Pumps

Types of pumps used in the plant

Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used in industry for applications where large
volumes of fluids must be moved.
Centrifugal pumps have been widely accepted in the petroleum
industry because of their versatility, simple construction, and low
initial cost. Operating costs are lower for centrifugal pumps than
other types because of minimal maintenance and ease of repair.
Unlike positive displacement pumps, centrifugal pumps will not
continue to produce a head when operating against a closed
discharge. Centrifugal pumps perform best when pumping lowviscosity fluids.
Centrifugal pumps can be classified in several ways. They can be
divided according to:
The kind of impeller they contain.
The number of stages they have.
Their axis of rotation.
The method used to drive them.
Their configuration or appearance.
Because centrifugal pumps are available in a great Varity of styles
and have many different uses, they do not always resemble each
other. They all have the same operating characteristics.
Centrifugal Pumps Components
The major parts of a centrifugal pump are the casing, impeller,
shaft, coupling, bearings, and seals or packing (Figure 1.15 &
1.16)

1
Figure 1.15 Schematic Drawing of Centrifugal Pump

Figure 1.16 Typical Centrifugal Pump

A. The casing is the largest and most visible part of the pump. It
can be constructed of cast iron, steel, bronze, or other special
material depending on type of service. The primary purpose of the
casing is to house and protect internal pump parts.
B. An impeller is the part of a centrifugal pump which imparts
energy to the fluid being pumped. It is firmly attached to the shaft
and rotates at the same speed as the shaft. Most impellers are
made of cast iron, but stainless steel, plastic, or other materials
can be used for corrosive fluids.
C. The coupling which connects the driver to the pump transmits
power from the driver shaft to the pump shaft. Couplings must be
able to withstand sudden changes in pump load or stoppage of the
driver. They must be flexible enough to handle misalignment
between the shafts as well as changes in the speed of the driver.
D. The shaft is connected to a driver (e.g., electric motor, engine,
or steam turbine) and turns the impeller. The shaft is usually made
of steel and rotates at the speed of the driver.
E. Bearings support the shaft and reduce the friction as the shaft
rotates in the casing. They also control the forward and backward
movement (thrust) of the shaft, and control the side to side (radial)
movement of the shaft so that rotating parts will not rub against the
pump casing. Bearings may be contained in the pump casing on
small process pumps or in special housings on larger pumps.
F. Seals or packing are used to prevent or reduce fluid leakage
around the shaft. Most centrifugal pumps in the petroleum industry
use mechanical seals. A mechanical seal has a stationary ring
secured in a seal gland which is bolted to the casing and a rotating
ring attached to the shaft. Packing is composed of a series of
pliable rings tightly pressed around the shaft in the stuffing box.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
Introduction
Positive displacement pumps are used in the petroleum industry
for low volume applications or where high pressure is required to
move fluids
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Reciprocating pumps have a piston, plunger or diaphragm moving

back and forth (reciprocating) in a cylinder
Operating Principle
Positive displacement pumps work according to an old law of
nature; that is, no two things can occupy the same space at the
same time. An example: Fill a bucket to the top with water as
shown in Figure 3.28 and then carefully drop a rock into the
bucket. Some of the water is forced out of the bucket because the
rock and water cannot occupy the same space at the same time.
The rock displaces a volume of water equal to the volume of the
rock.
Fluid is drawn into the cylinder, then displacement by a piston,
plunger, etc, and the fluid is forced out the cylinder. Fluid pressure
is increased in the pump by the piston, plunger, etc. pressing
against the fluid in the cylinder.

Figure 1.29 Positive Displacement Pump

Because of all the moving parts in positive displacement pumps,

lubrication is very important.
In addition to lubrication, positive displacement pumps need to be
cooled. Pumps may be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Aircooling relies on ambient air to cool the pump while water-cooling
requires the circulation of water or another coolant through the
pump casing. In larger pumps or in pumps moving high
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temperature fluids, water jackets are commonly used. Water

jackets are channels located in the casing around the hot sections
in the pump, such as bearings and packing locations.
If the discharge line becomes blocked, the piston, plunger, etc.
cannot displace the fluid in the cylinder and pressure will build up.
Excessive pressure can cause the pump driver to stall or the pump
casing and/or discharge piping to rupture. For safety, positive
displacement pumps should always have a safety relief valve and
bypass line located a short distance beyond the discharge port.
A reciprocating pump works with a back-and-forth, straight-line
motion.
Piston:
Fluid-end pistons convert mechanical energy into fluid movement.
In the steam end of the direct-acting pump, the piston converts the
steam into mechanical energy.
Piston ring:
A piston ring acts as a seal between a piston and the cylinder in
which it is operating. The ring moves with the piston.
Plunger:
Some pumps, like the one shown In Figure 3.31, use a plunger
rather than a piston in the fluid end. The plunger slides back and
forth in a stationary packing rather than carrying its own seal.
Cylinder:
The cylinder is a tubular chamber that contains the piston or
plunger.
Cylinder head:
The cylinder head is a cap that seals the cylinder to allow pressure
build-up.
Stuffing box:
A stuffing box is filled with packing to prevent fluid leakage from the
cylinder. It surrounds the plunger, piston rod, and connecting rod.
Valves:
A slide valve controls the flow of steam into the steam end of the
direct-acting pump. On the fluid end of the pump, suction and
discharge valves control the flow of fluid into and out of the fluid
cylinder. The valve on the steam end is mechanically actuated.
The valves on the fluid end are material actuated.
Crankshaft:
In the power pump; the crankshaft transmits motion from the prime
mover to the driving components in the power end of the pump.
Crosshead:
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The crosshead of the power pump converts the rotary motion of

the crankshaft connecting rod into reciprocating motion.
Reciprocating Pump Types
A. Piston Pumps
One of the most familiar reciprocating pumps is the piston pump
(Figure 1.37). The main components of this pump are the cylinder,
piston, piston rings, suction valve, discharge valve, packing, and
pump casing. The piston moves back and forth in the cylinder.
Each complete movement of this piston along the cylinder length is
called a stroke. Movement of the piston toward the driving section
of the pump is called the backstroke (Figure 1.38). A forward
stroke is movement of the piston away from the driving section of
the pump. A full stroke is the movement of the piston from one end
of the cylinder to the other end and back to its original position
Gear Pump
There are many types of positive displacement rotary pumps, and
they are normally grouped into three basic categories that include
gear pumps, screw pumps, and moving vane pumps.
There are several variations of gear pumps. The simple gear pump
shown in Figure 14 consists of two spur gears meshing together
and revolving in opposite directions within a casing. Only a few
thousandths of an inch clearance exists between the case and the
gear faces and teeth extremities. Any liquid that fills the space
bounded by two successive gear teeth and the case must follow
along with the teeth as they revolve. When the gear teeth mesh
with the teeth of the other gear, the space between the teeth is
reduced, and the entrapped liquid is forced out the pump
discharge pipe. As the gears revolve and the teeth disengage, the
space again opens on the suction side of the pump, trapping new
quantities of liquid and carrying it around the pump case to the
discharge. As liquid is carried away from the suction side, a lower
pressure is created, which draws liquid in through the suction line

Gear pump
SCREW PUMPS.
Several different types of screw pumps exist. The differences
between the various types are the number of intermeshing screws
and the pitch of the screws. Figure 5 shows a double-screw, lowpitch pump; and figure 6 shows a triple-screw, high-pitch pump.
Screw pumps are used aboard ship to pump fuel and lube oil and
to supply pressure to the hydraulic system. In the double-screw
pump, one rotor is driven by the drive shaft and the other by a set
of timing gears. In the triple-screw pump, a central rotor meshes
with two idler rotors.
In the screw pump, liquid is trapped and forced through the pump
by the action of rotating screws. As the rotor turns, the liquid flows
in between the threads at the outer end of each pair of screws. The
threads carry the liquid along within the housing to the center of
the pump where it is discharged.
Most screw pumps are now equipped with mechanical seals. If the
mechanical seal fails, the stuffing box has the capability of
.accepting two rings of conventional packing for emergency use

Figure 4-Double-screw, low-pitch pump.

