ABSTRACT

The physical concepts developed for dosimetry in radiation

therapy or radiation protection are those for radiation
processing.
Dosimetry dose is a parameter or physical quantity that can be
measured and compared against biological or chemical change in
a material .This review highlights some important aspects of
dosimetry and it deals with gamma electron beam radiation
processing, traceability role of dosimetry system selection.
The second part includes the study of important dosimetry
systems for gamma radiation as liquid dosimetry systems with
its specifications ,Also the radiochromic difilms and its updated
applications ,as well as plastic films used in different dose
ranges.
The study also selects some fluorescent systems to electron
beam radiation and some grafted polymer for low dose
applications. Each of the previous dosimetry systems has a
certain range of applications and characterizations to its
conditions of use.
In addition ,the study spots on using ultraviolet dosimeter
for radiation monitoring due to its importance and biological
effects on decreasing ozone layer resulting from ultraviolet
radiation .
Biological trends in radiation dosimetry and its applications
are mentioned as well.

INTRODUCTION
Dosimetry science is defined as the accepted methodology that is
applied to ensure that the radiation process needs specifications .

Dosimetry serves important functions in radiation processing,

where large absorbed doses and dose rates from photon and electron
sources have to be measured with reasonable accuracy. Proven
dosimetry systems are widely used to perform radiation measurements
in development of new process, validation, qualification, and
verification (quality control) of established processes and archival
documentation of day-to-day and plant-to-plant processing uniformity.
A radiation dosimeter is a device, instrument or system that measures
or evaluates, either directly or indirectly, the quantities exposure, kerma,
absorbed dose or equivalent dose, or their time derivatives (rates), or related
quantities of ionizing radiation. A dosimeter along with its reader is referred
to as a dosimetry system. Measurement of a dosimetric quantity is the
process of finding the value of the quantity experimentally using dosimetry
systems. The result of a measurement is the value of a dosimetric quantity
expressed as the product of a numerical value and an appropriate unit. To
function as a radiation dosimeter, the dosimeter must possess at least one
physical property that is a function of the measured dosimetric quantity and
that can be used for radiation dosimetry with proper calibration. In order to
be useful, radiation dosimeters must exhibit several desirable characteristics.
For example, in radiotherapy exact knowledge of both the absorbed dose to
water at a specified point and its spatial distribution are of importance, as
well as the possibility of deriving the dose to an organ of interest in the
patient. In this context, the desirable dosimeter properties will be
characterized by accuracy and precision, linearity, dose or dose rate
dependence, energy response, directional dependence and spatial resolution.
Obviously, not all dosimeters can satisfy all characteristics. The choice of
a radiation dosimeter and its reader must therefore be made judiciously,
taking into account the requirements of the measurement situation .

Properties of dosimeters

High accuracy and precision

Linearity of signal with dose over a wide range
Small dose and dose rate dependence
Flat Energy response
Small directional dependence
High spatial resolution
Large dynamic range

Accuracy and precisions

The precision of dosimetry measurements specifies the reproducibility
of the measurements under similar conditions and can be estimated from the
data obtained in repeated measurements. High precision is associated with a
small standard deviation of the distribution of the measurement results. The
accuracy of dosimetry measurements is the proximity of their expectation
value to the true value of the measured quantity.The uncertainty associated
with the measurement is often expressed in terms of accuracy and
precision .Results of measurements cannot be absolutely accurate and the
inaccuracy of a measurement result is characterized as uncertainty.
Linearity
Ideally, the dosimeter reading M should be linearly proportional to the
dosimetric quantity Q. However, beyond a certain dose range a non-linearity
sets in. The linearity range and the non-linearity behaviour depend on the
type of dosimeter and its physical characteristics.
Two typical examples of response characteristics of dosimetry systems are
shown in Fig. 3.1. Curve A first exhibits linearity with dose, then a
supralinear behaviour, and finally saturation. Curve B first exhibits linearity
and then saturation at high doses.
In general, a non-linear behaviour should be corrected for. A
dosimeter
and its reader may both exhibit non-linear characteristics, but their combined
effect could produce linearity over a wider range.
Dose rate dependence
Integrating systems measure the integrated response of a dosimetry
system. For such systems the measured dosimetric quantity should be
independent of the rate of that quantity.
Ideally, the response of a dosimetry system M/Q at two different dose
rates (dQ/dt)1 and (dQ/dt)2) should remain constant. In reality, the dose rate
may influence the dosimeter readings and appropriate corrections are
necessary, for example recombination corrections for ionization chambers in
pulsed beams.

Ionization Chamber Dosimetry Systems

Chambers and electrometers

Ionization chambers have various shapes and sizes, depending upon
the specific requirements ,but generally all have common properties.
Examples of Ionization Chambers:
1-Cylindrical ionization chamber
2-Parallel-plate ionization chamber
3-Brachytherapy chambers
4-Extrapolation chambers

The following shape represents a cylindrical ionization chamber

Film Dosimetry
Radiographic film
Radiographic X ray film performs several important functions in
diagnostic radiology, radiotherapy and radiation protection. It can serve as a
radiation detector, a relative dosimeter, a display device and an archival
medium. Unexposed X ray film consists of a base of thin plastic with a
radiation sensitive emulsion (silver bromide (AgBr) grains suspended in
gelatin) coated uniformly on one or both sides of the base.
Typical applications of a radiographic film in radiotherapy are qualitative
and quantitative measurements, including electron beam dosimetry, quality
control of radiotherapy machines (e.g. congruence of light and radiation
fields and the determination of the position of a collimator axis, the so called
star

