Christianity, the Fall of Rome, & the Dark Ages

A.The Roman Empire at height in first & second centuries CE: 1) Territory inclusive of all
the land around the Mediterranean Sea, stretching west to Britain, east to the Persian Gulf, north
to the Rhine & Danube rivers & south to the Sahara Desert. 2) An efficient network of paved
roads, facilitating the movement of troops as well as a lively trade network, covered all this
territory. 3) While the Empire encompassed many diverse ethnic groups and cultures, for the most
part, they lived together in peace and were governed by a fair and standardized set of laws. 4)
Communication was easily facilitated because of the dominance of two languages: Latin (which
dominated the West) and Greek (which dominated the East). 5) About one-third of those living in
the Roman Empire were literate & the rest were either semi-literate (could sign their name and
make out important words) or participated in literate interactions (being read to on a regular
basis). 6) Romans were engineering geniuses: a) arch, b) aqueducts, c) cement, d) plumbing &
sewers, e) Temples of gleaming marble with fine columns & colonnades, f) hippodromes, g) twostory covered shopping malls, h) vast libraries, and i) public bathsthe latter complete with hot
and warms baths and a big cold pools, reading rooms, exercise facilities, running tracks, and even
snack shops. 7) Social mobilityeven non-criminal slaves could earn their freedom. 8) Free
Breads & Circuses 9) Intellectual discourseespecially in Rome & Greek East
B.Marcus Aurelius (161-180) & Disasters: 1) Because of his natural abilities, Marcus Aurelius
was able to push back the Marcamanni, the Quadi, & the Sarmatians, but they were only the first
of many groups attempting to break through the Roman frontier because of the Huns pushing
them from behind. 2) While the Romans were able to defeat the Parthians in the East, they
brought back a devastating plague that lasted a decade (life not normal for awhile).
C. Recovery from Commodus (180-192) to Severus Alexander (222-235): 1) Carcalla (211217) granted Roman citizenship to all freemen, creating a larger tax base & more potential
Roman soldiers. 2) During reign of Severus Alexander, Barbarians beginning to pressure the
Roman frontiers again. Severus tried first diplomacy, & then bribery to convince them to leave
(caused him to lose the respect of the army). 3) New threat from the Sassanid Persians in the East.
D. Third Century Disasters: 1) With the rise of Maximius Thrax (235-238), a new brand of
emperor came to the forefront, with imperial might based upon military expertise against the
constantly invading Barbarians from the northeast and the Sassanid Persians in the east. 2) One
emperor followed another in constant succession & civil wars between general declared by their
troops as emperor became the rule rather than the exception. 3) The constant plagues, wars
against the Barbarians, & civil wars were not cheap, and the imperial treasury could not finance it
all, nor booty gained from battle, and so much of this burden fell upon the Roman people, with
that responsibility weighing heaviest upon those who possessed a certain amount of wealth. 4)
Public offices, once coveted to display their magnificence, were now avoided. 5) During reign of
Valerian (253-60), most local civic coinage minted in various cities like Ephesus came to an end.
E. Third Century Shifts in Worldview: 1) Rise of superstition & suspicion against ideas
popularly believed to cause their current woes. 2) How do you get from sophisticated & tolerant
age to one that is simple-minded and intolerant?the answer: the good days of plenty must turn
into bad days of lack, of hardship, of loss, of desperation, of war, of famine, of unmitigated and
relentless destruction. 3) The uneducated are always a more gullible and superstitious lot and
while this age helped increase their numbers, what really helped sustain their theories of how the
gods operate directly in meting out rewards and punishments were directly caused by these very
trying times. 4) Whenever times got bad (failure of a crops, etc) and they prayed to the gods to no
avail, the natural reaction was that the gods in general were angry about somethingthat
someone or something had made them upset enough to spell out some kind of retribution &
scapegoats are foundin this case the Christians. 5) The cause for this disaster became those who
were not seen as being true to the gods of Romerejecting these mighty Olympians in favor of
the exotic Jewish god that arose from a people always rebelling against the empire.