Figure 5 Triple-screw, high-pitch pump

Selection criteria of plant pumps
Parameter
Optimum
Flow and
Capacity
Pressure
Application
Low Flow
Rate
Capability
Requires
Relief Valve
Smooth or
Pulsating
Flow
Variable or
Constant

Centrifugal
Pumps
Medium/High

Reciprocating Rotary Pumps

Pumps
Low Capacity Low/Medium
Capacity

Low/Medium
Pressure
No

High Pressure Low/Medium

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Smooth

Pulsating

Smooth

Variable

Constant

Constant

Flow
Self-priming
Performance
with
viscosity

No
Not suitable
for high
viscosity

Yes
Yes
Suitable for
Optimum with
high viscosity high viscosity

The functions of the pumps in the plant

Should be prepared by Mopco

Start up and shut down procedures
The operator can prolong the life of his centrifugal pumps and
lower the maintenance frequency and cost by using sound orderly
procedures for starting and stopping centrifugal pumps.
A. Starting up Procedure
1. The operator should check where applicable:
a. Cooling water supply to pedestal is commissioned.
b. Pump jacket cooling water supply is commissioned.
c. Motor cooling is commissioned.
d. Gland flush is commissioned.
e. Seal quench is commissioned.
f. Lubrication- pump and motor bearings have the right type of
lubrication and that are lube oil levels.
g. Check that the electric supply is available i.e., the switch gear is
rest and okay.
Note: it depends upon production practice, but in most cases, the
spare pump in any service should be left with the suction valve
open and the pump under suction pressure. His should not stop the
operator carrying out all the routine checks before starring the
pump. There is no excuse not to check oil levels or cooling water,
etc. before starting a pump.
3. With the discharge valve cracked open, start the pump if
electric, by pressing the button.
4. Watch discharge pressure gauge reading come up to normal. If
the pump motor has an amp meter check the load. If the load
remains higher than normal or if there is no discharge pressure,
check for the reason and shut down if this condition remains. Shut
down the pump and inform your supervisor immediately.

5. If the pressure is normal and the motor load is normal, open the
discharge valve slowly.
6. REMEMBER TO CHECK PUMP REGULARLY for bearing
lubrication and temperature and any unusual noises.
B. Stopping Procedure
1. Stop the pump.
2. Close the discharge valve.
3. Depending for what reason the pump was shut down, carry out
any special instructions that might be given.
4.If the pump is to be worked on, make sure that it is isolated
correctly and it is safe so that no injury can happen to the person
working on it.
Normal operation of the pumps
Measurement systems used to monitor the pump
performance
You can monitor:

The temperature at the pump suction and discharge flanges.

The pressure at the pump suction and discharge flanges.
A proximity gage can record the distance between the open
impeller and the pump volute.
Shaft deflection can be measured by proximity gages around
the volute.
Product flow can be measured by a variety of instruments
without penetrating the piping.
Strain gages could tell you if the rotating shaft has locked up
when the pump is stopped.
Vibration can be measured at several locations on the volute.
Noise is easily detected and a valuable source of emerging
problems.
The amount of amperage being drawn by the motor
combined with pump flow and capacity can be an excellent
indication of pump performance.

THE STUFFING BOX AND SEAL AREA

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You can monitor:

Stuffing box temperature.

Stuffing box pressure.
Liquid leakage out of the stuffing box, or air leakage in.
Stuffing box jacket inlet and outlet flow
Stuffing box jacket inlet and outlet temperature.
Seal gland flush pressure, flow and temperature.
The temperature, pressure and flow of the fluid between dual
seals.
Convection tank temperature, pressure and level.
Quench temperate and flow.
Vibration.

THE BEARING CASE

You can monitor:

Oil temperature to let you know if the oil is about to form

varnish or coke.
Oil level.
Case pressure.
Shaft movement or thrust
The amount of water present in the oil.
Shaft speed.
Vibration
Cooling coil inlet and outlet temperature, pressure and flow.

Capacity control of the pumps in the plant

1- Centrifugal pumps
DISCHARGE THROTTLING
Since the pump exists to serve the requirements of the
process, and one of the primary purposes of instrumentation
is to adapt the equipment to the process, let us consider the
pump from the point of view of the process. It can be viewed
as a constant pressure device with an internal restriction.
It is the restriction that gives it the "curve". It seems natural to
put a valve on the discharge to further restrict the pump. This

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has the effect of rotating the curve of the pump/valve system

clockwise around Ppm, as can be seen in Figure 1-3.
At this point I must warn the reader that we are about to
encounter a paradigm shift.
The combination of pump and valve will be presented as a
"black box" with a single characteristic curve which I shall
term the "modified" pump curve.
The more traditional way of looking at the situation is from
the point of view of the pump.

It sees the process system curve as having rotated counter

clockwise around Plm. Figure 1-3 shows that the flow, Q1, is
the same for both cases. The difference between the two
pressures is the Delta P across the valve. Since the purpose
of the pump is to serve the process requirements, and the
purpose of the valve is to adapt the pump to the process, it
makes sense to consider the valve to be part of the pump
system and to use the modified pump curve rather than the
modified system curve in our discussion. In any case it can
be seen that a discharge valve can be used to achieve any
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operating point on the system curve so long as the point is

below the pump curve.
SUCTION THROTTLING
The second possibility for control using valves is to place the
valve in the pump suction line. This would have an identical
effect on the characteristic curve, but the method has a fatal
flaw cavitation. Cavitation is a phenomenon that occurs
when the pressure of a liquid is reduced below its vapour
pressure and brought back up above the vapour pressure
again. Bubbles of vapour form in the liquid and then collapse
upon arriving at the higher pressure region. The collapse
occurs at sonic speed ejecting minute jets of extremely high
velocity liquid. Wherever these jets impinge on a solid
surface extreme erosion occurs. Over time even the hardest
materials will be destroyed. Therefore it is of utmost
importance that this pressure reduction never occurs. It is
prevented by having sufficient pressure available at the
pump suction so that the pressure drops that occur as the
liquid is drawn into the eye of the impeller are at all times
above the vapour pressure of the liquid at its current
temperature.

An explanation of the term Net Positive Suction Head

(NPSH) is in order. This is the pressure of the liquid at the
pump suction in terms of feet or meters of liquid head above
the vapour pressure of the liquid. The actual NPSH under
operating conditions is called NPSHA and the minimum
required by the pump to prevent cavitation is called NPSHR.
Clearly NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR to avoid
cavitation. It is safe to leave a margin of about one meter.

These peculiar definitions are very reasonable in terms

of the pumps actual characteristic but they cause some
problems to the controls engineer. It means that the gauge
pressure equivalent of a given NPSHA is proportional to the
density of the liquid and is also affected by its temperature.
The vapour pressure can rise dramatically as the
temperature rises. This means that the NPSHA can fall
without a noticeable change in pressure.

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Anything that would reduce the net positive pressure at
the pump inlet below the NPSHR must be absolutely
avoided. Thus suction throttling is never used to control
pump flow.

RECYCLE CONTROL

The third remaining possibility for pump control with

valves is to bleed some of the discharge flow back to the
pump suction or to some other point on the supply side.
Once again we can view the result as a modified system
curve or as a modified pump characteristic. Figure 1-4 shows
both. Each curve is a rotation of the original: The modified
system curve as a clockwise rotation around Plm. Note the
little "tail" at the left of the modified system curve. This
represents the flow through the recycle valve before the
discharge check valve opens to the process. The modified
pump curve has a counter clockwise rotation around the
hypothetical intersection of the pump curve with the flow
axis.