Radiochromic film
The most common used radiochromic film is a GafChromic film and it
is used in radiotherapy dosimetry . It is a colourless film with a nearly tissue
equivalent composition (9.0% hydrogen, 60.6% carbon, 11.2% nitrogen and
19.2% oxygen) that develops a blue colour upon radiation exposure.
Dosimetry with radiochromic films has a few advantages over radiographic
films, such as ease of use; elimination of the need for darkroom facilities,
film cassettes or film processing; dose rate independence; better energy
characteristics (except for low energy X rays of 25 kV or less); and
insensitivity to ambient conditions. Radiochromic films are generally less
sensitive than radiographic films and are useful at higher doses, although the
dose response non-linearity should be corrected for in the upper dose region.
Luminescence Dosimetry
The phenomenon of releasing energy from exciting material after
absorption of radiation calledLuminescence.
Two types of luminescence, fluorescence and phosphorescence, are known,
which depend on the time delay between stimulation and the emission of
light. Fluorescence occurs with a time delay of between 1010 and 108 s;
phosphorescence occurs with a time delay exceeding 108 s. The process of
phosphorescence can be accelerated with a suitable excitation in the form of
heat or light.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter Systems
The TLDs most commonly used in medical applications are LiF:Mg,Ti,
LiF:Mg,Cu,P and Li2B4O7:Mn, because of their tissue equivalence. Other
TLDs, used because of their high sensitivity, are CaSO4:Dy, Al2O3:C and
CaF2:Mn.
TLDs are available in various forms (e.g. powder, chips, rods and
ribbons).
Before they are used, TLDs need to be annealed to erase the residual
signal. Well established and reproducible annealing cycles, including the
heating and cooling rates, should be used.

Other Dosimetry Systems

Alanine/electron paramagnetic resonance dosimetry system
Alanine, one of the amino acids, pressed in the form of rods or pellets
with an inert binding material, is typically used for high dose dosimetry. The
dosimeter can be used at a level of about 10 Gy or more with sufficient
precision for radiotherapy dosimetry. The radiation interaction results in the
formation of alanine radicals, the concentration of which can be measured
using an electron paramagnetic resonance (known also as electron spin
resonance) spectrometer. The intensity is measured as the peak to peak
height of the central line in the spectrum. The readout is non-destructive.
Alanine is tissue equivalent and requires no energy correction within the
quality range of typical therapeutic beams. It exhibits very little fading
formany months after irradiation. The response depends on environmental
conditions during irradiation (temperature) and storage (humidity).
At present, alanines potential application for radiotherapy is in dosimetry
comparisons among hospitals.
Diamond dosimeters
Diamonds change their resistance upon radiation exposure. When
applying a bias voltage, the resulting current is proportional to the dose rate
of radiation. Commercially available diamond dosimeters are designed to
measure relative dose distributions in high energy photon and electron
beams. The dosimeter is based on a natural diamond crystal sealed in a
polystyrene housing with a bias applied through thin golden contacts.
Gel dosimetry systems
Gel dosimetry systems are the only true 3-D dosimeters suitable for
relative dose measurements. The dosimeter is at the same time a phantom
that can measure absorbed dose distribution in a full 3-D geometry. Gels are
nearly tissue equivalent and can be moulded to any desired shape or form.
Gel dosimetry can be divided into two types:
Fricke gels based on the well established Fricke dosimetry;
Polymer gels.
In Fricke gels, Fe2+ ions in ferrous sulphate solutions are dispersed
throughout gelatin, agarose or PVA matrix. Radiation induced changes are
either due to direct absorption of radiation or via intermediate water free

radicals. Upon radiation exposure, ferrous ions Fe2+ are converted into
ferric ions Fe3+ with a corresponding change in paramagnetic properties that
may be measured using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation rates
or optical techniques. A 3-D image of the dose distribution is created. A
major limitation of Fricke gel systems is the continual post-irradiation
diffusion of ions, resulting in a blurred dose distribution.
In polymer gel, monomers such as acrylamid are dispersed in a gelatin
or agarose matrix. Upon radiation exposure, monomers undergo a
polymerization reaction, resulting in a 3-D polymer gel matrix that is a
function of absorbed dose that can be evaluated using NMR, X ray
computed tomography (CT), optical tomography, vibrational spectroscopy or
ultrasound.

Radiation Sources of Sterilization

Sterilization using Electron-Beam Radiation
E-beam radiation is a form of ionizing energy that is generally
characterized by its low penetration and high dosage rates. The beam, a
concentrated, highly charged stream of electrons, is generated by the
acceleration and conversion of electricity. The electrons are generated by
equipment referred to as accelerators which are capable of producing beams
that are either pulsed or continuous.
As the product/material being sterilized passes beneath or in front of
the electron beam, energy from the electrons is absorbed. This absorption of
energy alters various chemical and biological bonds within the
product/material. The energy that is absorbed is referred to as the absorbed
dose.
High-Energy Beams for Reliable Penetration
While commercial e-beam accelerators range in energies from 3 MeV to
12 MeV (million electron volts) and usually operate at a single energy,
advances in technology have resulted in the development of select e-beam
equipment capable of operating at varying energies. For the sterilization of
healthcare products, high-energy electron beams are typically required to
achieve penetration of the product and packaging. When evaluating e-beam
irradiation for the purpose of sterilization,product density, size, orientation,
and packaging must be considered. In general, e-beam irradiation performs

best when used on low-density, uniformly packaged products.