F. Case Study: Ephesus & the Cult of Artemis from the second to third century: 1) 166/7 CE,
two Roman legions fighting in the Parthian campaign returned back to Ephesus & brought the
plague. 2) Ephesians sent a message to Oracle of Apollo at Claros for aid during this dire
emergency. Apollo instructed that they were to take a golden image of his sister, Artemis Ephesia,
to the Hermos Valley and worship herpraise herand sing songs dedicated to her glory. 3)
Artemis did not appear to be successful in stopping the continual loss of life or with Apollo. 4)
Plague a combination of smallpox and the measles & continued until 180. 5) Epigraphic evidence
of worship of other gods in places dedicated to Artemis, including the gods who are older than
all. 6) Decline in Artemis cult, with other cults gaining prestige. 7) Altar of Artemis in the
Triodos area made into a monument dedicated to the Parthian War, showing how she helped
attempts to revive her prestige. 8) During the reign of Commodus (180-92 CE), the famous
sophist and patron, Titus Flavius Damianus paid for an elaborate portico to cover the Via Sacra
traveling from the city of Ephesus to the Artemisium to encourage Ephesians and other visitors
alike to continue their habit of visiting the Temple of Artemis. 9) Artemis Cult revived during
Severan Dynasty (193-235) but monetary problems evident & concentration of staff. 10) Last
reference to Kuretes during Gordion III (238-44 CE). 11) Asylum privileges up to Philip the Arab
(244-9 CE). 12) Artemis Mysteries up to Valerian (253-60 CE).
G. The Great Plague of 251-271 CE: 1) Plague said to take 5000 in Rome in one day. 2)
Cyprian believed it was the end of the world. 3) Body disposal site discovered at Funerary
Complex of Harwa & Akhimenru in the west bank of ancient city of Thebes.
H. Reforms of Diocletian (284-305 CE): 1) Divides empire administratively between Greek East
& Latin West. 2) Creates Tetrarchy: Rule of Four, with two senior emperors & two junior Caesars
to replace them when the first two retire. 3) Doubled number of Roman provinces from 50 to
around 100, each subdivided into twelve dioceses under authority of a vicarius. a) Both vicarii
and governors became responsible for justice and taxation, while the duty for local military
command fell under a new official called a duces or duke. b) Those collecting taxes below
vicarii and governors were the decurions, typically chosen from the curiales class (landowners,
merchants, and other businessmen/wealthier upper middle class). c) Decurions lost incentive to
serve in local administration & often ruined financially when they did so. 4) Provincial Capital
cities gained prestige. 5) New required city walls to defend urban areas from outside attacks
drained local resources. 6) Diocletian issued Edict of Maximum Prices that attempted to freeze
prices: failed. 7) Issued greatly debased silver coin. 8) Fall of Tetrarchy/civil war.
I. Constantine the Great (306-337 CE): 1) 312: Vision of Constantine of the Cross & the defeats
of Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. 2) 313: The Edict of Milantoleration of all religions
including Christianity: a) As Pontifex Maximus Constantine becomes overseer of all religions
inclusive of Christianity, b) Clergy gained right of full immunity, inclusive of freedom from
compulsory service in military & other public offices (curial office) and taxation. 3) 314: Council
of Arlesasked to decide whether fallen clergy during persecutions were to be let back in Church
(he said yes). 4) Moral Legislation: a) Those who found exposed babies had legal right to them;
b) unclaimed infants placed in asylums; c) laws against abduction of girls; d) equal marriage &
divorce laws (women gain rights); e) curtails slaverybishops gain power of manumission over
their clergy & torture of slaves forbidden; f) stops torture of criminals. 5) Foundation of
Constantinople (330): Founded for strategic not religious reasons. Dedication combined religious
beliefs: chariot of the sun god, Apollo, with a Christian cross over his head. 6) Council of Nicaea
(325): a) Constantine facilitated conference (met in central hall of his palace there & church in
Nicaea) but did not interfere directly in discussed doctrines of 318 bishops. b) Arianism declared
heretical. c) Nicene Creed Established (homoousia). d) Twenty Canons assertedordination
rules, castration, diocese jurisdiction, Sundays, Easter instead of Passover, but New Testament not
mentioned. 7) With Constantine the Great a new avenue opened up for service via the Church. A
wealthy patron now did not feel he had to be a part of the city council or any local governing
power, or even seek imperial patronage, for the Church now offered opportunities for

advancement. 8) Constantine abandoned Diocletians debased silver coins in 310 and issued
strong gold Solidus in 312used unchanged until the tenth century.
