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HUMIDITY:

Humidity refers to the amount of moisture in the air. You might be surprised
to know that the air in our atmosphere has water in it. Lots of water!
Water in the atmosphere exists in 3 main states.
1. WATER VAPOR
2. CLOUD DROPLETS (SOMETIMES FROZEN ICE CRYSTALS)
3. LIQUID RAIN DROPS (SOMETIMES FROZEN!)

IMPORTANT!!: warm air can hold more water vapor than colder air!
Air near the ground or ocean usually has more water in it than the colder air
up high.
MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR:

There are several different ways to measure and to express the amount of
water in the air.
Lets imagine we have a blob of air with moisture in it. The temperature of
our blob of air is 80 degrees. So, how do we tell how much moisture is in it
????
RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
The relative humidity tells how much water the air is holding compared to
how much it could hold at a certain temperature. If our blob of air has a
relative humidity of 50% then that means it is holding half of the amount of
water a blob of air 80 degrees could hold. The relative humidity can change
if the moisture changes or if the temperature changes.
DEW POINT:
The dew point is a much better indicator of moisture in the air and is
preferred by most meteorologists.
WHAT IS THE DEW POINT?
The dew point is the temperature at which the air will be holding all the
moisture it can if cooled. Or...another way of putting it. The dew point is the
temperature at which the relative humidity reaches 100%.
CONFUSED?
Lets talk about our blob of 80 degree air. It has water vapor in it, and
remember that warm air can hold more water than cold air. If we start
cooling our blob of 80-degree air...it will eventually reach a temperature at
which it can no longer hold the water vapor in it. Lets say that in this case
our blob of air forms a cloud when we cool it to 50 degrees. Then 50
degrees in the dew point of our blob of air! Note that the dew point does
not depend on the temperature like Relative Humidity!

What's the Temperature?


One important weather element greatly misrepresented is the temperature.
It seems that everyone has an outdoor thermometer somewhere in or
around their home. That thermometer, however, cannot and will not give
accurate readings unless it is properly exposed to the elements. I often
hear people tell me that the temperature at their house was far off from
what was reported on television and radio. Most likely, this is because the
thermometer is attached too close to an object (house, window, etc...)
which does not allow air circulation around the thermometer. Even the
digital bank thermometers usually give inaccurate readings because of their
incorrect exposure.
What is temperature?
How to read a thermometer. - This is a really cool way to learn how to use
a thermometer. It requires
Does your thermometer provide you with an accurate reading?
False temperatures both confuse people and make the job of the
meteorologist more difficult. I have tried to provide a listing of key things
you can do to make your local temperature readings more accurate. If you
follow them, you will find your thermometer will truly represent the real
temperature.
Thermometer Tips
1. Liquid in glass and digital thermometers are the most
accurate.
2. Place the thermometer so it is not in direct sunlight at
any time.
Example: Shade of a tree, north facing porch.
3. Place the thermometer between 4 - 6 feet above the
ground, in an area where there is sufficient air flow.
4. Do not allow weather elements (rain, snow, ice) to
fall
on
the
thermometer.
Of course, it is hard to follow all of these tips.
Remember, understanding why your temperature
readings are off is better than believing the incorrect
readings themselves. Give them a try, and I'll bet your

temperatures will agree with the actual forecast.


Normal Daily Maximum Temperature, Deg F
Normal Daily Minimum Temperature, Deg F
Maximum Recorded Temperatures
Minimum Recorded Temperatures
Average Number of Days 32 Degrees or Less
Normal Heating Degree Days
Normal Cooling Degree Days
Learning Activities
How to make a thermometer
About
Temperature
An activity prepared for Middle School Math teachers
Heat & Temperature - From Air Travelers
Newly Revised WIND CHILL CHART
EniG. Periodic table of the elements contains the basic data about the
element in 7 languages (Croatian, English, French, German, Italian,
Spanish, and Portuguese). It shows visually the change of physical
condition with the change of temperature. The language, the speed of
temperature change and the exchange of elements can be adjusted by
configuration file.
The calculating module from the programme Chemistry Assistant for fast
calculating the mole mass compounds has also been integrated in the
Periodic Table. The programme translates texts with chemical symbols or
without them, entered in input line, into mathematical terms (it can be seen
as ToolTip text) and calculates them.
The periodic Table can be incorporated into presentation, the change of
temperature automatically started and the programme closed. The colour of
background can be adjusted to match the colour of the presentation slide.