Advantages of E-beam Accelerator
E-beam accelerator has shorter exposure time for favorable material
compatibility so it is suitable for use in sterile health care products.
Although not formulated exclusively for gamma or e-beam sterilization,
some materials have demonstrated less degradation when processed with ebeam radiation. This is due to a significant difference in dose rate between
the two radiation technologies. In general, products processed with e-beam
radiation experience shorter exposure time, which could result in less
oxidative effects on certain materials. Some polypropylene materials, for
example, experience less breakdown and long-term aging effects from
processing with accelerated electrons. However, reports published by
material experts with leading manufacturers of plastics and resins
demonstrate that the vast majority of other materials commonly used in
medical and packaging applications perform equally well, assuming
treatment with the same dose of radiation.
Recent Trends in Radiation Dosimetry
The following table represents the important dosimetry systems for
radiation processing (Table 1):
Dosimeter
Type

Method of Readout

Examples

Calorimeters

Temperature
measurement
EPR spectrometry
Electrical measurement
EPR spectrometry

Graphite, water,
polystyrene
Alanine, sucrose,
cellulose
Diamond crystals and
films

Electrical measurement

Si diodes, MOSFETs

Spectrophotometry
EPR spectrometry
Spectrophotometry

LiF, SiO2, SuprasilTM

glas
Ceric-cerous, organic

Organic
crystals
Diamonds

Semiconduct
ors
Inorganic
crystals
Chemical

Typical Absorbed
Dose Range
(Gy)
101 104
100 105
(dose rate
measurement)
100 104
103 107
102 - 105

solutions

spectrofluorimetry
Spectrophotometry
microdensitometry

acids, ethanolchlorobenzene
Dyed plastics,
polydiacety lenes

Radiochromic
films and
optical wave
guides
Fluorescent
systems

100 106

Spectrofluorimetry
spectrophotometry

Inorgamic and organic

fluors

100 104

Recent advances in dosimetry systems:

"Dosimetry systems" implies not only the radiation sensor itself but
also the analytical methods that relate reproducibility of the radiation
induced signal to the absorbed dose at a location in a given material. There
are important trends in enhancements of existing high-dose dosimetry
systems (e.g., radiochromic films, reference and routine calorimeters, solidstate dosimeters, and chemical solutions) or novel dosimeters, under
development, such as those that can be used and reused after "annealing" or
by "real-time" measurement (diamond detectors, semiconductors, solid-state
devices, amorphous ceramics, and fluorescent sensors) as well as remotesensing systems (McLaughlin, 19090, 1991, 1993a). The increasing use of
electron-beam and x-ray facilities demands more versatile, fast and easily
read systems, for simplicity and cost effectiveness.
Characterizations of Alanine Dosimeter and the recent developments
L- alanine is the most promising dosimeter which is less expensive
and user friendly read-out equipment which may under careful preparation
and calibration qualify as a reference dosimetry system, L- -alanine as
measured by EPR spectrometry (Regulla et al., 1993; McLaughlin, 1993b;
McLaughlin et al., 1993). It is also proving to be useful for transfer
dosimetry, as shown by its application in the IAEA International Dose
Assurance Service (IDAS) these proceedings (Desrosiers et al., 1994).
One of the developed alanine dosimeter systems is a solution of 1,4

phenyl diammonium chloride-alanine . The complex was prepared by

dissolving irradiated L-alanine in 1.4-phenyl diammonium dichloride
solution to be investigated for dosimetry purposes. This complex-having a
purple colour- has an increasing absorbance with increasing dose in the
range of 1-20kGy. The applicability of spectrophtometric evaluation was
studied by measuring the absorbance intensity of this complex at 360 and
505nm, respectively.
Fluorimetric evaluation was also investigated by measuring the
emission of the complex at 435 nm as a function of dose. This method is
easy for routine application. The effect of the dye concentration as well as
the suitable amount of irradiated alanine has been studied. With respect to
routine application, the stability of the product complex after its formation
was also investigated.
Characteristics of L-alanine phenyl diammonium dichloride system
The alanine -1,4 phenyl diammonium dichloride system makes
possible the fast routine evaluation of irradiated alanine dosimeter in
the dose range of 1-20 kGy, i.e. in the food irradiation range.
The dose evaluation can be carried out by two different analytical
methods, i.e. using spectrophotometric (1-10kGy) or fluorimetric (120kGy) analysis.
The analysis is fast with an accuracy of + 5% (1). It has to be carried
out within 5-30min after dissolutionof the irradiated alanine powder.
Performance Alanine/EPR for high dose radiation dosimetry
A new alanine-EPR rod dosimeter (EVAPA) has been prepared by a
simple technique in the laboratory using ethylene Vinyl acetate copolymer
and paraffin wax as binding materials.It was found that The binding
mixture of EVA/Paraffin does not present interference or noise in the EPR
signal before or after the irradiation.
The prepared rods have good mechanical properties adequate for easy
and safe handing because they contain relatively low concentrations of
alanine.
The EVAPA rods can be used with good precision in the dose range from 1
to 125 kGy.
The temperature coefficient was found to equal to +0.21%oC-1.