J. Fourth Century: Weak Latin WestRevived & Strong Greek East: 1) Public construction
greatly diminished elsewhere except for churches in Gaul, Germania, & Britain. 2) When
Constantine died in 337, he divided the Roman Empire amongst his sons, Constantius, Constans,
and Constantine II; the latter dying soon after and so effectively splitting the empire in two, with
Constans receiving the Latin West and Constantius the Greek East. 3) Constantius sole emperor
from 350 to 361, and also under Julian (361-3) & Jovian (363-4), but divided again after that,
with the Latin West under Valentinian I (364-371), Gratian (371-383), & Valentinian II (375-391),
and the Greek East under Valens (364-378) and Theodosius I in 378who then became emperor
of both the Greek East and Latin West in 391 until his death in 395.
K. Theodosius the Great (379-392 CE): 1) In 391-2, Theodosius made Christianity the official
religion of the Roman Empire, made paganism illegal, and drastically changed the religious as
well as political climate of the Roman Empire that would have a lasting legacy. 2) Ambrose,
bishop of Milan, manipulated Theodosius following his massacre of the Thessalonian in 390 to
gain more power for the Church. 3) When Theodosius dies, he divides the Empire between his
two sons, Honorius and Arcadius. Honorius (395-423) receives the West, while Arcadius (395408) received the East and so the Roman Empire would never be rejoined, the Latin West falling
in 476 and the Greek East falling in 1453.
L. The Fall of the Latin Roman West: 1) Honorius (395-423): a) Half Vandal Stilicho in
control, very able general. b) Vandals, Alans, and Suevi cross frozen Rhine (406). c) Constantine
III declared rival emperor in Britain (407) & evacuates this province to fight Barbarians
devastating Gaul, securing Arles as his capital. c) Alaric, king of the Visigoths, demand payment
of gold or would invade Italy. Senators say warStilicho says pay them and deemed as weak
or working with him. d) Stilicho murdered. e) Roman rise up & kill the wives and children of
German Foedarati30,000 men flee to Alaric. f) Alaric & Visigoths arrive in Rome (408) and
after siege, sack city in 410 CE. 2) Valentinian III (423-455): a) Roman general Atius created a
great coalition, inclusive of both Visigoths and Burgundians, to fight back the Huns & defeats
them at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451. b) Huns still keep fighting & devastate
northern Italy, but convinced not to sack Rome. 3) Sack of Rome by the Vandals in 455 for two
weeks straight. 4) Quick succession of western emperors. 5) Julius Nepos removed by Orestes
who replacing him with his teenage son Romulus Augustulus, who is then deposed by Odoacer,
the head of the German Foederati, in 476. Yet, Nepos still recognized as actual emperor by Greek
East until he is murdered in 480. The Western Empire officially over. 6) The cities in the Latin
West were mostly reduced to places where people gathered for market, retreated for refuge in
times of danger, or went to church once or twice a week. Hence, these towns were where the
bishop lived, where administrators resided, and where the garrisons were stationed
M. Augustine, the Sack of Rome, & the New Latin West Mindset: 1) After Sack of Rome in
410, Romans asked: How could the Eternal City receive such a finite blow without heavenly or
Olympian consent? Why did Rome fall so soon after the Emperors and so many of the populace
of the Roman Empire had accepted Christianity? Was the Christian god to blame? Were the
Christians to blame? Many said the old gods of Rome were angry with the city, with the empire,
because they were abandoned, neglected in favor of this upstart non-Roman deity. 2) Augustine
not only took note of the Visigoths subduing Rome, but also the barbarians known as the Vandals
devastating his own regions about North Africa, getting closer and closer, day by day, to his town
of Hippo. He responded with a passionate work articulating his particular worldview of what was
going wrong and right in the universe known as the City of God. The City of Great was published
over a period of time, from 416 to 422 CE and was contained within 22 books. In the very
modern sense of the word, the City of God was a bestseller. 3) Augustine vigorously told his
audience they were not to look at temporal things, to cities that will ultimately turn to dust, but to
invest themselves in treasures that will last forevertreasures stored in heaven and not on earth.

