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Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

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Agricultural Water Management


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat

Yield, quality and crop water stress index relationships for decit-irrigated
soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in sub-humid climatic conditions
Burak Nazmi Candogan a, , Mehmet Sincik b , Hakan Buyukcangaz a , Cigdem Demirtas a ,
Abdurrahim Tanju Goksoy b , Senih Yazgan a
a
b

Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Uludag University, 16059 Campus of Grkle, Bursa, Turkey
Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, Uludag University, 16059 Campus of Grkle, Bursa, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 26 January 2012
Accepted 27 November 2012
Available online 9 January 2013
Keywords:
Crop water stress index
Irrigation scheduling
Soybean
Seed yield
Quality
Water use efciency

a b s t r a c t
Field experiments were conducted for 2 years to evaluate the use of the crop water stress index (CWSI)
for irrigation scheduling of soybeans under a sub-humid climate of Bursa, Turkey. Additionally, statistical
relationships between CWSI and seed yield, quality parameters, crop evapotranspiration (ETc ) and water
use efciency (WUE) were investigated. Irrigations were scheduled based on the replenishment of 100
(T100 ), 75 (T75 ), 50 (T50 ), 25 (T25 ), and 0% (T0 ) of soil water depletion from a soil depth of 90 cm using
a 7-day irrigation interval. To compute CWSI, lower (nonstressed) and upper (stressed) baselines were
developed based on the canopy temperature (Tc ) measurements of fully irrigated and rain-fed treatments,
respectively. According to results, CWSI could be used to determine the irrigation time of soybean for
sub-humid climate and 0.22 could be offered as a threshold value. Statistically signicant relationships
were determined between CWSI and seed yield, protein yield, oil yield, ETc and WUE. The polynomial
relationship between WUE and CWSI demonstrated that highest WUE could be obtained under CWSI
close to 0.6. Consequently, an irrigation schedule that considers water stress could be employed when
the cost of water is high and/or water is scarce. However, because of the yield reduction, all economic
aspects of water limited irrigation scheduling should be considered before making this decision. We
conclude that the CWSI could be used to evaluate crop water stress and improve irrigation scheduling
for soybeans under sub-humid climatic conditions.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Water stress is a major factor limiting soybean production in
the semi-arid and sub-humid regions of the world. In these regions,
the frequency and amount of rainfall during the growing season are
often quite variable. Under non-irrigated conditions in humid areas,
variability in seasonal rainfall leads to year-to-year variability in
the uptake of water and nutrients, and in the growth, development
and yield of the crop (Scott et al., 1986). Under semi-arid and subhumid climate conditions, well-scheduled irrigation is necessary to
increase seed yield and ensure stability in yields.
Irrigation scheduling methods are generally based on measurement of soil water content or meteorological parameters for

Corresponding author at: Uludag University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department


of Biosystems Engineering, 16059 Campus of Grkle, Bursa, Turkey.
Tel.: +90 2242941628; fax: +90 2242941628.
E-mail addresses: bncandogan@gmail.com, bncandogan@uludag.edu.tr
(B.N. Candogan), sincik@uludag.edu.tr (M. Sincik), cangaz@uludag.edu.tr
(H. Buyukcangaz), cidem@uludag.edu.tr (C. Demirtas), agoksoy@uludag.edu.tr
(A.T. Goksoy), senyaz@uludag.edu.tr (S. Yazgan).
0378-3774/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2012.11.021