These rod dosimeters have insignificant dependence on the change of

relative humidity during irradiation.
The overall uncertainty for calibration of the EVAPA rod dosimeters at
2 was found to be 4.56%.
Energy dependence of these rod. Doimeters is insignificant over
100keV.
These dosimeters are fairly stable after irradiation and show little fading
between 2 and 5% over a 180-day storage period depending on irradiation
dose and storage condition.
Aqueous solutions for radiation dosimetry
Several aqueous or organic solutions are finding success as reference
dosimeters for high-dose applications. Two of these systems, ceric-cerous
aqueous acidic solutions (5x102 to 5x104Gy) and ethanol-chorobenzene
solutions (102 to 105 Gy), can be used for both transfer and routine
dosimetry, with readout by electo-chemical potentiometry of the cericcerous sulfate solution (the so-called "COMPU-DOSE System") (Doyle,
1980) or with readout by high-frequency potentiometry of the ethanolchorobenzene solution (HF "oscillometry") (Razem et al., 1985; Kovacs et
al., 1985). It should also be pointed out that aqueous acidic dichromate
solutions have proven to be one of the most successful reference transfer
dosimetry systems for the sterilization dose range (10 3 to 5x104 Gy), as
operated by NPL (Sharpe et al., 1985).
Rhodamine B as a low dosimetry system
Different Rhodamine B concentrations were prepared to be investigated
as dosimeter for gamma radiation measurements. The solutions were readout
spectrophotometrically and spectroflourmentrically using spectrophotometer
and spectrofloumeter. The useful dose range of the solutions ware found to
be 0.1 2 kGy depending on the concentration. Radiation chemical yield
G-value and Fluorescence quantum yield, , were calculated. pH effect as
well as post irradiation stability was studied.
Different storage conditions were investigated. The
spectrophotometric study of RHB was found to have an absorption band 544
nm, decreases with increasing the absorbed dose. It gives a useful dose
range from 100 - 1900 Gy at a concentration range 4.175 x 10 -6 mol/L. As

for the spectrofluormetric readout RHB show an emission band at 622 nm

which decrease upon irradiation. This dosimetry solution system concludes
to give a useful dose range from 50- 600 Gy depending on the dye
concentration. The radiation-chemical yield, G-value, was calculated, also
the fluorescence quantum yield from which it was found that the maximum
efficiency reaction at concentration 1.475 x 10-6 mol/L. Also the solutions
exhibit good stability in dark and white for 79 days at room temperature.
From the above, we can concluded that Rhodamine B characterized in
dosimetry branch is suitable for fresh food staff irradiation processing e.g.
(milk, strawberry).Also it has the advantage of easy preparation and good
sensitivity in the above dose range.
Developing of Formyl violet cyanide for radiation dosimetry
Aqueous solutions of formyl violet cyanide (FV-CN) have been
investigated for potential use in radiation dosimetry using both absorption
and fluorescence evaluation. A radiation-induced absorption band peaking at
590nm was observed and this wavelength was chosen for fluorimetric
experiments, where a radiation-induced emission band develops at 600nm.
The useful dose range of the solution was found to be 400-4000Gy
depending on the FV-CN concentration and the evaluation method. The preand post-irradiation stabilities of the solutions were found to be satisfactory.

Characterizations of Formyl violet solutions

The system is applicable for the measurement of low doses with a dose
range from 200 to 3500Gy, the applicable range depends on the dye
concentration and on the measurement method. Which can be absorption
spectrophotometry of fluorimetry. The pre and post-irradiation stability
studies revealed that the most suitable condition for storage of these
solutions is in the dark at low temperatures.
Diamond crystals and films
Nitrogen-doped synthetic diamond microcrystalline films or chips are
useful as real time dose-rate monitors for long-term use in radiation fields
(Keddy et al., 1988; Nam et al., 1991). These systems consist of a

conglomeration of microcrystalline material attached to electrical leads (e.g.,

fine fold wires). And , with a small DC voltage bias (up to 100 V), various
radiation dose rates up to 103 Gy/min can be read in terms of direct-response
current in the range PA to A (typical dark current at 100 V bias is 5x10 -12 A)
with linearity between current and dose rate. At NIST, a single N 2-doped
diamond detector with gold-wire connectors has been used as a continuous
off-axis electron monitor (1 to 3 MeV) over a total dose estimated at 10 8 Gy
with no appreciable loss or gain in sensitivity. One limitation of these
detectors is the variability of sensitivity from one detector to another, which
requires individual calibration of response.
They also require a conditioninbg irradiation treatment of about 10 Gy
before real-time use, and the temperature dependence of each specimen
must be evaluated.
Tellurium dioxide films for radiation dosimetry
Thin films of Tellurium dioxide (TeO2) were investigated for
-radiation dosimetry purposes. Samples were fabricated using thin film
vapour deposition technique . thin films of TeO2 were exposed to a 60Co
-irraiated samples were calculated. It was found that the optical band gap
values were decreased as the radiation dose was increased. Samples with
electrical contacts having a planar structure showed a linear increase in
current values with the increase in radiation dose up to a certain dose level.
The observed changes in both the optical and the electrical properties
suggest that TeO2 thin film may be considered as an effective material for
room temperature real time- -radiation dosimetry.
Characterizations of Tellurium dioxide films
The possibility of using Tellurium dioxide thin films as a sensitive
material for -radiation was expolored. Films were fabricated using the
thermal vacuum deposition technique. Samples were exposed to a 60Co
-radiation source at a dose rate of 6 Gy/min. the characteristics were
recorded after a fixed exposure time. Absorption spectra for 50 nm TeO2
thin films were recorded and the values of the optical band gap and energy
of the localized states were calculated. It was found that the optical
properties were highly affected by the exposure to -radiation, e.g. optical
band gap values showed a decrease and values of energy of the localized