This family of curves shows several problems with

recycle control. Firstly, the pump is not rated to discharge
13

more than the flow rate at the end of the curve. It is possible,
of course, to run the pump with a wide open discharge,
minimum D P, but it is unhealthy for this particular pump to
run at such a high rate. Excessive flow may cause cavitation
damage. (Excess flow cavitation is not caused by NPSH
problems but by high velocity within the internal passages of
the pump.) This restriction means that the minimum
discharge pressure may not be lower than the one
corresponding to the maximum flow. In other words, the
modified pump curve cannot reach all points on the system
curve.

Secondly, although many pumps are capable of

operating near zero discharge pressure, the very flat
pressure vs. flow curve for much of the lower range for most
pumps means a change of flow has very little effect on the
discharge pressure.

Thus it would take a very large amount of flow to

produce a small drop in pressure. In control terms this
means that control would be very 'sloppy'. Discharge
throttling on the other hand, allows the pump to develop the
head that 'suits' it. The unwanted pressure is dropped across
the valve. (Note that the curve for this particular pump rises
rather steeply. It will be more easily controlled than most.)

Thirdly, this method is often inefficient. Figure 1-5

shows a system curve, a pump characteristic, a discharge
modified characteristic, and a recycle modified characteristic.
Above these is a pump power requirement curve. In the case
of discharge control, the pump is adapted to the process by
dropping its discharge pressure. If one follows the flow line
vertically to the actual pump curve and then beyond to the
power requirement curve one arrives at its power
requirement. In the case of recycle control, the pump is
adapted by reducing the discharge flow. Following the
pressure line to the right to the actual pump curve and then
upwards to the power requirement curve one arrives at the
power requirement for recycle control. Note that the power
requirement curve tends to slope upward as flow increases.
Therefore recycle control consumes more pump horsepower
than discharge throttling when both achieve the same
14

operating point. This is not always so. If the power

requirement curve were flat, there would be no difference.
Notice on the curve that there is a slight drop in horsepower
near the right hand end. If circumstances were such that the
operating point corresponded to a downward sloping power
curve, recycle control would be more efficient. This is rare.

SPEED CONTROL

There is, of course, one other means of adapting a

pump to the changing demands of the process: Speed
control. The virtue of this method is that it reduces the
energy input to the system instead of dumping the excess.
Figure 1-6 shows a system curve superimposed on a family
of curves for a variable speed pump. The curves reach all
parts of the system curve below the full speed curve.
Therefore this is an effective means of control. Note,
however, that these curves have one feature in common with
recycle control: At the far left end of the system curve the
pump curve and the system curve are almost parallel. (The
particular pump chosen for this example has a rather steeply
rising curve near shutoff. Most are considerably flatter.) In
mathematical terms this means that the intersection is poorly
defined. In practical terms this means that it is difficult to
maintain a precise operating point and that control is 'loose'
at high turndown.

15


In practice, variable speed drives for centrifugal pumps
are still relatively uncommon. For small pumps the power
savings are not significant and for large pumps the
associated electronics become very expensive. Also, they do
not have the high reliability of valves. Variable speed steam
turbine drives are quite common in the larger horsepower
ranges. Electric variable speed drives are used in certain
specialized applications such as pumps that are embedded
inside a high pressure vessel. In such cases there are no
alternatives.

16

Low flow damage problem for centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps have a minimum operating flow rate, below
which the pump should not be run for long periods without
sacrificing reliability. Naturally it is best, from the standpoint of
long-term reliability and operating efficiency, to operate pumps
close to their best efficiency point (BEP), but there may be periods
where reduced flow demand or system changes cause the pump
to run at reduced flow rates. Minimum flow is usually expressed as
a percentage of the flow at the BEP of the pump, for a given
impeller diameter. Extended operation below recommended
minimum flow can lead to excessive vibration, impeller damage
and premature bearing and seal failures. With most sealless
(magnetic drive and canned motor) pumps, the allowable run time
below the minimum flow rate may be only a matter of minutes
before significant damage to the pump can occur.
The recommended minimum flow rate varies considerably
from one size and type of pump to another, ranging from 10 to
60 percent of the BEP flow. The major characteristics of the
pump that influence the determination of minimum flow
include the energy level (horsepower per stage) of the pump,
the specific hydraulic design of the impeller inlet, the
mechanical design of the pump shaft and bearing system and
the cost and criticality of the pump. For sealless pumps, the
amount of heat generated in the canned motor or across the
magnets also is a consideration, as is the specific heat of the
pumped fluid. There is no accepted industry standard for
minimum flow that applies to all pump types, and even
different manufacturers of the same pump type may have a
range of acceptable minimum flows for a given application.
That being said, however, the pump manufacturer is still the
best place to start for the recommended minimum flow for a
particular pump installation. Some manufacturers show this
information on the pump performance curve.
What to do, if anything, to protect the pump from the
consequences of low-flow damage is an economic decision
made by the user. This analysis considers the cost of the pump,
minimum flow protection system and downtime/lost production,
in addition to energy and maintenance costs. Other potential
factors may include health, safety and environmental risks.
17

A significant majority (estimated at over 80 percent) of

centrifugal pumps have no minimum flow protection
whatsoever. The vast majority of the pumps installed annually
are fairly low horsepower pumps used for transfer or cooling,
which are not normally expected to operate over a wide range
of flow. These pumps are unlikely to operate below the
minimum flow point, except for the inadvertent closure of the
main discharge valve or other inadvertent blockage of the
system. Furthermore, many of these relatively low-cost pumps
are not deemed worth the capital expenditure for minimum
flow protection. This is especially true for non-critical pumps
used in residential, commercial and light duty industrial
services.
For the 20 percent or so of pump applications that do require
minimum flow protection, there are number of choices that the
user or system designer has. The determination of which
choice to use considers accuracy, reliability, cost, and
criticality and is very specific to the application. One other
factor in the selection process is whether the pump needs to
be protected for minimum flow in a modulating fashion (i.e.,
keeping the pump operating but with a certain amount of flow
bypassed), or whether it’s sufficient to simply alarm or
trip off the pump in the event that the flow rate drops below
the recommended minimum flow. Finally, additional protection
obtained from the same instrument should be considered
(e.g., a power monitor can protect against both high and low
flow damage to a pump, while a relief valve will only protect
against low flow.) For the 20 percent or so of pump
applications that do require minimum flow protection, here are
10 different methods that may be considered for protection of
the pump. All of these are used in the industry, and some
systems use a combination of these methods for protection
against low-flow excursions.
1. Continuous Bypass
This may be the lowest capital cost method of protecting a
pump, whereby a bypass line with an orifice allows a fixed
amount of flow to be pumped continuously back to the suction
18

