Ex: 80 HRB: Means Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale.
Chapter 6 -
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Brinell Scale: No major sample damage
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB, TS: Tensile strength.
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 -
59
Chapter 6 -
60
Knoop and Vickers
No major sample damage
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6.12 DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS

There will always be uncertainties in characterizing the magnitude of
applied loads and their associated stress levels for in-service
applications; ordinarily load calculations are only approximate
Alternatively, a safe stress or working stress, , is used instead of
design stress. This safe stress is based on the yield strength of the
material and is defined as the yield strength divided by a factor of
safety, N, or
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AET 2114

Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Why Study the Mechanical Properties of Metals ?

It is important for engineers to understand

The role of structural engineers is to determine stresses and

Design structures/components using predetermined materials

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

Static load changes

6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain (Contd.)

Most common mechanical stress-strain test

Used to ascertain several mechanical properties that are important in design

A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing

A standard specimen is shown in Figure 6-2.

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain (Contd.)

The specimen is mounted by its ends

Tensile testing machine

Takes few minutes and is destructive.

6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain (Contd.)

Engineering Stress () = Instantaneous applied

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain (Contd.)

SHEAR AND TORSIONAL TESTS

Shear strain () is defined as the

6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain (Contd.)

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

Elastic means reversible!

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior (Contd.)

Gray cast iron,

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior

On an atomic scale, macroscopic

Modulus is proportional to the

6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior (Contd.)

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

Up to this point, it is assumed that

In most engineering materials, there will also exist a time-dependent elastic

Anelasticity : time-dependent elastic behavior

For metals, the anelastic component is normally small and neglected.

6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

For most metals, elastic deformation persists only to

PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION

(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

Plastic deformation (Contd.)

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

6.6 Tensile Properties

6.6 Tensile Properties (Contd.)

Some steels and other materials exhibit the behavior as

Magnitude of yield strength is a measure of its

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh

6.6 Tensile Properties (Contd.)

Tensile strength TS (MPa or psi)

All deformation up to this point is

Onset of necking at this stress at

By: Dr. Tariq Darabseh