CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Soap is a cleaning agent, manufactured in bars, granules, flakes, or liquid form, made from a
mixture of mostly sodium or potassium salts of various fatty acids of natural oils and fats.
1.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOAP
According to usage: (a.)Toilet soap and (b.)Laundry soap
According to the process (hot or cold): (a.)soft soap and (b.) hard soap
According to the phase/state of the final product (a.)Liquid soap and (b.)Solid soap
1.2 SOAP MAKING OILS/FAT
OILS: Canol, Coconut, Cottonseed, *Palm kernel*, Soybean, Sesame seed oil, Neem seed oil
FATS: Goat fat, Lanolin, Lard, Mutton fat, Pork fat, Suet, Tallow, Shea nut fat(1)
1.3 PALM KERNEL OIL AND USE IN THE PRODUCTION OF SOAP
Palm kernel oil is almost identical in its soap making properties as coconut oil giving a hard
white bar of soap.
With lots of luscious rather, palm kernel oil is often available partially hydrogenated, easy to
handle/measure flakes or just as a standard liquid oil. As with coconut, you can use it up to about
30% or 35% in your recipes. However like palm oil, palm kernel oil is surrounded by the same
environmental and human concerns.
Palm kernel oil is obtained by grinding and squeezing out oil frm the kernel of a palm fruit.it
contains fatty , organic acid that can react with a base to bring about saponification.

Saponification value of palm kernel oil(2) :Saponification value = Z M 56.1 ( A-B ) = 5.9 0.5
56.1 = 33.1
1.4 OTHER REAGENTS USED IN SOAP PRODUCTION
-Colorant and perfume: Create a more asthetically pleasing product.
- Enzymes : Alkaline protease breaks down proteins in the alkaline conditions created by soda
ash, helping to remove stains.
-Bleach activator: Catalyses sodium perborate breakdown at low temperatures.
-Bleach: Bleaches stains without damaging colour-fast dyes.

-Soda ash: Keeps the pH at 9.0-9.5. This ensures optimum soap function. Also forms insoluble
carbonates with Ca and Mg, so acts as a water softener.
-Caustic soda/alkali/lye: this is the initiator that reacts with the oil to trigger saponification
reaction
Input

Unit process
OIL MELTING

Palm kernel oil

SAPONIFICATION

Light Palm kernel oil

+
Caustic soda

MIXING

Iye + Silicates + Filter

DRYING
Liquid

Liquid soap + Colorant + Scenting agent

CRUSHING

EXTRUSION
Pellet

STAMPING
Furnished soap

Soap production from palm kernel oil

Output
Light oil

Iye

Liquid soap

Condensate

Pellets

Furnished soap

Soap ready for use

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 SOAP PRODUCTION
There are basically four methods of producing soap namely:
1. Melt and Pour: melt premade bars of soap and add your own fragrance
2. *Cold Process*: the most common method of making soap with oil and lye
3. Hot process: a variation of cold process where the soap is actually cooked in a crackpot
or oven.
4. Rebatching: grinding up bars of soap, adding milk or water, and re-blending them
2.1 CASE STUDY: COLD PROCESS
The whole process of production involved in cold process soap making is summarised below:
Slight heating of the palm kernel oil.
mixing of the oil with caustic soda and other reagents by a mixer
drying of the soap mixture.
milling of the semi- finished soap by a crusher
Compression and extrusion of the soap pellets by a plodder.
Imprinting of companys trade mark/name on the soap by a stamper
Cutting the soap into market sizes by a cutter
Packaging of the soap.
2.2 BASIC PROCESSES CARRIED OUT BY BASIC MACHINERIES IN THE COLD
PROCESS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mixer- for mixing the reagents

Crushing: for milling the semi- finished soap
Plodder: for compressing and extruding the soap pellets
Stamper: for imprinting companys trade mark/name on the soap
Cutter: for cutting the soap into market sizes.

FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE BASIC PROCESSES INVOLVED IN SOAP PRODUCTION

See chart in page
2.3 METHOD STUDY ON THE PRODUCTION OF SOAP.
There are several basic Steps or Procedure Involved in a Methods Study.(3)
The basic approach to method study consists of the following steps.
selection
recording
examination of the current method development of an improved
method
installation
maintenance
2.4 EXISTING METHOD OF SOAP PRODUCTION
The work study was done on the production of soap from palm kernel oil. The work study was
limited to the production of bar soap using a discontinuous flow of material through the basic
equipment-mixing drum; crushing machine; plodder; stamper; cutter.