source. This always ensures that the pump delivers its

recommended minimum flow, even if the main line is shut off
completely. The most significant negative aspect of this system
is that the pump must be oversized in the first place to allow for
the continuously bypassed flow. Secondly, and sometimes more
importantly, is the fact that energy is wasted due to the extra
horsepower required to accommodate the bypassed flow. There
may also be a potential for product damage when being forced
through an orifice. Still, this alternative is chosen by many
industrial users for pumps in the range of 50 horsepower and
below. The operating cost of a continuous bypass low-flow
protection system can be significant compared to other methods.
For example, a 50-hp ANSI process pump costs $3,320 more
per year to operate with a continuous bypass, compared with a
bypass system that only opens when the flow drops below the
specified minimum.
2. Multi-Component Control Valve System
This type of system relies on a continuous flow measurement in
the system. When the flow drops below the recommended
minimum flow, a signal is sent to a valve in the bypass line that
either opens it completely or modulates the valve so that it
gradually opens. This valve may be a solenoid type if it is strictly
on/off, which is generally the least costly method, or may be a
pneumatically actuated control valve. This method of bypass
eliminates the energy waste of continuous bypass, but relies on
considerably more complexity than a continuous bypass system.
The system includes multiple components, each of which could
fail. It requires a power supply and, if pneumatically actuated, an
air supply. Maintenance costs are typically higher than other
alternatives. As such, it is one of the more costly methods of
minimum flow protection. However, it is deemed by many users
to be the best approach, especially if the system already
includes a reliable method of flow measurement.
3. Variable Frequency Drive
Variable frequency drives (VFDs) change the frequency of the
electric motor on the pump to slow the pump down when the
demand for lower flow is called for by the process. For most
19

systems, this keeps the pump operating near its BEP at all
times, and prevents the moving of the pump to a lower
percentage of BEP that causes the damage to pumps. VFDs
are being used more and more in process applications and
have eliminated the need for other minimum flow protection
when they are being used. (Note that with canned motor and
magnetic drive pumps, there will still be a minimum flow
required to carry away the heat caused by the motor or
magnetic flux, and to lubricate the bearings.) VFDs are
relatively expensive, although the cost has reduced
dramatically in recent years with rapid improvements in
technology. Other benefits of VFDs include lighter loading of
pump seals and bearings, and the ability to “soft
start” equipment at slower speeds, reducing the strain
and high current caused by on-line starts.
Valve4. Automatic Recirculation
This type of valve combines the features of a check valve and
a bypass valve, and has a number of advantages compared to
other approaches. Compared to the multi-component flow
control valve system, it has fewer components, requires lower
installation and operating costs, has less environmental effect
(no dynamic seals) and does not require air or electricity.
Compared to systems that just shut down the pump, it keeps
the pump and the system operating (does not shut down the
process). Disadvantages include its relatively high cost, and
the fact that these valves are not normally available in alloys
higher than stainless steel, thus eliminating many chemical
services. Also, ARC valves are generally unsuitable for fluids
containing solids.
5. Relief Valve
This simply relies on a pressure relief valve in the pump
discharge piping being set to relieve back to suction when the
pressure put out by the pump reaches a certain setpoint
pressure. The characteristic performance curve of all
centrifugal pumps is such that as the pump delivers a lower
capacity (flow), the pressure (head) that the pump produces
gets higher. Some pumps exhibit a steeper capacity versus
20

pressure curve than others. A pressure relief valve is

particularly appropriate for pumps with fairly steep capacity
versus pressure curves. Thus, this is the normally chosen
minimum flow protection system for regenerative turbine style
pumps. It is also the accepted method for protection of many
fire pump systems. (Note: With liquid returning to the suction,
the internal temperature of the pump may rise, so this may
limit the use of the relief valve for an extended period of time.
Also, relief valves are subject to maintenance and
testing/calibration regimens.)
6. Pressure Sensor
This device relies on the fact that as the flow decreases with a
centrifugal pump, the amount of pressure produced by the
pump increases. This high-pressure signal is then used to
either open a bypass valve at a high-pressure (low-flow)
indication, or to simply trip the pump. For pumps with relatively
steep head versus capacity curves, this method can be
economical and reliable. For pumps with flatter head capacity
curves in the low-flow range, it is considered to be less
reliable than other approaches.
7. Amp Meter
The amp draw of the electric motor varies across the range of flow
produced by a pump. For many pumps, the amp draw of the pump
is lower at lower flow rates, and increases with increasing flow.
Thus, it is possible with many pump types to monitor amp draw,
and to alarm or trip the pump when the amps drop below a certain
setpoint level. While this is a relatively inexpensive way to protect
the pump against low flow damage, it has some potential
drawbacks. It may be subject to unacceptable inaccuracy due to
current fluctuations in the system and the fact that the amp draw
curve can be fairly flat at lower flow rates. In general, the lower the
nominal speed of the driver, the less practical amp monitoring
becomes, due to the flatter curve and resulting smaller amp range.
The device may also need to be disabled during start-up of the
pump due to high current draw. On the plus side, an amp meter
can also be used to protect a pump from damage due to excess
flow.
21

8. Power Monitor
Power monitors measure motor horsepower. Since most
pump curves have a horsepower curve that rises with
increasing flow, it is possible to set the motor to shut off if the
power drops below a minimum setpoint, so this is a reliable
protection against low flow problems. Power monitors are
typically more reliable than amp meters, since they are not
subject to fluctuating results with variations in line current. For
pumps with relatively flat head capacity curves, where
pressure measurements aren rsquot reliable, the power
monitor may be the best choice for low-flow protection. Power
monitors can be programmed to protect against excessive
flow (high power), as well as minimum flow (low power). They
can also be programmed to ignore momentary power spikes
where an amp meter might trip the motor. They are adjustable
to allow altering setpoints should the process requirements
change. They aren’t appropriate for many mixed flow
pumps, which may have a nearly flat horsepower curve as a
function of pump flow. If the power monitor measures motor
input power rather than motor output power, it may not be as
accurate, since the efficiencies of small motors at low power
can be quite low.
9. Vibration Sensor
Some pump systems have vibration monitors to alarm or trip
the pump if the pump begins to vibrate excessively. One of the
things that occur at lower flow rates is that the pump may
indeed vibrate significantly higher than normal. (Note that high
vibration levels may also be an indication of other problems
with the pump, such as misalignment, imbalance of the
impeller or cavitation.) This device, while relatively expensive,
is part of the low-flow protection system on many critical
process pumps. If vibration is associated with pump wear or
other factors, such as bearing degradation, it is also possible
to project the time of failure and plan preventive maintenance.
10. Temperature Sensor

22

At very low flow rates, the temperature of the pumped liquid

increases because of the recirculation of the liquid within the
pump that goes on at lower flow rates. Thus, if the pump
discharge is shut off by a closed main valve, the temperature
of the liquid inside the pump will begin to rise. One method of
protecting the pump against this occurrence is by monitoring
the temperature in the pump casing (or containment shell in
the case of a magnetic drive pump), and tripping the pump off
when the temperature rises above a certain setpoint value.
This may be relatively inexpensive but not necessarily too
reliable, because by the time it shuts the pump off, damage
may have already occurred in the pump.
Pumps operation problems
Operation practices that cause frequent seal and bearing
maintenance
Seals and bearings account for over eighty five percent (85%) of
premature centrifugal pump failure. In the following paragraphs we
will be looking at only those operation practices that can, and will
cause premature seal and bearing failure. Design and
maintenance practices will be discussed in other papers in this
series.
When pumps were supplied with jam packing, the soft packing
stabilized the shaft to prevent too much deflection. In an effort to
save flushing water and to conserve power, many of these same
pumps have since been converted to a mechanical seal and the
radial stabilization the packing provided has been lost.
The bad operating practices include:
Running the pump dry will cause over-heating and excessive
vibration problems that will shorten seal life. Here are some of the
common reasons why a pump is run dry:

Failing to vent the pump prior to start-up.

Running the tank dry at the end of the operation cycle.
Emptying the tank for steaming or introduction of the next
product.
Running on the steam that is being used to flush the tank.

23

Starting the standby pump without venting it. Venting a

hazardous product can cause a lot of problems with the
liquid disposal. Many operators have stopped venting for that
reason.
Tank vents sometimes freeze during cold weather. This will
cause a vacuum in the suction tank, and in some cases
could collapse the tank.
Sump fluids are often dirty, corrosive or both. The control
rods for the float switch will often "gum up" or corrode and
give a false reading to the operator. He may think that there
is an adequate level, when in fact, the tank is empty.