USE OF PERIODIC TABLE


EniG. Periodic table of the elements can show all the names in one of 7
languages. You should only click the flag in the bottom of the screen to
change the language of the entire Periodic Table. In the configuration file
you can set any of the languages as a default language of the Periodic
Table.
The element in the Periodic Table is selected by the left click and its
characteristics are changed by the right click. It is also possible to page the
characteristics of the presented element by the small scroll. The unit in
which a certain characteristic is expressed can be seen when the mouse is
held up over the number for a few seconds.
By clicking the group number you can change it from IUPAC
recommendation from 1985 into the way of writing according to Chemical
Abstract Service from 1986.
By the change of temperature, depending on the physical condition of the
element at the temperature concerned, the colour of the button also
changes according to the key. Temperature can be changed in several
ways: by entering it in the field above the thermometer, by clicking the
numbers next to the scale or by clicking anywhere in the thermometer
scale. The temperature display, Celsius scale (C) or Kelvin scale (K),
changes by clicking the thermometer temperature label. By the left click on
the mercury reservoir, the temperature progressively grows, while by the
right one it falls.
Clicking the button START the temperature changes automatically 100 K/s
(C/s) at a time, while each element will hold up in the screen for 5
seconds. The speed of temperature change and the time of holding up of
an element can be changed by pressing the adjusting button (the small
stop-watch next to the START button).
A small can with paint enables the users to adjust the Periodic Table to their
wishes. You can also change the language concerned, the automatic start
of temperature exchange and closing of the programme; you can change
the initial and final temperature as well as the colours of buttons and
background. The new sets of Periodic Table can be saved in configuration
file and then loaded when the programme is started. The DEFAULT button
gets back the original sets of programme.

USE OF CALCULATOR
Calculator (see image) serves for quick and simple calculating of mole
mass of compounds. The chemical equations, by adding the signs of
addition or multiplication, are transformed into mathematical expression
where the symbols of element represent the atomic masses of the element
concerned. The mathematical expression can be seen if the mouse is held
up on the entry field for a few seconds. E.g.
H2SO4 becomes H*2+S+O*4 or 1.00794*2+32.066+15.9994*4
For indicating hydration you must use a + sign, for example CuSO4+5H2O
There is an intelligent routine which translates the symbols of elements
written in small letters into chemical formula. The result of the translation
will be entered into the entry field and calculated, or the programme will
report error. One has to be careful when writing formulae in small letters
because of possibly manifold solutions (e.g. CO an Co or PO and Po).
If a mathematical operation is carried out, all chemical formulae will be put
in brackets. E.g.
cuso4+5h2o will become (CuSO4)+5*(H2O) while h3po4 will become
H3PO4.
By clicking the symbol of the element in Periodic Table it is automatically
entered in the entry field. On the right button of the mouse there are some
more frequently used anions and molecules.

STATUS
EniG. Periodic table of the elements is a FREEWARE programme product.
You can safely use this programme for private or business purposes. You
can distribute it to others under the condition that you don't use it for
material gain and that you don't change the contents of files. It cannot be
distributed for commercial purposes without the author's authorization.

AUTHOR
Eni
University
Faculty
of
Chemical
Teslina 10/V, 21000 Split, Croatia

in
Technology

in

Generalic
Split
Split

e-mail:
URL:
URL: http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/

eni@ktf-split.hr
http://www.ktf-split.hr/~eni/

EDITORS
Michel Ditria
Marc Hens
Ricardo

Gruda

INSTALL PROGRAM
System requirements: Every 32-bit PC with Windows 9x, NT, 2000 or
Windows
XP
operating
system.
You can download a self-install copy of Periodic table of the elements with
all the files needed (1.68 MB) or short form without VB library (1.01 MB).
Unzip the files into a temporary directory, run setup program (setup.exe)
and
follow
the
instructions
on
your
screen.
After installations the Periodic table folder contains the following files:
Dubrovnik.jpg - background picture
file_id.diz - short description of programme
help_en.txt - description of programme (English language)
help_en.txt - description of programme (French language)
help_es.txt - description of programme (Spanish language)
help_pt.txt - description of programme (Portuguese language)
help_hr.txt - description of programme (Croatian language)
pse.exe - the programme itself
pse.cfg - configuration file
uninstall.exe - uninstall program
uninstall.ini - uninstall informations
If you download a short form, probably you'll also need the file
MSVBVM60.DLL. This is the basic library for the programs written in Visual
Basic 6.0 and is not include in the short install package. You can download
it in a ZIP format
http://www.ktf-split.hr/~eni/toys/msvbvm60.zip (689 kB; v. 6.0.84.95;
1999/10/5)

and

unzip

in

the

../Windows/System/

directory.