modeling or computing evapotranspiration. Irrigation scheduling


based upon crop water status should be more advantageous since
crops respond to both the soil and aerial environment (evaporative demand) (Yazar et al., 1999). With the development of
infrared thermometry (IRT), it has been widely applied to measure canopy temperature by IRTs to detect water stress of crops
(Testi et al., 2008). Idso et al. (1981) developed the crop water
stress index (CWSI) to quantify crop water stress. These authors
utilized the relationships between the air and canopy surface temperature difference (Tc Ta ) and the vapor pressure decit (VPD)
under non-water-stressed and fully water-stressed conditions. For
well-irrigated plants, which are assumed to be transpiring at the
potential rate, the relationship is linear, and the linear regression is used as the lower non-water-stressed baseline. The upper
baseline represents Tc Ta for fully water-stressed plants that are
not transpiring at a given VPD. The CWSI varies from 0 to 1 as
measured canopy temperatures fall between the upper and lower
baselines at any measured vapor pressure decit. Jackson et al.
(1981) presents a theoretical method based on the energy balance
for calculating CWSI by estimating or measuring the net radiation, aerodynamic resistance, Tc Ta and VPD. More recently, a new
non-water-stressed baseline was proposed by Alves and Pereira

114

B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

(2000), which evaluates the radiometric surface temperature of


fully transpiring crops and can be regarded as a surface wet bulb
temperature. Based on energy balance theory and eld research,
Qiu (1996) and Qiu et al., 1996a,b developed a new approach to
detect crop water stress by introducing an imitation leaf (a leaf
without transpiration).
The CWSI method developed by Idso et al. (1981) has been investigated as a method to monitor crop water status and to schedule
irrigations of various plants by many previous researchers including Abduljabbar et al. (1985), alfalfa; Nielsen and Gardner (1987),
Crcova et al. (1998), Yazar et al. (1999); Irmak et al. (2000), corn;
Nielsen and Halvorson (1991), Alderfasi and Nielsen (2001), Yuan
et al. (2004), Gontia and Tiwari (2008), wheat; Kayam and Beyazgl
(2001), cotton; Orta et al. (2003), watermelon; Kksal (2006),
sugar beet; Emekli et al. (2007), bermudagrass; Kar and Kumar
(2007), groundnut; Nielsen and Anderson (1989), Nielsen (1994),
sunower; Kksal (2008), green bean; Testi et al. (2008), pistachio trees; Nielsen (1997), canola; Erdem et al. (2010), broccoli;
Lebourgeois et al. (2010), sugarcane; and Al-Kayssi et al. (2011),
black cumin under arid, semi-arid and humid conditions. However,
it has been used less for the irrigation scheduling of soybeans and
that need to be tested in sub-humid climate conditions. Nielsen
(1990) evaluated the irrigation scheduling of soybeans using various threshold CWSI values under a semi-arid climate. Nielsen
(1990) reported that researchers and producers using CWSI to
quantify water stress and schedule irrigations should rst conduct
studies to determine an appropriate non-water-stressed baseline
equation for their locations.
The primary objectives of this study were: (i) to determine the
upper and lower baselines for calculating CWSI in the sub-humid
conditions prevailing at Bursa, Turkey for drip-irrigated soybeans,
(ii) to evaluate the use of CWSI for irrigation scheduling in soybeans,
and (iii) to evaluate ETc , seed yield, quality and WUE of soybeans
in relation to the CWSI.

2. Materials and methods


Field studies were conducted during the growing seasons
of 2005 and 2006 at the Research and Training Centre of the
Agriculture Faculty, Uludag University, situated in Bursa, Turkey
(40 15 29 N, 28 53 39 E, 72 m above sea level). The soil of the
experimental eld was characterized by its clay content in the
0120 cm depth range (average 22.8% sand, 28.7% loam and 48.5%
clay). Gravimetrically average eld capacity was 40.3%, wilting
point 26.0%, volumetric mass 1.36 g cm3 and total available moisture (TAM) 232.7 mm for 0120 cm soil prole. The local climate
is temperate, summers are hot and dry and winters are mild and
rainy. According to long-term meteorological data (19752003),
the annual mean rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity are
676 mm, 14.5 C, and 66%, respectively (Anon., 2003). A sub-humid
climate prevails in the region based on the mean rainfall amount
(from 600 to 700 mm of annual precipitation) (Jensen, 1980). An
automatic weather station (WatchDog, Spectrum Technologies,
Inc., Plaineld, IL, USA) was installed 200 m away from the experimental site and used to monitor daily weather variables: the air
temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed and solar radiation. The measured temperature, relative humidity, wind speed
and solar radiation values for the 2005 and 2006 growing seasons were typical, considering the long-term means of the region
(Table 1). However, the total rainfall values recorded from April
to October were 212 and 193 mm in 2005 and 2006, respectively,
which were approximately 27% (2005) and 34% (2006) below the
long-term mean rainfall of 292 mm (Table 1).
The cultivar Nova (MG IV) obtained from Jacques Seed Company (Prescott, WI, USA) was used as the plant material in the