Dead heading the pump can cause severe shaft deflection as the
pump moves off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.). This translates
to excessive heat that will affect both the seal and the bearings as
well as causing the seal faces to open, and the possibility of the
impeller contacting the volute when the shaft deflects.

Starting the centrifugal pump with a shut discharge valve is

standard practice with many operation departments. The
concern is to save power without realizing the damage that is
being done to the mechanical seal, impeller, wear rings and
bearings.
Some pumps are equipped with a recirculation valve that
must be opened to lessen the problem, but many times the
valve is not opened, or the bypass line is clogged or not of
the correct diameter to prevent the excessive head. Another
point to remember is that if the bypass line is discharged to
the suction side of the pump the increased temperature can
cause cavitation.
After a system has been blocked out the pump is started with
one or more valves not opened.
Discharge valves are shut before the pump has been
stopped.

Operating off of the best efficiency point (B.E.P.). Changing the

flow rate of the liquid causes shaft deflection that can fail the
mechanical seal and over-load the bearings.

Starting the pump with the discharge valve closed to save

power.
The level in the suction tank is changing. Remember that the
pump pumps the difference between the discharge and
24

suction heads. If the suction head varies, the pump moves to

a different point on its curve.
Any upset in the system such as closing, throttling or
opening a valve will cause the pump to move to a new point
on the curve as the tank fills.
Pumping to the bottom of a tank will cause the pump to move
to a different point on the curve as the tank fills. Some
systems were designed for a low capacity positive
displacement pump and have since been converted to a
centrifugal design because of a need for higher capacity.
Centrifugal pumps must discharge to the top of the tank to
prevent this problem.
If the discharge piping is restricted because of product build
up on the inside walls, the pump will run throttled. This is one
of the reasons that it is important to take periodic flow and
amperage readings.
Increasing the flow will often cause cavitation problems.

Seal environmental controls are necessary to insure long

mechanical seal life. It is important that operations understand
their function and need because many times we find the controls
installed, but not functioning.

Cooling-heating jackets should show a differential

temperature between the inlet and outlet lines. If the jacket
clogs up, this differential will be lost and seal failure will
shortly follow.
Barrier fluid is circulated between two mechanical seals.
There may or may not be a differential temperature
depending upon the flow rate. If a convection tank is
installed, there should be a temperature differential between
the inlet and outlet lines. The line coming out of the top of the
seal to the side of the tank should be warmer than the line
from the bottom of the tank to the bottom of the seals,
otherwise the system is running backwards and may fail
completely. The level in the tank is also critical. It should be
above the tank inlet line or no convection will occur. Some
convection tanks are pressurized with a gas of some type.
Many original equipment (O.E.M.) seal designs will fail if this
differential pressure is lost.
Some seal glands (A.P.I. type) are equipped with a quench
connection that looks like the seal is leaking water or steam.
If there is too much steam pressure on this quench
25

connection, the excessive leakage will get into the bearings

causing premature failure. The steam is often used to keep
the product warm to prevent it from solidifying, crystallizing,
getting too viscous, building a film on the faces etc.
Operating people frequently shut off the quench to stop the
condensate from leaking.
Flushing fluids are used for a variety of purposes, but most of
the time they are used to get rid of unwanted solids. The
flush can be closely controlled with a flow meter or throttling
valve. The amount of flush is determined by the seal design.
As an example, those designs that have springs in the
product require more flush.
It is important to check that the stuffing box has been vented
in vertical pumps. The vent should be coming out of the seal
gland and not the stuffing box lantern ring connection.

There are some additional things that all operators should know to
insure longer rotating equipment life. As an example :

Mechanical seals have an 85% or more failure rate that is

normally correctable. This is causing unnecessary down time
and excessive operating expense. Seals should run until the
sacrificial carbon face is worn away, but in more that 85% of
the cases the seal fails before this happens.
There are five different causes of cavitation.
You should know where the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is
on a particular pump, and how far it is safe to operate off the
B.E.P. with a mechanical seal installed.
You should be aware that washing down the pump area with
a water hose will cause premature bearing failure when the
water penetrates the bearing case.
Learn about the affect of shaft L3/D4 on pump operation.
Know how the pumped product affects the life of the
mechanical seal and why environmental controls are
necessary.
If you are not using cartridge seals, adjusting the open
impeller for efficiency will shorten the seal life. In most cases
the seal will open as the impeller is being adjusted to the
volute. Durco pumps are the best example of the exception
to this rule. The popular Durco pumps adjust to the back
plate causing a compression of the seal faces that can
create mechanical seal "over heating" problems.

26

Cycling pumps for test will often cause a mechanical seal

failure unless an environmental control has been installed to
prevent the failure.
Mechanical seals should be positioned after the impeller has
been adjusted for thermal growth. This is important on any
pump that is operated above 200F (100C) or you will
experience premature seal failure.
Some elastomers will be affected by steaming the system. A
great deal of caution must be exercised if a flushing fluid
such as caustic is going to be circulated through the lines or
used to clean a tank. Both the elastomer and some seal
faces (reaction bonded silicone carbide is a good example)
can be damaged. If the elastomer is attacked, the failure
usually occurs within one week of the cleaning procedure.
The stuffing box must be vented on all vertical centrifugal
pumps or otherwise air will be trapped at the seal faces that
can cause premature failure of many seal designs.
Most original equipment seal designs cause shaft damage
(fretting) necessitating the use of shaft sleeves that weaken
the shaft and restrict pump operation to a narrow range at
the B.E.P..

Here are a few common misconceptions that cause friction

between maintenance and operation departments

Shutting the pump discharge valve suddenly, will blow the

seal open.
All ceramics cold shock.
High head, low capacity consumes a lot of power.
The pump must come into the shop to change a mechanical
seal.
If you use two hard faces or dual mechanical seals in slurry
applications, you will not need flushing water with its
corresponding product dilution.
If you use metal bellows seals for hot oil applications, you will
not need the stuffing box cooling jacket operating.
It is O.K. to use an oversized impeller because throttling
back will save power.

A few more thoughts on the subject

Operators should receive proper schooling on the trouble

shooting and maintenance of pumps. In the military and
27

many modern plants, the operator and the maintenance

mechanic are often the same person. If the operator knows
how the pump works he will have no trouble figuring out the
solution to his problem. Too often he is told to keep the flow
gage at a certain point, or between two values without
understanding what is actually happening with the
equipment. If the operator recognizes cavitation he can tell
the maintenance department and help them with their trouble
shooting.
As you wander around the plant look out for painters that
paint the springs of outside and double mechanical seals.
There is a trend to putting two seals in a pump for
environmental reasons and the painting of springs is
becoming a common problem.
If someone is adjusting the impeller make sure he is
resetting the seal spring tension at the same time.
If the pump is getting hot or making excessive noises, report
it immediately. After the failure, it does no good to tell
maintenance that it was making noise for two weeks.
If you are the floor operator it is common knowledge that
taking temperature and pressure readings is very boring,
especially on those gages that are located in hot or awkward
locations. Avoid the temptation to "radio" these readings.
From hot to failure is a very short trip.
Maintenance's favorite expression is "there is never time to
do it right, but there is always time to fix it." Try to keep this in
mind when the pressure is on to get the equipment running
again.
Do not let cleaning people direct their "wash down" hoses
directly at the pump. Water entering the bearings through the
lip or grease seals is a major cause of premature bearing
failure. Most water wash downs are used to dilute and wash
away seal leakage. Stop the leak and you have eliminated
the reason for the hose.
A great many motor and electrical problems are caused by
these same wash down hoses.
Cooling a bearing outside diameter will cause it to shrink and
the bearing will get hotter as the radial load increases. Keep
the water hose and all other forms of cooling off of the
bearing casing.