states showed an increase as radiation dose was increased. Samples having

planar type configuration were used to trace the radiation-induced changes
in the electrical properties of TeO2 thin films. An increase in the values of
normalized current with the increase in radiation dose was observed up to a
dose level of 72 Gy.
The linear response to radiation in both the electrical and optical
properties of TeO2 thin film was thin film was observed up to a certain dose
level. These structures are therefore considered to be an effective material
for room temperature real time -radiation dosimetry.
Radio-chromic dye films
New development in radiochromic films. Major advantages of
radiochromic films and plastic chips are their broad range of response (10 0
to 106 Gy), their wide availability in large, relatively inexpensive batches,
and their ability to map both gamma-ray and electron dose distribution with
high spatial resolution. Disadvantages of some of these systems include
dependence of response on temperature and relative humidity during
irradiation, certain variabilities of response at high dose rates, sensitivity to
ultraviolet light in the case of some systems, and batch-to-batch variability
of response characteristics in some cases.
New developments in radiochromic films
Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films containing methyl viologen (MV2+) that
colours blue upon exposure to ionizing radiation were investigated as
possible dosimeters for use in radiation processing applications. In order to
find the most suitable composition of the PVA-\MV2+ film, different
concentrations of the dye have been studied. The absorbance values at
selected wavelengths, obtained from irradiation of the PVA film containing
the most suitable MV2+ concentration, can be satisfactorily related to the
absorbed dose over a wide range , from 50 Gy up to 40 kGy.The effects of
dose, dose rate , humidity and temperature on the response of PVA-MV2+
dosimeter film have been studied under laboratory conditions .We conclude
that the PVA film containing MV2+ is a promising tool for the absorbed dose
.measurements in several industrial applications of ionizing radiations
Characteristics of PVA/methyl viologen dosimeter

PVA-MV2+ has the advantage of using at three different wave lengths in

:spectrophotometric response as follow
from 50Gy up to 1 kGy at = 399nm;
from 0.5kGy up to 16kGy at = 610nm;
from 1kGy up to 40kGy at = 746nm.
Also it exhibits high sensitivity to the ionizing radiation and the dose
range covering from few tens of Gy to a few tens of kGy .The absorbance
values of the irradiated films show, after an initial post-irradiation increase,
good repeatability and stability for at least 48h. providing a fairly wide time
interval to measure the absorbance of the irradiated film. Although the
absorbances of the films have not shown any significant variation for
different humidity conditions (except for relative humidity of 99%) and in
the 15 45oC irradiation temperature range, hermetic packaging is advisable
for routine use. Since the present investigation showed that dose rate,
temperature, humidity and time effects are not completely negligible, it is
recommended that full in-plant calibration be performed (which ensures
similar irradiation conditions both for calibration and routine dosimetry
during the production run) to minimize the contribution of these influence
quantities to the overall uncertainty (Sharpe and Millr. 1999). Testing of this
dosimeter is in progress at industrial high activity gamma irradiatiors and
high energy, high-power electron accelerators.
Ris B3 films for radiation dosimetry
Ris B3 film dosimeters (23m) prepared from poly (vinyl butyral) (PVB)
incorporating pararosaniline cyanide, as the radiation-sensitive element and
PVB films (25m) prepared from PVB without any additives are investigated
for -radiation measurement using spectrofluorimetry based on their emission
properties. The unirradiated Riso B3 film when excited at 554nm shows an
emission band at 602nm while PVB film shows an emission band at 305nm
when excited at 235nm wavelength. The fluorescence intensity of both
emission bands decreases with the increase of absorbed dose due to the
damage caused by ionizing radiation. The useful dose range of Ris B3 film
extends up to 120kGy while that of PVB film extends up to 60kGy. The
response of Ris B3 film increases with the increase of relative humidity
during irradiation while that of PVB has less effect in the humidity range of
20-70%. The percent uncertainty associated with the measurement of the

dose response was found to be +3% (1) for both films. Ris B3 and PVB
films show good post-irradiation stability in dark and indirect daylight
where the deviation in the response overall a 2-month storage period was
found to be +5% for Ris B3 and +2% for PVB.
Characteristics of ris B3 films
Ris B3 and PVB thin films are suitable for radiation dosimetry using
fluorimetric measurements. The useful dose range of Ris B3 film extends up
to 120kGy while that of PVB film extends up to 60kGy. If properly
calibrated. The response of Ris B3 using fluorimetry increases gradually
with the increase of relative humidity during irradiation. On the other hand,,
there is less effect on response of PVB films in the humidity range from
20% to 70% and the response show reduced sensitivity at both higher and
lower humidites. The average increase of response of Ris B3 and PVB films
as a function of temperature rise is in the range of 4+2% and 2+1% per
10oC, respectively. Both films show good post-irradiation stability in dark
and indirect daylight where the deviation in the response over a 2-month
storage period was found to be +5% for Ris B3 and +2% for PVB.
Nitro blue Tetrazolium chloride/PVA films for radiation dosimetry
The dosimetry characteristics of a poly vinyl alcohol based radiochromic
dye film containing the ditetrazolium salt nitro blue tetrazolium chloride
were studies with respect to the potential use of the films for routine
dosimetry in radiation processing. The useful dose range for the dosimeter
film for gamma and electron irradiation is 5-50 kGy dpending on the
concentration of the dye. The effects of irradiation temperature and
humidity, as well as the stability of the response of the film before and after
irradiation, were investigated and determined. Formulations for preparation
of the films with different concentrations of the dye and with different pH
were tested. The films were also tested in industrial gamma irradiation
facilities for process control purposes by comparing their performance with
transfer standard dosimeters.
The nitro blue tetrazolium chloride containing poly vinyl alcohol based
radiochromic dye film was found to be useful as a new potential dosimeter
for routine process control by measuring its absorbance. It is shown, that
the measurable dose range can be increased by increasing the concentration