study. Soybeans were planted on 21 April 2005 and 3 May 2006 at


a seeding depth of approximately 3 cm. Viable seeding rates were
310,000 seeds ha1 . The previous crop grown in the experimental eld was a sunower, for both years. The experiments were
designed using a randomized complete block with three replications. The plot size was 23.4 m2 (3.9 m 6.0 m); the row spacing
was 0.65 m; and the plantplant spacing was 5 cm. Based on soil
analysis, fty kilograms of N, P and K ha1 was applied as granular
fertilizer prior to sowing, and a further 50 kg N ha1 was added as
urea when the plants were 2530 cm in height. Benecial nitrogen
xing rhizobia was likely not present in the soil, because soybeans
had not previously been grown there, nor were tested soybeans
inoculated. The irrigation treatments were based on soil water
depletion (SWD) replenishments. Irrigation was applied at 7-day
intervals. The irrigation treatments were full irrigation based on
replenishment of soil water depleted from 0 to 90 cm of the soil prole (T100 ), 75% of full irrigation (T75 = 25% water decit), 50% of full
irrigation (T50 = 50% water decit), 25% of full irrigation (T25 = 75%
water decit) and non-irrigated (T0 ). In 2006, all plots were irrigated by sprinkler irrigation after planting, and 15 mm of irrigation
water was applied for seed zone wetting to obtain uniform emergence. Afterward, drip irrigation was used as the irrigation method
and the irrigation water was measured by water meter. The pressure for each plot was stabilized according to pressure meters
mounted on the pipe for each plot. A polyethylene lateral drip line
was designed for each row. The diameter of the lateral pipes was
16 mm with 2 l h1 in-line drippers spaced at 25 cm.
Soil water content (SWC) measurements of the 0120 cm soil
prole were made in the centre of the plots before each irrigation
water application, and once per week with a neutron probe (503
DR Hydroprobe, CPN International, Inc., Martinez, CA, USA) at 0.16,
0.45, 0.75 and 1.05 m depths (32 s counts at each depth). In addition,
volumetric water content for 0.3 m soil depth was determined on
the basis of soil sampling.
The ETc of each treatment was determined as the soil water balance residual (Eq. (1)) for the time periods between two successive
SWC measurement dates (7-day) (Jensen et al., 1990):
ETc = I + P + DS R D

(1)

where I is the depth of irrigation water (mm), P is the precipitation


(mm), S is the change in the soil water content (mm), R is the
depth of runoff (mm) and D is the drainage below the root zone
(mm). For the calculation, I was measured using water meters, and
P was observed at the meteorological station. Because the amount
of irrigation water was controlled, run-off was assumed to be zero.
To consider the percolation, moisture measurements related to the
120-cm soil prole were used for soil water budget calculations.We
estimated ETc for soybean for the same periods of soil water balance
calculations to evaluate our ETc results of fully irrigated irrigation
treatment (T100 ). For this purpose daily ET0 (for grass) were calculated based on FAO PenmanMonteith for which details were given
by Allen et al. (1998) and ASCEEWRI (2005) and crop coefcients
(Kc ) for soybeans given by Allen et al. (1998) were used and these
values were adjusted for local conditions based on Eq. (2):
Kc = KcFAO56 + [0.04(u2 2) 0.004(RHmin 45)]