Stages involved in the production of soap from palm kernel oil

(The times below were estimated and some were based on experience)
Stage A: First of all, a 15000ml of palm kernel oil was measured and poured into a big metal
drum. The drum was heated with heat from charcoal in order to lighten the oil. Time taken:
50mins (approximately)
Stage B: The light oil was then poured into a saponification bath where caustic soda(35-40%
concentration) was mixed with the oil for saponification reaction to take place. The mixing and
boiling was done with the aid of a long wooden stirrer and charcoal heat respectively. Time taken
for mixing and boiling(saponification): 15 minutes
Stage C: The resultant mixture was poured over a very wide tray-like floor in order for the slurry
to solidify. Time taken for solidification: 1440 mins
Stage D: The solidified large mass of soap was then splitted with matchet into smaller units
which was carried and fed into the crushing machine together with some additves such as
colorant. The crushing machine was turned ON and after the crushing, pellets of soap was
obtained. Time taken for crushing: Manual time-45 minutes; machine time-10 minutes
Stage E: The soap pellets was packed and fed into a plodder which compressed and extruded the
bars of soap with the outer surface of the bar taking the shape of the orifice through which it was
extruded. Time taken for conveying to the crusher and for compression & extrusion of the first
soap bar-15mins(manual);10 minutes(machine)
Stage F: The long bar of soap was then carried to a manual cutter. The bars were then cut into
market sizes. Time taken for the conveying and for cutting of one bar into five
pieces:15&10mins respectively.
Stage G: The finished soaps were carried to a stamper where the name was imprinted on the
soap. Time taken for moving the soap to stamper& for stamping: 4 minutes
Stage H: The soaps were then moved to packaging section and was packaged manually into
cartons. Time taken for moving and packing of the soap noddles into a carton: 10 & 20mins resp.
2.5 EVALUATION OF THE ABOVE PROCESSES
The heating of the palm kernel oil was very slow. In the Second stage, the mixing of the palm
kernel oil and caustic soda was tideous as it was done manually. Drying process took a very long
time. Splitting of the large mass employed labour and was very tideous. Also, carrying of the
splitted units was tideous. Manual conveying of the output of the crusher to the plodder and from
the plodder to the stamper and from the stamper to the packaging unit took extra time.
The charts illustrating the existing method is given in the following two pages.

CHAPTER THREE
PROPOSED SOLUTION
3.1 Improvements that will be imparted by the improved solution
The proposed solution are such that we will have the following advantages over the current
method:
The time for drying will be less by far.
The improved method requires lesser time than the current method for the soap
production.
The improved method produces a higher quality soap.
There is less material handling required in the improved method.
There is less health hazards and risks in the improved method.
The improved method will make use of a mechanized stirrer and a pouring mechanism to
reduce labour and hazard.
3.2PROBLEMS THAT CAN OCCUR IN SOAPMAKING AND THEIR POSSIBLE CAUSES
VS PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
Problems
Proposed solutions
Curdling of Mixture while stirring (This is due The stirring should not be done continuously
to Fat and/or lye at too high temperature, not
stirred enough or too slowly)
Mixture sets too quickly( Fat and lye
The temperature of Fat and lye should not be
temperatures too high)
allowed to attain a high value.
Layer of oil forms on soap as it cools(due to
A proportional amount of lye should be used
too much fat in recipe or not enough lye)
Hard brittle soap(due to Too much lye)
The lye quantity must be normal(not too much)
Soap smells rancid(due to Poor quality fat, too higher quality fat should be used
much fat or not enough lye.)
Air bubbles in soap(due to vigorous stirring)
Stirring time should be optimized and standard
Mottled soap
The stirring should be uniform.
Warping(due to variable drying conditions)
Drying should be made uniform
Table 1: Problems in soap making and possible causes(3)
3.3 TO IMPROVE THE MARKET VALUE OF THE SOAP
A better quality soap may be made by re-melting the product of the first boiling and adding more
fats or oils and lye as needed, then boil the whole until saponification is complete. The time
required for this final step will depend on the strength of the lye, but 2 - 4 hours boiling is
usually necessary. If pure grained fat and good quality white lye are used, the resulting product
will be a pure, hard white soap that is suitable for all household purposes. Dyes, essences or
essential oils can be added to the soap at the end of the boiling to colour it or to mask the fatty
lye smell and give a pleasant odour.
THE CHART FOR THE IMPROVED METHOD IS GIVEN IN THE FOLLOWING TWO
PAGES.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMPROVED METHOD OF SOAP PRODUCTION FROM
PALM KERNEL OIL
(USING THE SAME QUANTITY AS ABOVE)
The equipments used should be arranged in such a way that each stage is carried out in a
chamber/level higher than the succeeding one to enable dropping(conveying) of the output of
one equipment into the input slot of the next.
STAGE A: After moving the oil to the drum, some of the palm kernel oil was heated in the drum
wrapped with electrical heating coil connected to solar source of power or mains.The drum is
fitted with a mechanism that enables its tilting and pouring of content. while some of the palm
kernel oil is being heated, the remaining quantity should be left under the sun, to enable its slight
heating by solar energy(this is to conserve the fuel burnt during heating). The electrically heated
oil was then mixed with solar-heated oil.
Time taken for moving and heating : 5mins & 40 mins resp.
Stage B: The drum containing the light(heated) oil is then tilted and poured into an electrified
saponification bath. Caustic soda is then added to initiate the saponification reaction which is an
exothermic reaction. Slight heating was applied during this stage.
Stirring is done mechanically with the saponification bath. Time taken for saponification: 10
minutes
Stage C: The resultant mixture from the saponification bath is allowed to drain into a huge
mould for rapid cooling and solidification.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE MOULD AND THE HEAT
EXCHANGER
The mould is jacketted with a shell heat exchanger (with palm kernel oil as the cooling fluid). A
huge fan located under the mould blows cold air to the mould to double the cooling rate.
The mold should have a large surface area to enable the rapid heat transfer rate.
The surface of the mold should be fitted with a good number of fins to increase heat transfer rate.
The mold is made of a material with high thermal conductivity and high resistance to chemical
attack. Such material is aluminium.
The inside surface of the mould is lined with fabric to make the ejection of the solid soap easy.
The fabric material will also aid the diffusion of moisture through the mould in oreder to
improve the quality of the soap.
NB: The motor that drives the fan is the same as the one that drives the crusher. Hence no
additional cost of fuel.