REMOVE PROGRAM
Activate the Control Panel, double click Add/Remove Programs, and
double
click
on
the
Periodic
table
list
box
entry.
You
Setup

can

also

program

remove
is

create

the

program

by

Setup

using

an

Generator

Uninstall
(Gentee,

icon.
Inc.)

The author shall not be responsible for any damages, direct or indirect,
which
may
result
from
the
use
of
this
software.
the formulas are:
Centigrade = (Fahrenheit - 32) * 5/9
Fahrenheit = centigrade * 9/5 + 32
the brains behind:
Anders Celsius, swedish physicist and astronomer, 1701 - 1744
Gabriel Fahrenheit, german physicist, 1686 - 1736, inventor of the
thermometer
how did they choose the ranges?
CELSIUS:
range
of
100
steps,
0
degree
Centigrade
=
freezingpoint
of
water,
100 degree Centigrade = boilingpoint of water
FAHRENHEIT:
range
of
180
steps,
32
degree
Fahrenheit
=
freezingpoint
of
water,
100 degree Fahrenheit = body temperature of a person (not very
accurate...),
212
degree
Fahrenheit
=
boilingpoint
of
water

Wet Bulb Temperature


The wet bulb temperature (WBT) relates relative humidity to the ambient air
or dry bulb temperature. When moisture evaporates, it absorbs heat energy
from its environment in order to change phase (via latent heat of
vapourisation), thus reducing the temperature slightly. The WBT will vary
with relative humidity. If the relative humidity is low and the temperature is
high, moisture will evaporate very quickly so its cooling effect will be more
significant than if the relative humidity was already high, in which case the
evaporation rate would be much lower. The difference between the wet
bulb and dry bulb temperature therefore gives a measure of atmospheric
humidity.
Dry Bulb Temperature
Dry bulb temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is
called dry bulb because it is measured with a standard thermometer whose
bulb is not wet - if it were wet, the evaporation of moisture from its surface
would affect the reading and give something closer to the wet bulb
temperature. In weather data terms, dry bulb temperature refers to the
outdoor air temperature. It is usually given in degrees Celsius (C) or
degrees Farenheight (F), however its true SI unit is Kelvin (K). On the
Kelvin scale, 0K equals -273C.
Wet Bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb temperature is measured using a standard mercury-in-glass
thermometer, with the thermometer bulb wrapped in muslin, which is kept
wet. The evaporation of water from the thermometer has a cooling effect,
so the temperature indicated by the wet bulb thermometer is less than the
temperature indicated by a dry-bulb (normal, unmodified) thermometer. The
rate of evaporation from the wet-bulb thermometer depends on the
humidity of the air - evaporation is slower when the air is already full of
water vapor. For this reason, the difference in the temperatures indicated
by the two thermometers gives a measure of atmospheric humidity.
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest
temperature an object may be cooled to by the process of evaporation. It is
read directly from the wet-bulb thermometer on an electric psychrometer,