 h 0.3
3

(2)

where Kc-FAO56 is the single Kc values given by Allen et al. (1998), u2


is the mean value for daily wind speed at 2 m height, RHmin mean
value for daily minimum relative humidity, h is the mean plant
height. The single Kc values of soybean given by Allen et al. (1998)
for initial, mid and end seasons were 0.40 (Kc ini ), 1.15 (Kc mid ) and
0.50 (Kc end ), respectively.
Soybeans were harvested on 26 September 2005 and 2 October
2006. After each harvest, the seed yield, oil percentage, oil yield,
protein percentage and protein yield were determined. Crude oil

B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

115

Table 1
Mean air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, solar radiation and total monthly rainfall during 20052006 and long-term measurements (19752003) at Bursa.
Year

Month

Air temperature ( C)

Relative humidity (%)

Wind speeda (m s1 )

Solar radiation (MJ m2 d1 )

Rainfall (mm)

2005

April
May
June
July
August
September
October

13.7
17.6
21.2
24.7
25.1
20.1
13.2

60
68
58
62
63
68
72

1.8
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.2

13.1
18.3
23.7
22.4
19.3
14.8
9.7

56
23
21
55
4
16
37

2006

April
May
June
July
August
September
October

12.1
16.6
21.5
23.8
26.4
19.9
16.7

74
61
64
52
50
65
77

1.9
1.8
1.7
2.3
2.0
1.5
1.3

16.9
22.2
23.2
24.2
20.1
14.3
9.9

20
9
43
2
3
91
25

Long-term average

April
May
June
July
August
September
October

12.9
17.6
22.3
24.5
24.1
20.1
15.3

68
65
58
57
60
65
72

2.0
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.1
1.7
1.5

14.0
17.6
20.0
19.8
17.8
14.5
9.7

70
47
33
20
15
35
72

Average wind speed (at 2 m height).

and protein percentages were dened using the Soxhlet extraction


technique (Pomeranz and Clifton, 1994) and the Kjeldahl method
(Ivanov, 1974), respectively. Oil and protein yields were calculated
as functions of the seed yield and crude oil and protein percentages.
Water use efciency (WUE) values were calculated as the ratio of
seed yield to seasonal ETc for each treatment separately (Bos, 1980;
Howell, 2001; Pala et al., 2007).
The canopy temperature (Tc ) was measured with a hand-held
infrared thermometer (Model 100.3 ZL, Everest Interscience, Inc.,
USA). The spectral band-pass of the infrared thermometer (IRT) was
814 m with a resolution of 0.1 C and a eld of view (FOV) of
4 . Emissivity was set to 0.98. Before surface temperature measurements, infrared thermometry device were controlled by the
commercial Everest black body surface. In the rst year, the IRT
data were collected between day after planting (DAP) 81 and DAP
130 (July 11, full bloom August 29, full maturity) to determine
the CWSI of soybeans, but in the second year, the Tc values were
measured between DAP 75 and DAP 127 (July 17, full bloom
September 7, full maturity). Total rainfall recorded during Tc measurements in 2005 and 2006 were 20 and 7 mm, respectively. Tc
measurements were taken at 1300 h and 1400 h (Central Standard
Time) on two days per week, during which times the sun was unobscured by clouds. Three instantaneous canopy temperatures were
measured from the east, west, north and south directions of two
center rows at 1 m distance from crop canopy in each drip plot,
and the IRT was hand-held at approximately 1.5 m above the soil
surface. The IRT was held at an oblique view angle of 30 40
below horizontal to the crops to minimize the effect of the soil
background that was in the eld of view. The mean Tc for each
plot was calculated as the average of 24 measurements per day.
Dry and wet-bulb temperatures were measured using an aspirated
psychrometer placed at a height of 1.5 m within the experiment
eld under an agricultural meteorological shield. The VPD was computed using the standard psychrometer equation based on dry and
wet bulb temperatures (Allen et al., 1998).
CWSI was calculated according to Idso et al. (1981) by using
measured Tc Ta and VPD. The non-water-stressed baseline for
soybeans was determined from the data collected after irrigation
in T100 treatment, in which the crop was irrigated well. The data
set was obtained from data collected from 0700 h to 1900 h at 1-h
intervals on DAP 100 for both 2005 and 2006, and on data collected