Two Basic Requirements for Trouble-Free Operation of

Centrifugal Pumps
28

Centrifugal pumps are the ultimate in simplicity. In general there

are two basic requirements that have to be met at all the times for
a trouble free operation and longer service life of centrifugal
pumps.
The first requirement is that no cavitation of the pump occurs
throughout the broad operating range and the second requirement
is that a certain minimum continuous flow is always maintained
during operation.
A clear understanding of the concept of cavitation, its symptoms,
its causes, and its consequences is very much essential in
effective analyses and troubleshooting of the cavitation problem.
Just like there are many forms of cavitation, each demanding a
unique solution, there are a number of unfavorable conditions
which may occur separately or simultaneously when the pump is
operated at reduced flows. Some include:
Cases of heavy leakages from the casing, seal, and
stuffing box

Deflection and shearing of shafts

Seizure of pump internals

Close tolerances erosion

Separation cavitation

Product quality degradation

Excessive hydraulic thrust

Premature bearing failures

Each condition may dictate a different minimum flow low

requirement. The final decision on recommended minimum flow is
taken after careful techno-economical analysis by both the pump
user and the manufacturer.
The consequences of prolonged conditions of cavitation and low
flow operation can be disastrous for both the pump and the
process. Such failures in hydrocarbon services have often caused
damaging fires resulting in loss of machine, production, and worst
of all, human life.

29

Thus, such situations must be avoided at all cost whether involving

modifications in the pump and its piping or altering the operating
conditions. Proper selection and sizing of pump and its associated
piping can not only eliminate the chances of cavitation and low
flow operation but also significantly decrease their harmful effects.

Understanding Cavitation
In the above, two basic requirements for trouble free operation and
longer service life of centrifugal pumps are mentioned in brief.
1. PREVENT CAVITATION
Cavitation of the pump should not occur throughout its operating
capacity range.
2. MINIMIZE LOW FLOW OPERATION
Continuous operation of centrifugal pumps at low flows i.e.
reduced capacities, leads to a number of unfavorable conditions.
These include reduced motor efficiency, excessive radial thrusts,
excessive temperature rise in the pumping fluid, internal recirculation, etc. A certain minimum continuous flow (MCF) should
be maintained during the pump operation.
Operating a pump under the condition of cavitation for even a short
period of time and have damaging consequences for both the
equipment and the process. Operating a pump at low flow
conditions for an extended duration may also have damaging
consequences for the equipment.
The condition of cavitation is essentially an indication of an
abnormality in the pump suction system, whereas the condition of
low flow indicates an abnormality in the entire pumping system or
process. The two conditions are also interlinked such that a low
flow situation can also induce cavitation.
The concept of cavitation is explored in detail under following
topics:

30

1. Meaning of the term cavitation in the context of centrifugal

pumps.
2. Mechanism of cavitation.
3. General symptoms of cavitation and its effects on pump
performance and pump parts.

Concept of Cavitation
Cavitation is a common occurrence but is the least understood of
all pumping problems. Cavitation means different things to different
people. Some say when a pump makes a rattling or knocking
sound along with vibrations, it is cavitating. Some call it slippage
as the pump discharge pressure slips and flow becomes erratic.
When cavitating, the pump not only fails to serve its basic purpose
of pumping the liquid but also may experience internal damage,
leakage from the seal and casing, bearing failure, etc.
In summary, cavitation is an abnormal condition that can result in
loss of production, equipment damage and worst of all, personnel
injury.
The plant engineers job is to quickly detect the signs of cavitation,
correctly identify the type and cause of the cavitation and eliminate
it. A good understanding of the concept is the key to
troubleshooting any cavitation related pumping problem.
The concept of cavitation is explored under the following topics:
1. Meaning of the term cavitation in the context of centrifugal
pumps.
2. Mechanism of cavitation.
3. General symptoms of cavitation and its effects on pump
performance and pump parts.
1. Meaning of the term cavitation in the context of centrifugal
pumps
The term cavitation comes from the Latin word cavus, which
means a hollow space or a cavity. Websters Dictionary defines the
word cavitation as the rapid formation and collapse of cavities in a
flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure.
31

In any discussion on centrifugal pumps various terms like vapor

pockets, gas pockets, holes, bubbles, etc. are used in place of the
term cavities. These are one and the same thing and need not be
confused. The term bubble shall be used hereafter in the
discussion.
In the context of centrifugal pumps, the term cavitation implies a
dynamic process of formation of bubbles inside the liquid, their
growth and subsequent collapse as the liquid flows through the
pump.
Generally, the bubbles that form inside the liquid are of two types:
Vapor bubbles or
Gas bubbles.
1. Vapor bubbles are formed due to the vaporisation of a
process liquid that is being pumped. The cavitation condition
induced by formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is
commonly referred to as Vaporous Cavitation.
2. Gas bubbles are formed due to the presence of dissolved
gases in the liquid that is being pumped (generally air but may
be any gas in the system). The cavitation condition induced by
the formation and collapse of gas bubbles is commonly referred
to as Gaseous Cavitation.
Both types of bubbles are formed at a point inside the pump where
the local static pressure is less than the vapor pressure of the
liquid (vaporous cavitation) or saturation pressure of the gas
(gaseous cavitation).
Vaporous cavitation is the most common form of cavitation found
in process plants.
Generally it occurs due to insufficiency of the available NPSH or
internal recirculation phenomenon. It generally manifests itself in
the form of reduced pump performance, excessive noise and
vibrations and wear of pump parts. The extent of the cavitation
damage can range from a relatively minor amount of pitting after
years of service to catastrophic failure in a relatively short period of
time.
32

Gaseous cavitation occurs when any gas (most commonly air)

enters a centrifugal pump along with liquid. A centrifugal pump can
handle air in the range of % by volume. If the amount of air is
increased to 6%, the pump starts cavitating. The cavitation
condition is also referred to as Air binding. It seldom causes
damage to the impeller or casing. The main effect of gaseous
cavitation is loss of capacity.
The different types of cavitation, their specific symptoms and
specific corrective actions shall be explored in the next part of the
article. However, in order to clearly identify the type of cavitation,
let us first understand the mechanism of cavitation, i.e. how
cavitation occurs.
Unless otherwise specified, the term cavitation shall refer to
vaporous cavitation.
2. Mechanism of Cavitation
The phenomenon of cavitation is a stepwise process as shown in
Figure 11.
Step One, Formation of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped.
The bubbles form inside the liquid when it vaporises i.e. phase
change from liquid to vapor.
But how does vaporization of the liquid occur during a pumping
operation?
Vaporization of any liquid inside a closed container can occur if
either pressure on the liquid surface decreases such that it
becomes equal to or less than the liquid vapor pressure at the
operating temperature, or the temperature of the liquid rises,
raising the vapor pressure such that it becomes equal to or greater
than the operating pressure at the liquid surface. For example, if
water at room temperature (about 77 o F) is kept in a closed
container and the system pressure is reduced to its vapor pressure
(about 0.52 psia), the water quickly changes to a vapor. Also, if the
operating pressure is to remain constant at about 0.52 psia and
the temperature is allowed to rise above 77 o F, then the water
quickly changes to a vapor.

33

Just like in a closed container, vaporization of the liquid can occur

in centrifugal pumps when the local static pressure reduces below
that of the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature.
NOTE: The vaporisation accomplished by addition of heat or the
reduction of static pressure without dynamic action of the liquid is
excluded from the definition of cavitation. For the purposes of this
article, only pressure variations that cause cavitation shall be
explored.
Temperature changes must be considered only when dealing with
systems that introduce or remove heat from the fluid being
pumped.
To understand vaporization, two important points to remember are:
1. We consider only the static pressure and not the total
pressure when determining if the system pressure is less than
or greater than the liquid vapor pressure. The total pressure is
the sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure (due to
velocity)
2. The terms pressure and head have different meanings and
they should not be confused. As a convention in this article, the
term pressure shall be used to understand the concept of
cavitation whereas the term head shall be used in equations.