sling psychrometer, or rotor psychrometer. Water evaporating from the


moistened wick on the wet-bulb thermometer bulb cools the thermometer
bulb and lowers the temperature reading. The cooling effect of the
evaporation from the bulb is inversely proportional to the amount of water
vapor present in the air: the more water vapor present, the less moisture
will evaporate from the moistened wick, and the less cooling of the
thermometer bulb will occur. From the dry- and wet- bulb readings, the
dew-point temperature and humidity values may be calculated. The
automatic weather observation systems do not provide a wet-bulb
temperature, but automatically process equivalent measurements to
compute dew-point temperature. TF = 9 TD 10 DEW-POINT
TEMPERATURE The dew-point temperature is the temperature a parcel of
air must be cooled to in order to reach saturation. Cooling past the dewpoint temperature normally results in condensation or precipitation.
Changes in temperature do not alter an air-parcel's dew- point temperature;
therefore, dew-point temperature is termed a conservative property. The
extraction or addition of moisture, however, from or to an air parcel will
respectively decrease or increase the dew-point temperature. Dew-point
temperature is calculated from the dry- bulb temperature and the wet-bulb
depression by using the CP-165/UM psychrometric computer. The wetbulb depression is the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and the
wet-bulb temperature. Dew-point temperature is automatically calculated by
the automatic weather systems. Many calculations that you will be using
call for a dew-point depression as a value. The dew-point depression is the
difference between the air temperature and the dew-point temperature,
expressed as a positive number. For example, if the air temperature is 78F
and the dew-point temperature is 67.5F, the dew-point depression is
10.5F. FROST-POINT TEMPERATURE The frost-point temperature is the
temperature, below freezing, that a parcel of air must be cooled to in order
to reach saturation. Cooling past the frost-point temperature normally
results in sublimation of ice crystals from the air. The frost-point
temperature is occasionally referred to as "the dew-point temperature with
respect to ice." Calculations using the "low" temperature side of the CP165/UM psychrometric computer refer to use of the "Ti" scale when the
wet- bulb thermometer wick is frozen, and to the "DP" scale if the wet-bulb
wick is not frozen. Both scales calculate a dew-point temperature with
respect to liquid water, and not a frost-point temperature. The frost-point
temperature may be approximated by the following formula: where T F is the
frost-point temperature, and TD is the dew-point temperature. As an
observer, you may be asked to calculate frost- point temperatures,

especially when working with a Skew T, Log P diagram. Although the frostpoint temperature is not usually computed for a surface aviation weather
observation, we have introduced it at this point because it is so closely
related to the dew- point temperature. Relative humidity, and other humidity
computations derived from temperature and dew-point temperature
readings are covered later in this chapter. SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE
Another temperature reading in shipboard weather observations is the sea
surface temperature. It is supposed to reflect the temperature of the upper
few inches of the sea surface. On some ships with OA divisions, installed
sensors automatically measure this value. There are three other acceptable
methods for obtaining a sea-surface temperature reading: the bucket
temperature method; by expendable bathythermograph; and by use of the
seawater injection temperature. The sea-surface temperature reading must
be accurate since it is a major input into many undersea warfare (USW)
acoustic products. Bucket Temperature The bucket temperature method is
by far the most accurate, yet is also the most work intensive. In this
method, a sample of seawater is obtained by casting a lightweight bucket
or coffee can with a strong line attached over the side of the ship and
retrieving a water sample. This should be done as near to the bow of the
. Wet-Bulb Temperature The lowest temperature that water theoretically
can reach by evaporation. Wet-Bulb temperature is an extremely important
parameter in tower selection and design and should be measured by a
psychrometer
Principles of Cooling Towers All cooling towers operate on the principle
of removing heat from water by evaporating a small portion of the water
that is recirculated through the unit. The heat that is removed is called the
latent heat of vaporization. Each one pound of water that is evaporated
removes approximately 1,000 BTU's in the form of latent heat.
COOLING

TOWER

TERMS

AND

DEFINITIONS

BTU (British Thermal Unit) A BTU is the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit in the range
from 32 F to 212 F Cooling Range The difference in temperature
between the hot water entering the tower and the cold water leaving the
tower is the cooling range. Approach The difference between the
temperature of the cold water leaving the tower and the wet- bulb
temperature of the air is known as the approach. Establishment of the