at 1300 h and 1400 h during measurement periods between DAP 81


and DAP 130 in 2005, and DAP 75 and DAP 127 in 2006. The upper
baseline was determined using the canopy temperatures measured
from fully stressed plants (in the T0 treatment) at 1300 h and 1400 h
on two days per week during the measurement periods in both
years.
The empirical CWSI was calculated as (Eq. (3)):
CWSI =

(Tc Ta ) (Tc Ta )ll


(Tc Ta )ul (Tc Ta )ll

(3)

where (Tc Ta )ul is the upper limit of the canopy temperature


minus the air temperature (non-transpiring crop) and (Tc Ta )ll is
the lower limit of the canopy temperature minus the air temperature (well-irrigated crop).
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on seed yield and
quality data. The effects of the irrigation treatments were evaluated at the 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels using the F-test. The
F-protected least signicant difference (LSD) was calculated at the
0.05 probability level according to Steel and Torrie (1980). The relationships between CWSI and each of ETc , seed yield, protein yield,
oil yield and WUE were found using regression analysis. Linear, logarithmic, polynomial, power and exponential regression analyses
were carried out. The analyses generated values for slope, intercept, coefcient of determination (R2 ) and root mean square error
(RMSE), and the most appropriate regression equation was dened
based on the values of R2 and RMSE.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. The amount of irrigation water applied and crop water use
Table 2 lists the irrigation depths applied to each treatment,
the received seasonal rainfall and the estimated total ETc based
on soil water balance. The maximum irrigation water amounts
applied in the T100 treatment were 554 mm (2005) and 679 mm
(2006), and the T0 treatment was rainfed. However, although insufcient soil moisture occurred during the sowing period of 2006,
15 mm of irrigation water was applied to the T0 treatment using
a sprinkler irrigation system. Seasonal ETc values varied between
394 and 802 mm in 2005 and between 351 and 841 mm in 2006.
Total ET0 values for 2005 and 2006 growing seasons were estimated

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B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

Table 2
The seed yield, total amount of irrigation water, and seasonal crop evapotranspiration (ETc ) for soybeans in 2005 and 2006.
Year

Treatment

Seed yield (t ha1 )

Total irrigation (mm)

Rainfalla (mm)

Seasonal ETc (mm)

2005

T100
T75
T50
T25
T0

3.93
3.42
3.23
3.01
2.16

554
416
277
139
0

156

802
687
576
480
394

2006

T100
T75
T50
T25
T0

3.59
3.23
2.94
2.45
1.98

679
513
347
181
15

150

841
702
590
462
351

Rainfall received from planting to harvest.