of the solute dye. Higher sensitivity of the film was observed when using
solutions of higher pH for its preparation, and the same phenomenon was
found when the films were used in higher humidity environment. Therefore
conditioning of the film in the humidity range of 34-55% is suggested
before irradiation. The performance of the films was found to be affected by
the temperature during irradiation, i.e. at higher temperature higher response
of the film was observed. Tests of this film in an industrial gamma
irradiation facility have shown promise for its use as routine dosimeter, but
corrections are necessary if the calibration and the application of the films
are carried out in different irradiation facilities. In-plant calibration may
minimize these uncertainties arising from application of these corrections.
Ultraviolet radiation monitoring films
A useful radiochromic system is based on a biological stain that when
irradiated changes for the colorless form (triphenyl tetrazolium salts) to the
red-colored dye (triphenyl formazan) (McLaughlin et al., 1991). It can be
used in liquid solutions (alcohol solvents) or in thin films (polyvinyl
alcohol) Kovacs et al., 1994).
Characterizations of Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride/PVA films
Film dosimeters prepared from PVA or PVB containing TTC dye
precursor by a simple technique of casting polymer solution on a horizontal
glass plate ,have been developed and investigated for ultraviolet radiation
actinometry. These colourless films are thin (approx. 0.025 nm), strong
flexible and of good optical quality .
They attain a relatively stable pink colour when exposed to ultraviolet
radiation . The depth of the colour is dependent solely on both tha radiance
exposure and the irradiation wavelength . The useful maximum radiance
exposure which ranges from 6 to 15 kJm-2,depends on the film type and on
the irradiation wavelength. The films have different sensitivities to
ultraviolet radiation ,i.e. the PVA/TTC film has a maximum sensitivity in
the UV-A region while the PVB/TTC film has a maximum sensitivity in the
UV-C region. The use of the two films simultaneously can help in
distinguishing the different regions of ultraviolet radiation spectral response.
The percent uncertainties of estimating ultraviolet radiance exposure by
the films at two standard deviations (2) are found to be 7.2% for PVA/TTC

and 6.8 for PVB/TTC. The post-irradiation stability under different storage
conditions has also been discussed , indicating that both films show an
initial rise in absorbance immediate after irradiation. Then the subsequent
fading of the PVA/TTC film is relatively small (nearly 7%) but does not
equilibrate until about 2 weeks after irradiation . whereas the PVB/TTC
fading nearly 20% stabilizes within 24 h after irradiation.
Also ,it is important to mention FWT film for using in UV monitoring
radiation dosimetry . An important advancement supplement to the wellestablished Nylon-base radiochromic film, traditionally referred to as FWT
60-00, is the new form called FWT-400, with the addition of a background
yellow color (Rickey and Humpherys, 1993a; Rickey et al., 1994;
McLaughlin et al., 1994c). this uniform stable color has an absorption peak
(430nm) away from the blue color abssorption band (600nm) induced by
irradiation, so that spectrophotometry at the two wavelengths after
irradiation makes unnecessary the pre-irradiation read-out of optical density
and obviates the need for film thickness measurement. The response range
for this film is 3x103 to 6x104 Gy.
Another new radiocheomic film for very high doses (104 to 5x105 Gy)
consists of pararosaniline cyanide and p-nitrobenzoic acid in polyvinyl
butyral (Uribe et al., 1993). Using spectrofluorimetric technique based on its
emission properties. The unirradiated colorless film showed an emission
band with maximum emission at 675 nm. The fluorescence intensity
decreases gradually with the increase of the incident energy. The useful dose
range extends form 50 up to 400 J/m 2. Ultraviolet irradiation was carried
out at different controlled temperatures and the kinetic rate constant for each
photoreaction was calculated.
Studding the use of FWT-60-00 gamma dosimeter plastic film for
ultraviolet radiation monitoring, the unirradiated colorless film showed an
emission band with maximum emission at 675nm, where prove that, the
useful dose range expands from 50 up to 400 J/m2.
Bromophenol blue/PVB films for monitoring UV radiation
UV-sensitive indicators based on dyed (PVB) containing acid-sensitive
dye
(BPB) and chloral hydrate as the photosensitive element have been
developed and used successfully to measure the integrated UV irradiance

.This flexible film changes colour from blue to green and finally to yellow
on exposure to UV irradiation.
The radiation-induced change in colour was analysed
spectrophotometrically at the absorption band maxima of 421and
601nm.The film responds faithfully to UVA,UVB and UVC radiation,
showing a maximum sensitivity at 200 nm.
Correlations were established between the incident energy of UV
radiation and the change in absorbance of BPB/PVB films at 421 and
601nm using irradiation wavelengths of 248.5,298.8 and 366 nm. The
assessment of uncertainties , the effect of the irradiation wavelength and
chloral hydrate concentration on the performance of BPB/PVB films and the
post-irradiation stability in different storage conditions were investigated.
The dose at which the film changes colour, i.e. the useful range, depends
on the concentration of chloral hydrate and the irradiation wavelength .The
sensitivity of the film towards the irradiation wavelength increases
exponentially with decreasing irradiation wavelength.
The standard error in estimating the energy incident on the film
dosimeter at 421and 601nm does not exceed 5%. The film dosimeters show
good post-irradiation stability when stored in the dark and measured at 421
and 602 nm or when stored in indirect daylight and measured only at 421
nm. This dosimeter , if suitably filtered , may provide the basis for a UV
badge with many medical and industrial applications in the UVA,UVB and
UVC regions of the spectrum.
Fluorescent dosimeter and its characterizations
Characterization studies on one of the first versions of the Sunna
fluorescent dosimeter have been published by Kovaics and McLaughlin.
This present study describes testing results of a newer version of the
dosimeter (Model batch 0399-20). This dosimeter is a 1-cm x 3-cm
polymeric film of 0.5 mm thickness that emits a green fluorescence
component at intensities almost linear with dose. The manufacturing method
(injection molding) allows potential batch sizes on the order of a million
while maintaining a signal precision on the order of +1% Studies include
dose response. Dose rate dependence, energy dependence , post-irradiation
stability, environmental effects, and variation of response within a batch.
Data for both food irradiation and sterilization dose levels were obtained.