approach fixes the operating temperature of the tower and is a most


important parameter in determining both tower size and cost. Drift The
water entrained in the air flow and discharged to the atmosphere. Drift loss
does not include water lost by evaporation. Proper tower design can
minimize drift loss. Heat Load The amount of heat to be removed from the
circulating water within the tower. Heat load is equal to water circulation
rate (gpm) times the cooling range times 500 and is expressed in BTU/hr.
Heat load is also an important parameter in determining tower size and
cost. Ton An evaporative cooling ton is 15,000 BTU's per hour. Wet-Bulb
Temperature The lowest temperature that water theoretically can reach by
evaporation. Wet-Bulb temperature is an extremely important parameter in
tower selection and design and should be measured by a psychrometer
Pumping Head The pressure required to pump the water from the tower
basin, through the entire system and return to the top of the tower. Makeup
The amount of water required to replace normal losses caused by bleed
off, drift, and evaporation. Bleed Off The circulating water in the tower
which is discharged to waste to help keep the dissolved solids
concentration of the water below a maximum allowable limit. As a result of
evaporation, dissolved solids concentration will continually increase unless
reduced by bleed off.
What is the entering wet-bulb temperature?
Simply stated the entering wet-bulb temperature (EWBT or WBT) is a
measure of the level of humidity in the ambient air entering the cooling
tower. In general, the higher the wet-bulb temperature, the more moisture
that exists in the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a key parameter in the
designing/sizing of a cooling tower, since it determines the degree to which
more water can be evaporated. Cooling towers operating in high wet-bulb
temperatures require a larger tower than those found in lower wet-bulb
regions of the country.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between a "forced draft" and "induced-draft" cooling tower?
As the terms suggest, forced-draft cooling tower employ an air distribution system that forces air
into the tower, while an induced draft tower operates by pulling air through the tower. Forced draft
towers are characterized by fans positioned on the side of the cooling tower. Induced draft cooling
towers utilize fans located on top of the cooling tower.
2. What is the difference between a "counterflow" and a "crossflow" cooling tower?
The crossflow or counterflow designation characterizes the orientation of the airflow within the
heat-transfer media (fill) in the tower with respect to the direction of water flow. In counterflow
towers air travels vertically upwards through the fill and makes intimate contact with water
droplets falling down through the fill media. Hence the air and water travel in opposite directions.
In crossflow cooling towers the air passes through the fill media in a horizontal direction, thus

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

crossing the downward water flow. Counterflow towers are inherently more efficient than
crossflow towers.
How does cooling actually take place inside a cooling tower?
There are two primary mechanisms by which water is cooled inside a cooling tower. Sensible
heat transfer takes place when the incoming air temperature is lower than the temperature of the
incoming water, thus heat from the water is absorbed by the colder air. If that were the only
cooling that took place inside a cooling tower, the cold-water temperature would be limited by the
ambient temperature. However, the bulk of the cooling that takes place inside the cooling tower
(>80%) is driven by evaporation of the water TCTCelf. Evaporation requires energy (heat), so
when water is evaporated within the fill media in a cooling tower, heat is removed with the water
vapor and leaves in the exiting air stream from the top of the tower. The result is that the
remaining water is cooled significantly, even to temperatures below the actual ambient
temperature.
What is the entering wet-bulb temperature?
Simply stated the entering wet-bulb temperature (EWBT or WBT) is a measure of the level of
humidity in the ambient air entering the cooling tower. In general, the higher the wet-bulb
temperature, the more moisture that exists in the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a key
parameter in the designing/sizing of a cooling tower, since it determines the degree to which more
water can be evaporated. Cooling towers operating in high wet-bulb temperatures require a larger
tower than those found in lower wet-bulb regions of the country.
Why is blowdown important?
Blowdown is the term given to water discharged from the cooling tower system to control the
buildup of dissolved solids, such as salts or other impurities that occur in water as well as
suspended solids that are "washed-out" of the entering air. As a pot of tea gets concentrated if it
continues to boil, so the water in a cooling tower becomes concentrated with salts and other
impurities as water evaporates. In addition to blowdown, the predominant loss of water from a
cooling tower system is through the planned and desirable evaporation that takes place. When
water is evaporated to pure water vapor, it leaves behind many impurities which redissolve in
circulating water or even deposit on cooling tower internals. Make-up water is introduced to the
system to compensate for water losses, but the circulating flow continues to become increasingly
concentrated with these impurities as more water evaporates. If the dissolved solids level
becomes too high, accelerated scaling can occur inside the cooling tower and reduce the
efficiency and or capacity of cooling in the tower. Blowdown of the circulating flow is implemented
to keep this dissolved solids level below that saturation level.
What is cooling tower drift?
In every cooling tower, there is a loss of water to the environment in the form of pure water, which
results from the evaporative cooling process. This evaporated water leaves the tower in a pure
vapor state, and thus presents no threat to the environment. Drift, however, is the undesirable
loss of liquid water to the environment, via small unevaporated droplets that become entrained in
the exhaust air stream of a cooling tower. These water droplets carry with them minerals, debris
and microorganisms and water treatment chemicals from the circulating water, thus potentially
impacting the environment. High drift losses are typically caused by fouled, inefficient or damaged
drift eliminators, excessive exit velocities or imbalances in water chemistry.
Why is minimizing drift important?
Minimizing drift losses in a cooling tower reduces the risk of impacting the environment with
potentially corrosive water treatment chemicals. Drift is usually responsible for damage to
property near the cooling tower yard, i.e. buildings, cars, etc. Water use and chemical
consumption are also reduced since more remains in the circulating flow, thus generating savings
in operating costs. Last but not least, excessive drift losses pose serious health risks, not only
because of the chemicals released, but because of microorganisms that can be transmitted
through drift, most notably L. pneumophila, the bacterium that causes Legionnaires' disease.
How can drift be minimized?
Certainly, the most effective means of reducing drift is to install high-efficiency drift eliminators in
your tower. The drift eliminators are your last, but most critical line of defense for mitigating drift.
Maintaining a balanced water chemistry is also very important. Certain chemicals used