34

Figure 11: Phenomenon of Cavitation

Thus, the key concept is - vapor bubbles form due to vaporization
of the liquid being pumped when the local static pressure at any
point inside the pump becomes equal to or less than the vapor
pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature.
How does pressure reduction occur in a pump system?
The reduction in local static pressure at any point inside the pump
can occur under two conditions:
1. The actual pressure drop in the external suction system is
greater than that considered during design. As a result, the
pressure available at pump suction is not sufficiently high
enough to overcome the design pressure drop inside the pump.
2. The actual pressure drop inside the pump is greater than that
considered during the
pump design.
Step Two, Growth of bubbles
Unless there is no change in the operating conditions, new
bubbles continue to form and old bubbles grow in size. The
bubbles then get carried in the liquid as it flows from the impeller
eye to the impeller exit tip along the vane trailing edge. Due to
impeller rotating action, the bubbles attain very high velocity and
eventually reach the regions of high pressure within the impeller
where they start collapsing. The life cycle of a bubble has been
estimated to be in the order of 0.003 seconds.
Step Three, Collapse of bubbles
As the vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes, the pressure
localized hammering effect can pit the pump impeller. The pitting
effect is illustrated schematically in Figure 12.

After the bubble collapses, a shock wave emanates outward from

the point of collapse.
35

In nutshell, the mechanism of cavitation is all about formation,

growth and collapse of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. But
how can the knowledge of mechanism of
cavitation can really help in troubleshooting a cavitation problem.
The concept of mechanism can help in identifying the type of
bubbles and the cause of their formation and collapse. The
troubleshooting method shall be explored in detail in the next part
of the article.
Next let us explore the general symptoms of cavitation and its
affects on pump performance.
3- General Symptoms of Cavitation and its Affects Pump
Performance and Pump Parts
Perceptible indications of the cavitation during pump operation are
more or less loud noises, vibrations and an unsteadily working
pump. Fluctuations in flow and discharge pressure take place with
a sudden and drastic reduction in head rise and pump capacity.

Figure 12: Collapse of a Vapor Bubble

36

Depending upon the size and quantum of the bubbles formed and
the severity of their collapse, the pump faces problems ranging
from a partial loss in capacity and head to total failure in pumping
along with irreparable damages to the internal parts. It requires a
lot of experience and thorough investigation of effects of cavitation
on pump parts to clearly identify the type and root causes of
cavitation.
A detailed description of the general symptoms is given as under.
Reduction

in capacity of the pump:

The formation of bubbles causes a volume increase decreasing
the space available for the liquid and thus diminish pumping
capacity. For example, when water changes state from liquid to
gas its volume increases by approximately 1,700 times. If the
bubbles get big enough at the eye of the impeller, the pump
chokes i.e. loses all suction resulting in a total reduction in flow.
The unequal and uneven formation and collapse of bubbles
causes fluctuations in the flow and the pumping of liquid occurs in
spurts. This symptom is common to all types of cavitations.
Decrease in the head developed:
Bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. The head developed
diminishes drastically because energy has to be expended to
increase the velocity of the liquid used to fill up the cavities, as the
bubbles collapse. As mentioned earlier, The Hydraulic Standards
Institute defines cavitation as condition of 3 % drop in head
developed across the pump. Like reduction in capacity, this
symptom is also common to all types of cavitations.
Thus, the hydraulic effect of a cavitating pump is that the pump
performance drops off of its expected performance curve, referred
to as break away, producing a lower than expected head and flow.
The Figure 14 depicts the typical performance curves. The solid
line curves represent a condition of adequate NPSHa whereas the
dotted lines depict the condition of inadequate NPSHa i.e. the
condition of cavitation.

37

Figure 13: Pump Performance Curves

Abnormal sound and vibrations:
It is movement of bubbles with very high velocities from lowpressure area to a high-pressure area and subsequent collapse
that creates shockwaves producing abnormal sounds and
vibrations. It has been estimated that during collapse of bubbles
the pressures of the order of 10 atm develops.
The sound of cavitation can be described as similar to small hard
particles or gravel rapidly striking or bouncing off the interior parts
of a pump or valve. Various terms like rattling, knocking, crackling
are used to describe the abnormal sounds. The sound of pumps
operating while cavitating can range from a low-pitched steady
knocking sound (like on a door) to a high-pitched and random
crackling (similar to a metallic impact).
People can easily mistake cavitation for a bad bearing in a pump
motor. To distinguish between the noise due to a bad bearing or
38

cavitation, operate the pump with no flow. The disappearance of

noise will be an indication of cavitation.
Similarly, vibration is due to the uneven loading of the impeller as
the mixture of vapor and liquid passes through it, and to the local
shock wave that occurs as each bubble collapses. Very few
vibration reference manuals agree on the primary vibration
characteristic associated with pump cavitation. Formation and
collapsing of bubbles will alternate periodically with the frequency
resulting out of the product of speed and number of blades. Some
suggest that the vibrations associated with cavitation produce a
broadband peak at high frequencies above 2,000 Hertz. Some
suggest that cavitation follows the vane pass frequency (number of
vanes times the running speed frequency) and yet another indicate
that it affects peak vibration amplitude at one times running speed.
All of these indications are correct in that pump cavitation can
produce various vibration frequencies depending on the cavitation
type, pump design, installation and use.
The excessive vibration caused by cavitation often subsequently
causes a failure of the pumps seal and/or bearings. This is the
most likely failure mode of a cavitating pump.
Damage to pump parts:
Cavitation erosion or pitting
During cavitation, the collapse of the bubbles occurs at sonic
speed ejecting destructive micro jets of extremely high velocity (up
to 1000 m/s) liquid strong enough to cause extreme erosion of the
pump parts, particularly impellers. The bubble is trying to collapse
from all sides, but if the bubble is lying against a piece of metal
such as the impeller or volute it cannot collapse from that side. So
the fluid comes in from the opposite side at this high velocity and
bangs against the metal creating the impression that the metal was
hit with a "ball pin hammer". The resulting long-term material
damage begins to become visible by so called
Pits (see Figure 14), which are plastic deformations of very small
dimensions (order of magnitude of micrometers). The damage
caused due to action of bubble collapse is commonly referred as
Cavitation erosion or pitting. The Figure 14 depicts the cavitation
pitting effect on impeller and diffuser surface.
39

Cavitation erosion from bubble collapse occurs primarily by fatigue

fracture due to repeated bubble implosions on the cavitating
surface, if the implosions have sufficient impact force. The erosion
or pitting effect is quite similar to sand blasting. High head pumps
are more likely to suffer from cavitation erosion, making cavitation
a high-energy pump phenomenon.
The most sensitive areas where cavitation erosion has been
observed are the low-pressure sides of the impeller vanes near the
inlet edge. The cavitation erosion damages at the impeller are
more or less spread out. The pitting has also been observed on
impeller vanes, diffuser vanes, and impeller tips etc. In some
instances, cavitation has been severe enough to wear holes in the
impeller and damage the vanes to such a degree that the impeller
becomes completely ineffective. A damaged impeller is shown in
Figure 15.