The results indicate that the green signal (0.3 250kGy) works well for food
irradiation dose levels, especially in refrigerated facilities that maintain tight
temperature control. The green signal also works well in sterilization
facilities because its irradiation temperature coefficient above room
temperature is minimal at sterilization doses. If the user requires readout
results in 22h after room temperature irradiation, the user can either
calibrate for a specific post-irradiation readout time(s) or simply heat the
dosimeters in a small laboratory oven to quickly stabilize the signal. Sunna
system emits green fluorescence at intensities almost linear with dose.
This green signal, works well for food irradiation dose levels (0.310kGy). Especially in refrigerated facilities that maintain tight temperature
control. The green signal also works well in sterilization facilities (10250kGy) because its temperature coefficient above approximately 24oC is
minimal for sterilization doses. If the user requires readout results in 22h.
the user can either calibrate for a specific readout time(s) or simply heat the
dosimeters in a small laboratory oven to quickly stabilize the signal. The
Sunna photo-fluorescent dosimeter is a commercially viable, economical
product ready for the marketplace.
Plastic films for high-dose applications
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film dyed with malachite green was studied for
high-dose radiation dosimetry using visible spectrophotometry. A linear
relationship between the relative absorbance and the absorbed dose at the
wavelength 628nm in the range of 0-125kGy was found.
The film dosimeters have good shelf life of more than two months in
darkness whereas; they were strongly affected by day light. The results
indicate that the responses (A/Ao)628 of these films depend on the dye
intensity and the thickness variations and the response of these dyed films is
a linear relationship between absorbed dose and relative absorbance ,the
response is independent on both dose rate and irradiation temperature in the
range of up to 600 C.
Another dosimeter film for high dose applications is the polymer film
containing a mixture of of 2 dyes, Namely 2,6 dichlorophenol indophenol
sodium salt (DCP), and bromo cresol green (BCG) indicator in presence of
different concentrations of chloral hydrate. The color of this film changes
form the blue to purple and finally to yellow, the bleaching reaction for DCP

takes place in the beginning, giving the tinge of purple color, followed by
the transformation of BCG to its acidic form due to the presence of chloral
hydrate.
The response of these films is affected by the change in chloral hydrate
concentration and also the ratio of the 2 combined dyes. Accordingly, these
films could be used as dosimeter in two steps color change indicators, in the
dose rang from 0.2 to 6 kGy. To examine their suitability for eventual
application in different food radiation processing the dosimetric parameters,
e.g. dose response, effect of relative humidity during irradiation on response
as well as pre-and post-irradiation stability of these film are investigated.
For this film system, in the dose range of 0.2-4.5 kGy, only the DCP was
bleached resulting in the possibility of measuring absorbed dose (+5% at 1)
at analysis wavelength 631nm. In the absorbed dose range above 4.5 kGy, a
new absorption band appears at 431 nm due to the formation of the acidic
form of BCG, which could be used for measurement of absorbed dose. The
relative humidity has an acceptable effect (+13%) on the response of this
dosimeter up to 75% RH. In order to avoid this effect. The film dosimeter
must be packed and stored in almost dark area before and after irradiation.
Dyed acrylic acid grafted polypropylene films for high dose radiation
dosimetry
Gamma radiation-induced polymerization of acrylic acid (AAc) onto
polypropylene (PP) film has been carried out under nitrogen atmosphere.
The grafted film of PP-g-PAAc was allowed to react with solutions of two
ionic dyes, namely malachite green (MALG) or methylene green (METG).
The investigations show that these new dosimeter films of PPMALG and
PPMETG may be useful for high-dose gamma radiation applications. The
useful absorbed dose range of the dyed films extends up to about 400 kGy,
with a minimum useful dose of about 5 kGy. The radiation-induced colour
bleaching has been analyzed with visible spectrophotometry, either at the
maximum of the absorption band peaking at 601 nm (for PPMETG) or that
peaking at 623 nm for (PPMALG). The effects of relative humidity during
irradiation, shelf-life and post-irradiation storage in dark and indirect
daylight conditions on dosimeters performance are discussed.
Rhodamine B and Methylene blue dyed grafted poly(vinyl butyral)

films for high-dose radiation dosimetry

Gamma radiation-induced polymerization of acrylic acid (AAc) onto
poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB) film has been carried out under nitrogen
atmosphere. The resulting grafted film of PVB-g-PAAc was allowed to react
with solutions of two ionic dyes, namely Rhodamine B (RB) or Methylene
Blue (MB). The radiation-induced color bleaching has been analyzed with
visible spectrophotometry, either at the maximum of the absorption band
peaking at 552 nm (for PVBRB) or that peaking at 651 nm (for PVBMB).
The investigations show that these dosimeter films may be useful for highdose gamma radiation applications. The useful absorbed dose range of the
dyed films extends up to 600 kGy for PVBRB and 300 kGy for PVBMB,
with a minimum useful dose of about l0 kGy. The type A uncertainty of dose
measurements using PVBRB and PVBMB films at two standard deviations
(2 , approximately equal to 95% confidence limit) was found to be - 8.8
and 9.4%, respectively. The effects of temperature and relative humidity
during irradiation as well as pre- and post-irradiation storage, on the
radiation response of films are studied. These films are highly stable before
and after irradiation and have no appreciable effect of temperature or
humidity on response in the relative humidity range 0-60% and temperature
range 15-60C.

The following figure shows the absorption spectrum of (DCP/CR)/PVA

films non irradiated and irradiated to different doses.