specifically for cooling water treatment can reduce the waters surface tension, thus interfering
with the normal agglomeration of water droplets that occurs in the drift eliminators. The result is
that water droplets are smaller and more easily entrained in the exiting air stream. There is no
substitute for a well-maintained water treatment program.
Finally, periodic inspection of spray distribution systems and drift eliminators is recommended. A
clogged spray nozzle, fouled drift eliminator or even an improperly installed drift eliminator can
cause excessive drift in a cooling tower.
9. What is Legionnaires' Disease?
Legionnaires' Disease is a potentially serious illness that affects the human respiratory system. It
is contracted through the inhalation of air-born water droplets or mist containing viable Legionella
pneumophila bacterium that occur naturally in most US water sources. Cooling towers provide a
hot, humid environment that is an ideal breeding ground for the bacterium. Once a tower is
infected, the bacteria are easily transmitted in the drift leaving the cooling tower. About 1,000
cases are reported each year in the US, though the CDC estimates that 10 15 times that
number of cases may actually occur each year.inn
10. How can the transmission of Legionnaires' Disease be eliminated?
While there is no doubt that Legionnaires' Disease is a real and potentially serious health issue
for cooling tower operation, the implementation of sensible equipment designs and the execution
of appropriate operations, maintenance and housekeeping procedures can virtually eliminate the
risk to human health. Tower designs that feature low drift losses, readily accessible/cleanable
internals, and basins that promote the accumulation and removal of sedimentation are key to
lowering the associated health risk. Periodic cleaning of the cooling tower internals is strongly
recommended.

1. What is the difference between a "forced draft" and "induceddraft" cooling tower?

As the terms suggest, forced-draft cooling tower employ an air


distribution system that forces air into the tower, while an induced
draft tower operates by pulling air through the tower. Forced draft
towers are characterized by fans positioned on the side of the
cooling tower. Induced draft cooling towers utilize fans located on
top of the cooling tower.
11. What is the difference between a "counterflow" and a
"crossflow" cooling tower?
The crossflow or counterflow designation characterizes the
orientation of the airflow within the heat-transfer media (fill) in the
tower with respect to the direction of water flow. In counterflow
towers air travels vertically upwards through the fill and makes
intimate contact with water droplets falling down through the fill
media. Hence the air and water travel in opposite directions. In
crossflow cooling towers the air passes through the fill media in a
horizontal direction, thus crossing the downward water flow.
Counterflow towers are inherently more efficient than crossflow
towers.
12. How does cooling actually take place inside a cooling tower?
There are two primary mechanisms by which water is cooled
inside a cooling tower. Sensible heat transfer takes place when the
incoming air temperature is lower than the temperature of the
incoming water, thus heat from the water is absorbed by the colder
air. If that were the only cooling that took place inside a cooling
tower, the cold-water temperature would be limited by the ambient
temperature. However, the bulk of the cooling that takes place
inside the cooling tower (>80%) is driven by evaporation of the
water TCTCelf. Evaporation requires energy (heat), so when water
is evaporated within the fill media in a cooling tower, heat is
removed with the water vapor and leaves in the exiting air stream
from the top of the tower. The result is that the remaining water is
cooled significantly, even to temperatures below the actual ambient
temperature.
13. What is the entering wet-bulb temperature?