Figure 14: Photographic Evidence of Cavitation

40

The damaged impeller shows that the shock waves occurred near
the outside edge of the impeller, where damage is evident. This
part of the impeller is where the pressure builds to its highest point.
This pressure implodes the gas bubbles, changing the waters
state from gas into liquid. When cavitation is less severe, the
damage can occur further down towards the eye of the impeller. A
careful investigation and diagnosis of point of the impeller erosion
on impeller, volute, diffuser etc. can help predict the type and
cause of cavitation.
The extent of cavitation erosion or pitting depends on a number of
factors like presence of foreign materials in the liquid, liquid
temperature, age of equipment and velocity of the collapsing
bubble.
Troubleshooting of the pumps
The following is a guide for troubleshooting centrifugal pump and
pump systems.
Failure to Deliver Liquid
A. Pump not primed.
B. Insufficient speed.
C. Discharge head too high.
D. Suction lift too high (over 15 feet) insufficient NPSH, check with
vacuum gauge.
E. Impeller passages partially clogged (plugged).
F. Wrong direction of rotation.
G. Air leaks or pockets in suction line.
Cavitations
Cavitations are caused by a lowering of liquid pressure at the
impeller eye-giving rise to vapor formation. This is followed by the
sudden collapse of the vapour bubbles as pressure increases
causing damage to pump by pitting and erosion.
Bearing Housing Lubrication
The correct level of oil in the bearing housing is kept by the
lubricating oil level bottle provided that the bottle contains an oil
level.
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Pump Routine Checks

For centrifugal pumps check the following:
Discharge pressure.
Suction pressure.
Pressure differential at suction strainer.
Bearing temperature.
Noise (cavitation)
Mechanical seal leakage.
Cooling medium temperature.
Lube oil system (P,T and level)
Power consumption in Amps. (means pump loading)
Insufficient Pressure
1. Sped too low.
2. Air or gases in liquid.
3. Mechanical defects.
Wearing rings worn.
Impeller damaged.
Internal leakage due to defective gasket.
4. Wrong direction of rotation.
Insufficient Capacity
1. Air leaks in suction or stuffing boxes.
2. Speed too low.
3. Total head higher than that for which pump is rated.
4. Suction lift too high (over 15 feet) or insufficient NPSH, check
with vacuum gauge.
5. Impeller passages or piping partially clogged (plugged).
6. Insufficient suction head for hot liquid.
7. Mechanical defects.
Wearing rings worn.
Impeller damaged.
Internal leakage due t defective gasket.
8. Wrong direction of rotation.
Pump Vibrates
1. Misalignment.
2. Foundation not sufficiently rigid (grounding broken).
3. Impeller partially clogged, causing imbalance.
4. Mechanical defects.
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Noisy Pump Operation

1. Hydraulic noise:
Cavitation.
Insufficient NPSH.
Air in liquid.
2.

Mechanical defects:
Shaft bent.
Bearing warn.
Rotating parts binding.

Reducing Capacity
Centrifugal pumps should not be operated at a greatly reduced
capacity or with closed discharge valve, because the energy
required driving the pump is converted into heat and the
temperature of the liquid may reach the boiling point. If this occurs,
the rotating parts are exposed to vapour with no lubrication and
they will be damaged.
Troubleshooting the positive displacement rotary pump
No liquid discharge

The pump is not primed. Prime it from the outlet side by

keeping the outlet air vent open until liquid comes out the
vent.
The rotating unit is turning in the wrong direction.
Valves are closed or there is an obstruction in the inlet or
outlet line. Check that the flange gaskets have their center
cut out.
The end of the inlet pipe is not submerged. You can either
increase the length of the inlet pipe into the liquid level or
raise the level in the tank.
The foot valve is stuck.
A strainer or filter is clogged.
The net inlet pressure is too low.
A bypass valve is open.
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There is an air leak some where in the inlet line. Air can
come in through gaskets or valves above the fluid line.
The stuffing box is under negative pressure. Packing is
allowing air to get into the system. You should convert the
packing to a mechanical seal
The pump is worn. The critical clearances have increased.
Something is broken. Check the shaft, coupling, internal
parts, etc.
There is no power to the pump.

The pump is putting out a low capacity

The pump's internal clearances have increased. It is time to

change some parts.
The net inlet pressure is too low; the pump is cavitating.
A strainer or filter is partially clogged.
The speed is too low. Check the voltage.
The tank vent is partially frozen shut.
A bypass line is partially open.
A relief valve is stuck partially open.
The inlet piping is damaged. Something ran over it
A corrosion resistant liner has collapsed in the inlet piping.
Air is leaking through the packing. You should go to a
mechanical seal.

The pump looses its prime after it has been running for a
while

The liquid supply is exhausted. Check the tank level;

sometimes the float is stuck, giving an incorrect level
reading.
The liquid velocity has increased dramatically.
The liquid is vaporizing at the pump inlet.
A bypass line is heating the incoming fluid.
An air leak has developed in the suction piping.

The pump is using too much power

The speed is too high.

The liquid viscosity is higher than expected.
The discharge pressure is higher than calculated
The packing has been over tightened. You should convert to
a mechanical seal.
44

A rotating element is binding. Misalignment could be the

problem or something is stuck in a close clearance and
binding the rotating element.

Excessive noise and vibration

Relief valve chatter.

Foundation or anchor bolts have come loose.
The pump and driver are misaligned.
The piping is not supported properly.
The liquid viscosity is too high. The pump is starving. Check
the temperature of the incoming liquid. Check to see if the
supply tank heater has failed.

Excessive noise or a loss of capacity is frequently caused by

cavitation. Here is how the NPSH required was determined initially:
With the pump initially operating with a 0 psig. inlet pressure and
constant differential pressure, temperature, speed and viscosity; a
valve in the inlet line is gradually closed until cavitation noise is
clearly audible, there is a sudden drop off in capacity or there is a
5% overall reduction in output flow. Cavitation occurs with:

A loss of suction pressure.

An increase in fluid velocity.
An increase in inlet temperature.

Here are some common causes of cavitation problems:

A foot valve or any valve in the suction piping is sticking.

Something is occasionally plugging up the suction piping. If
the pump suction is coming from a river, pond or the ocean,
grass is a strong possibility.
A loose rag is another common cause.
A collapsed pipe liner.
A filter or strainer is gradually clogging up.
The tank vent partially freezes in cold weather.
The sun is heating the suction piping, raising the product
temperature close to its vapor point.
The level in the open suction tank decreases causing vortex
problems that allow air into the pump suction.
Several pumps in the same sump are running, decreasing
the level too much.
45

The suction tank float is stuck. It will sometimes show a

higher level than you really have.
A discharge recirculation line, piped to the pump suction,
opens and heats the incoming liquid.
Sometimes the suction lift is too high. The increase in pipe
friction will reduce the suction head.
The vapor pressure of the product is very close to
atmospheric pressure. The pump cavitates every time it rains
because of a drop in atmospheric pressure.
The tank is being heated to de-aerate the fluid. Sometimes it
is being heated too much.
The process fluid specific gravity is changing. This can
happen with a change in product operating temperature or if
a cleaner or solvent is being flushed through the lines.
The source tank is changing from a positive pressure to a
vacuum due to the process.
A packed valve in the suction piping is at a negative pressure
and air is leaking in through the packing.
The tank is being pumped dry.
The inlet piping has been moved or altered in some way. Has
a foot valve, strainer, elbow, or some other type of hardware
been installed in the suction piping?
Has a layer of hard water calcium or some other type of solid
formed on the inside of the suction piping reducing its inside
diameter over some period of time?

You are experiencing rapid pump wear.

There are abrasives in the liquid you are pumping causing

erosion problems. You may have to go to a larger pump
running at a slower speed.
There is some corrosion in one or more of the pump
elements.
There is a lack of lubrication.
You have a severe pipe strain problem. It could have been
caused by thermal growth of the hardware.
Too much misalignment.
The pump is running dry.
When all else fails the best way to reduce NPSH required is
to select a larger pump and run it at a slower speed.

46