NB: The heated oil in the shell of the heat exchanger was still used for production without the
heating stage.
Time taken for cooling of the same quantity of slurry as above: 100 minutes
Stage C: The cooling mould is opened and the large solid mass of soap falls into the crusher
situated below it for crushing. Time taken for milling: 10min
Stage D: The output of the crusher is fed directly to a plodder by a conveyor for compression,
stamping and cutting of the soap bars.
At the orifice through which the soap bar is extruded, the name of the soap is engraved in order
to enable the imprinting of the name on the soap as it is extruded. Also, beyond the orifice
through which the soap is extruded, a cutting mechanism is situated.
Stage E: Moving of the finished soap to the packaging section and packaging: 7mins and 15 mins
resp.
Percentage reduction in production time:
IN ADDITION,
The ratio of the quantity of caustic soda to oil was calculated using a soap calculator.
Suggested soap calculator: bramble berry soap calculator.
( http://www.brambleberry.com/pages/Lye-Calculator.aspx)
4.2 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE IMPROVED METHOD OF SOAP PRODUCTION FROM
PALM-KERNEL OIL
The new method of soap production from palm kernel oil can be implemented by carrying out
the following procedure:
1. The plant layout is first modified. The older plodder is replaced with a new one which has
a stamper and cutter coupled to its end.
2. The locations/positions of the equipment are then arranged in such a way that there is a
continuous flow of material.
3. Conveyors are introduced between equipments for carrying of the material from one
operation spot to another.
4. Saponifying reagents are mixed in a fixed proportion to ensure uniformity in the quality
of the soap using the lye calculator.
4.3 MAINTENANCE OF THE IMPROVED METHOD
The machine parts should be cleaned on a regular basis.
The movable parts should be well lubricated to avoid sudden break down of an equipment and
hence reduce down time.
Proper training and supervision of workers by a technologist during the production to ensure
optimal use and function of the equipments.
Use of an alternative and standby source of power supply to eliminate delay due to power failure.
Machine set up time should be maintained low.
4.4 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE IMPROVED METHOD

1) Workers should wear gloves and goggles throughout the entire soap making.
2) If sodium hydroxide touches the skin, immediately rinse the affected area with running water
3) Avoid contact with hot oils, as they can burn the skin.
4) Wear masks during heating of the oil to avoid inhalation of toxic fumes during saponification.
5) A clean, orderly, well-lit, and well ventilated work area.
6) There should be easy access to personal protective equipment: a telephone, a fire extinguisher,
and running water.(4)
7.) A large chimney should be located on the roof to enhance escape of toxic fumes.
4.5 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPLEMENTATION OF THE IMPROVED METHOD
1. There will be a halt in the production process.
2. The improved technique will create unemployment for some of the workers.
3. There is increased fuel consumption.
4.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE IMPROVED METHOD
1. Adaptation of the works to the improved method will take some time.
2. There will be more reliance of the production process on power supply.
3. Funds for the implementation may not be readily available.

4.7 HOW IMPLEMENTATION OF LATEST EQUIPMENTS WILL IMPROVE THE METHOD

USED IN SOAP PRODUCTION FROM PALM KERNEL OIL?
Factors influencing productivity can be classified broadly into two categories: controllable (or
internal) factors and un-controllable (or external) factors.
Innovative and latest technology improves productivity to a greater extent. Automation and
information technology helps to achieve improvements in material handling, storage,
communication system, Waste reduction and quality control.
4.8 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, after the evaluation of the current method of making soap, several drawbacks and
delays were pin pointed. An improved method was then proposed which sufficed to solve most
of the problems the current method had. The bulk of the improvement was on the mechanism for
drying/cooling of the soap mixture.
The improved method will produce an equal amount of soap in a lesser time, will maximize
profit, reduce down time of machines, reduce material handling, maximize labour, reduce health
hazards, reduce waste and improve the quality of the soap.
An alternative though quite expensive method of soap production is the use of a duplex-vacuumplodder. This is a very huge machine which takes in the raw material for the soap and produces
the final product with little or no material handling.