4) For Augustine there were two kinds of people just as there were two citiesthose people who
lived by the dictates of the flesh would be damned to hell while those who lived by the Spirit
would receive the glories of Heaven. 5) Augustine saw the City of Man as the realm of
disobedienceand the place where the pleasures of the flesh without restraint are embraced and
the passions of the heart and unmitigated desire go unchecked. 6) Christ as crucified on the Cross.
N. The Mindset of the Greek East: 1) Church and State were co-mingled as oneAs in
Heaven, so on Earth, and so the City of God so to speak had descended upon earth and was
being made manifest through those who were believers. 2) Emperor was viewed as the living icon
of Christ himself. 3) Constantinople as the New Jerusalem with Hagia Sophia, the famous
Church, as its Temple. 4) Christ as living and enthroned in Heaven.
O. When did the Middle Ages begin? 1) Marcus Aurelius/Commodus. 2) Constantine. 3)
Theodosius I. 4) Sack of Rome in 410. 5) Romulus Augustulus deposed (476). 6) Arrival of Islam
(632). So, anywhere from 180 to 632 CE.
P. Causes for the Fall of the Western Roman Empire: 1) Increase of epidemics that ravaged the
empire since the end of the second century, depleting populations, especially in the urban centers.
2) The decrease in population led to less tax revenueswith less people you have less people
paying taxes and less people able to support the complex infrastructure of the empirethe
administration and public works, so the roads fell into disrepair, the aqueducts broke down, and
water no longer refreshed many towns and cities, while public buildings began to fall into
disrepair and collapse. 3) With a decreased population, fewer soldiers were able to defend the
empire & so to supplement this loss of manpower German mercenaries were brought into the
legions (having divided loyalities). 4) The Senatorial class & the Church in the Latin West
focused more on their survival than the survival of the army in regards to the Barbarians. The
result, they survived, while the empire did not. 5) Changes in religious values in the Latin West
because of the tough times influenced many to become retrospective concerning worries of the
world and the distractions of the flesh. While in the old days many were encouraged to become a
part of public life and to endow public works, now the ideal became to retreat from the world, to
become a religious cleric or a holy man, or, if you happened to be wealthy, that surplus should be
spent upon the poor or in building churches and monasteries not on urban renewal programs.
Q. Reasons for the Survival of the Eastern Roman Empire/Byzantine: 1) They were not
overrun by Barbarians to the same extent the Latin West & had the financial resources to bribe
them if they could not fight them. 2) The Eastern Empire was better defended and easier to
defend geographically. 3) The East had a higher population to insure military strength & more
people to tax to support the infrastructure. 4) The infrastructure was better organizedthe roads
in good repair, able to move troops and supplies at a moments notice. 5) The religious emphasis
that Constantinople was the New Jerusalem and Hagia Sophia the new Temple, that Christs
Kingdom above was reflected in the empire below, gave those in the Greek East the desire to
participate in the world here and now. This present-mindedness encouraged Roman citizens to
invest in activities beyond that of the Church, inclusive of retaining aspects of ancient civic life.
R. Sixth-Seventh Century Transformations: 1) The reign of Justinian (527-565) was one of
vigorous expansion, with the Greek East reconquering much of the Latin West, including most of
Italy, all of North Africa, and the lower part of Spain. 2) The sixth century still exhibited GrecoRoman conventions, with Neoplatonic very popular (John the Grammarian [490-570 CE]) 3)
Platonic Academy in Athens closed in 529scholars move to Sassanid Persia & join School of
Nisbis. King Khosrau asked Academy scholars to translate their Greek and Syriac texts into
Pahlavi. Sassanid Persians established Academy of Gondishapur that thrived under Muslims. 3)
Under Heraclius (610-641), the Roman Empire was at war with Sassanid Persia, with Syria,
Palestine, & Asia Minor ravaged, but regained territories by 627. 4) Muslims arrive & defeat
Roman army in Battle of Yarmouk (636) & conquer Palestine, Syria, Egypt, & North Africa. 5)
Muslims establish very prosperous Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus (661-750). 6) They cross
into Spain in 71l, conquer it, & develop it into a cultural and intellectual center. No Dark Age.