Simply stated the entering wet-bulb temperature (EWBT or WBT)


is a measure of the level of humidity in the ambient air entering the
cooling tower. In general, the higher the wet-bulb temperature, the
more moisture that exists in the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a
key parameter in the designing/sizing of a cooling tower, since it
determines the degree to which more water can be evaporated.
Cooling towers operating in high wet-bulb temperatures require a
larger tower than those found in lower wet-bulb regions of the
country.
14. Why is blowdown important?
Blowdown is the term given to water discharged from the cooling
tower system to control the buildup of dissolved solids, such as
salts or other impurities that occur in water as well as suspended
solids that are "washed-out" of the entering air. As a pot of tea gets
concentrated if it continues to boil, so the water in a cooling tower
becomes concentrated with salts and other impurities as water
evaporates. In addition to blowdown, the predominant loss of
water from a cooling tower system is through the planned and
desirable evaporation that takes place. When water is evaporated to
pure water vapor, it leaves behind many impurities which
redissolve in circulating water or even deposit on cooling tower
internals. Make-up water is introduced to the system to compensate
for water losses, but the circulating flow continues to become
increasingly concentrated with these impurities as more water
evaporates. If the dissolved solids level becomes too high,
accelerated scaling can occur inside the cooling tower and reduce
the efficiency and or capacity of cooling in the tower. Blowdown
of the circulating flow is implemented to keep this dissolved solids
level below that saturation level.
15. What is cooling tower drift?
In every cooling tower, there is a loss of water to the environment
in the form of pure water, which results from the evaporative
cooling process. This evaporated water leaves the tower in a pure
vapor state, and thus presents no threat to the environment. Drift,
however, is the undesirable loss of liquid water to the environment,

via small unevaporated droplets that become entrained in the


exhaust air stream of a cooling tower. These water droplets carry
with them minerals, debris and microorganisms and water
treatment chemicals from the circulating water, thus potentially
impacting the environment. High drift losses are typically caused
by fouled, inefficient or damaged drift eliminators, excessive exit
velocities or imbalances in water chemistry.
16. Why is minimizing drift important?
Minimizing drift losses in a cooling tower reduces the risk of
impacting the environment with potentially corrosive water
treatment chemicals. Drift is usually responsible for damage to
property near the cooling tower yard, i.e. buildings, cars, etc. Water
use and chemical consumption are also reduced since more
remains in the circulating flow, thus generating savings in
operating costs. Last but not least, excessive drift losses pose
serious health risks, not only because of the chemicals released, but
because of microorganisms that can be transmitted through drift,
most notably L. pneumophila, the bacterium that causes
Legionnaires' disease.
17. How can drift be minimized?
Certainly, the most effective means of reducing drift is to install
high-efficiency drift eliminators in your tower. The drift
eliminators are your last, but most critical line of defense for
mitigating drift. Maintaining a balanced water chemistry is also
very important. Certain chemicals used specifically for cooling
water treatment can reduce the waters surface tension, thus
interfering with the normal agglomeration of water droplets that
occurs in the drift eliminators. The result is that water droplets are
smaller and more easily entrained in the exiting air stream. There is
no substitute for a well-maintained water treatment program.
Finally, periodic inspection of spray distribution systems and drift
eliminators is recommended. A clogged spray nozzle, fouled drift
eliminator or even an improperly installed drift eliminator can
cause excessive drift in a cooling tower.
18. What is Legionnaires' Disease?

Legionnaires' Disease is a potentially serious illness that affects the


human respiratory system. It is contracted through the inhalation of
air-born water droplets or mist containing viable Legionella
pneumophila bacterium that occur naturally in most US water
sources. Cooling towers provide a hot, humid environment that is
an ideal breeding ground for the bacterium. Once a tower is
infected, the bacteria are easily transmitted in the drift leaving the
cooling tower. About 1,000 cases are reported each year in the US,
though the CDC estimates that 10 15 times that number of cases
may actually occur each year.inn
19. How can the transmission of Legionnaires' Disease be
eliminated?
While there is no doubt that Legionnaires' Disease is a real and
potentially serious health issue for cooling tower operation, the
implementation of sensible equipment designs and the execution of
appropriate operations, maintenance and housekeeping procedures
can virtually eliminate the risk to human health. Tower designs that
feature low drift losses, readily accessible/cleanable internals, and
basins that promote the accumulation and removal of
sedimentation are key to lowering the associated health risk.
Periodic cleaning of the cooling tower internals is strongly
recommended.

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