These films contain a mixture of two dyes namely, 2,6 dichloro

phenol indophenol sodium salt (DCP) and cresol red (CR) indicator with
different concentrations of chloral hydrate in poly (vinyl alcohol). The color
of this film changes in two stps i.e. from green to yello and finally to red
color. Due to irradiation, first the bleaching reaction for DCP takes place in
the absorbed dose range up to about 17 kGy, followed by the transformation
of CR to its acidic form due to the presence of chloral hydrate in the dose
range up to 50kGy, followed by the trnasofrmation of CR to its acidic form
due to the presence of chloral hydrate in the dose range up to 50kGy. The
response of these films can be odified by dosimeter in the two dose ranges.
The dosimetric parameters e.g. dose response, effect of relative humidity
and temperature during irradiation on response as well as pre-and postirradiation stability to these films are investigated.
Characterizations of a DCP/PVA films
1-In the dose range of 2- 15kGy only the DCT indicator was bleached
resulting in the possibility of measuring absorbed dose (+5% at 1) at 641
nm.
2-Above 15kGy a new absorption band due to the formation of the acidic
form of CR indicator appears at 527nm. The measured absorbance
increases with dose. Making possible dose monitoring up to 50kGy.
3-In the dose range of 2-17kGy, the humidity has no effect on the
response of the film up to about 80% RH. While the irradiation
temperature increases the net absorbance of the film (0.2%0 C).
4-In order to avoid light effects on the film response, packaging of the

film, storage in dark is suggested before and after irradiation.

Electron beam dosimetry systems

Thin-film dosimeter (Ris B3 and alanine films) were irradiated at 10
MeV and 80-120keV electron accelerators. And it has been shown that the
radiation response of the dosimeter materials ( the radiation chemical yields)
are constant at these irradiation energies. However. Dose gradients within the
dosimeters mean that calibration functions at the lower electron energies will
be dependent on both irradiation energy and the required effective point of
measurement of the dosimeter. These are generl effects that apply to any
dosimeters that have non-linear response functions and where dose gradients
are present within the dosimeter.
The Sunna dosimeter was introduced for dose determination in the dose
range of 50-300kGy by measuring optically stimulated luminescence. The
usefulness of the dosimeter film has already been shown in food irradiation
for routine process control. The aim of the present study was to check the
performance of the Sunna dosimeter film for process control in radiation
sterilization under industrial processing conditions, i.e. at high activity
gamma irradiators and at high energy electron beam facilities. To ensure
similar irradiation conditions during calibration and routine irradiation "inplant calibration" was performed by irradiating the Sunna dosimeters
together with ethanol-monochlorobenzene transfer standard and alanine
reference standard dosimeters. The Sunna dosimeters were then irradiated
together with the routine dosimeter of the actual plant during regular
production runs and the absorbed doses measured by the different
dosimeters agreed within +2% (1)
Both in the cases of gamma and electron radiation processing conditions,
the Sunna dosimeter film calibrated in all cases in-plant prior to test
irradiations was found to be suitable for routine process control purposes in
the sterilization dose range as compared to other routine dosimeter systems
used by the irradiation facilities.
Photo-fluorescent film dosimeter
Results of characterization studies on one of the first versions of the

Sunna photo-fluorescent dosimeter have previously been reported, and the

performance of the red fluorescence component described. This present
paper describes dose response and post-irradiation characteristics of the
green fluorescence component form the same dosimeter film (Sunna
Model ) which is manufactured using the injection molding technique. This
production method may supply batch sizes on the order of 1 million
dosimeter film elements while maintaining a signal precision (1) on the
order of +1% without the need to correct for variability of film thickness.
The dosimeter is a 1cm x3cm polymeric film of 0.5-mm thickness that emits
green fluorescence at intensities increasing almost linearly with dose. The
data presented include dose response, psot-irradiation growth, heat
treatment, dosimeter aging, dose rate dependence, energy dependence, dose
fractionation, variation of response within a batch, and the stability of the
fluorimeter response. The results indicate that, as a routine dosimeter, the
green signal provides a broad range of response at food irradiation (0.35kGy), medical sterilization (5-40kGy), and polymer cross-linking (40250kGy) dose levels.
Thermoluminescence grafted polymer for low dose dosimetry
Radiation-induced graft copolymerization of binary monomer system
acrylic acid/acrylamide (AAc/AAm) (50/50) onto low density polyethylene
(LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) films were investigated. Sulfonation was
carried out for the prepared graft copolymers using concentrated sulfuric
acid (97%) at 60C for 15 min. The sulfonated grafted films found to have a
thermal stability and better hydrophilic character than the grafted ones due to
the ionic character resulting from this conversion. The thermoluminescence
(TL) characteristics of grafted and sulfonated films were studied with regard
to their use as off-line dosimeters in radiotherapy. The structural
characterizations were performed by using FTIR, DSC and TGA. The sulfur
content was determined by elemental analysis (EA). The TL responses were
tested with 60Co beam in the dose range 0.1-7 Gy. The dosimetric
characterization has yielded a very good reproducibility, and independence
of the radiation energy. The TL signal is not influenced by the dose rate and
exhibits a very low thermal fading. Moreover, the sensitivity of the samples
compares favorably than that of standard TLD-100 dosimeters. Finally, at
the same dose the TL response for LDPE-g-P (AAm/AAc) films is higher

than that of PP-g-P (AAm/AAc) and the sulfonated grafted films are more
sensitive to radiation than the grafted ones.
Trends in Biological Dosimetry
Biological dosimetry (biodosimetry) is based on investigations
of induced biological effects (biomarkers) in order to correlate them
with radiation dose. Among the indicators employed in
biodosimetry, scoring of chromosome aberrations is the most
reliable method to quantify individual exposure to ionizing
radiation. The technique, applied to circulating lymphocytes, has
been developed into a routine procedure to evaluate the dose in the
case of real or suspected accidental exposure. Considering the
radiosensitivity of lymphocytes in vitro and in vivo as being the
same, the dose effect relationship obtained after in vitro irradiation
of blood has been widely used, with medico-legal value, for
evaluating individual radiation exposure. This report presents an
overview of strengths, limitations and perspectives on biodosimetry.