as 703 mm and 730 mm, respectively. Soybean Kc values under


standard conditions given by Allen et al. (1998) were 0.40, 1.15 and
0.50 for initial (Kc ini ), mid (Kc mid ) and end (Kc end ) season, respectively. Based on these values and Eq. (2), adjusted Kc values for local
climatic conditions were obtained. Consequently, in 2005, adjusted
Kc ini , Kc mid and Kc end values were 0.40, 1.13 and 0.48, respectively,
and similarly in 2005, respective adjusted Kc values were 0.40,
1.14 and 0.47. Based on ET0 values and adjusted Kc for standard
conditions ETc values could be estimated as 633 mm (2005) and
666 mm (2006). Crop water use values of this study calculated for
non-water stressed soybeans were higher than estimated ETc values. The source of these differences could be depended on variety of
the crop, length of growing period and sub-surface ows, which we
cannot, able to dene. In addition to this, probably after irrigation
events higher evaporation occurred from the wetted and exposed
soil surface.
3.2. Seed yield and quality components
Seed yield and the quality components for 2005 and 2006 are
summarized in Table 3. Based on the analysis of variance results, the
differences between the irrigation treatments were statistically signicant at the 0.01 condence level for the seed yield; protein yield
and oil yield in each year (2005 and 2006). In addition, the effects of
the irrigation treatments on the protein and oil percentages were
signicant at the 0.05 condence level in each year.
Seed yield declined with decreasing ETc values and thus, with
increasing water decit (Fig. 1). Based on statistical analysis, the
relationship between soybean seed yield and ETc was polynomial
(P < 0.01, RMSE = 0.18) for 2 years. The coefcient of determination
was calculated as 0.90. Seed yields varied from 2.16 t ha1 (T0 ) to
3.93 t ha1 (T100 ) in 2005 and from 1.98 t ha1 (T0 ) to 3.59 t ha1
(T100 ) in 2006 (Table 3). Compared with the non-irrigated treatment
(T0 ), all irrigation treatments signicantly increased the seed yield.
Crop yield values especially under no water stress conditions were
similar to previously reported ones (Ashley and Ethridge, 1978;
Specht et al., 1989; Foroud et al., 1993; Evett et al., 2000; Karam
et al., 2005; Dogan et al., 2007; OShaughnessy et al., 2011). In
2005, the seed yield reductions observed for the T0 , T25 , T50 , and T75
treatments were 45, 23, 18, and 13% of the non-stressed treatment
T100 , respectively. Similarly in 2006, the yield reductions were 45,
32, 18, and 10% for the T0 , T25 , T50 , and T75 respective treatments.
A decrease in soybean yield under water decit or drought-stress
conditions has been reported previously (Eck et al., 1987; De Costa
and Shanmugathasan, 2002; Karam et al., 2005; Rosadi et al., 2005;
Dogan et al., 2007). Nielsen (1990) reported a linear response of
soybean yield to ETc (Yield (kg ha1 ) = 6.53 ETc (mm) 17). This
relationship predicts nearly the same yields as the polynomial relationship found in the current study for ETc less than 500 mm, but
much greater yields for ETc greater than 500 mm.

The protein percentage values varied from 31.3 to 35.0% in 2005


and from 30.7 to 33.2% in 2006. The lowest protein percentage
was obtained in the seeds obtained in the T100 treatment, which
produced the greatest yield (3.93 and 3.59 t ha1 in 2005 and
2006, respectively) (Table 3). Our results are in agreement with
those of Xiaobing et al. (2004), who reported that protein content
decreased as soybean yield was maximized using irrigation and
the application of manure. A minimal effect on seed protein and
a variable effect on oil content were reported when using a single
irrigation period at the reproductive stage (Sweeney et al., 2003),
but a signicant decline in seed protein content was observed
with high yields of soybeans in this study, indicating that maintaining a higher level of eld water capacity during the growing
season is detrimental to seed protein accumulation in soybeans.
A study conducted by Bellaloui and Mengistu (2008) showed
that whereas the percentage of protein was higher in the cultivar
Dwight under full-season and reproductive stage irrigation than
under non-irrigation, the percentage of protein was higher in the
cultivar Freedom under non-irrigation than under full-season
or reproductive stage irrigation. As a result, the authors reported
that the tested cultivars responded differently to irrigation. This
response may underline maturity or/and genotype differences and
their adaptations to environmental stress factors such as soil water
content and temperature (Bellaloui and Mengistu, 2008). However,
calculated protein yield values varied from 0.76 to 1.23 t ha1 and
from 0.66 to 1.10 t ha1 in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The highest
protein yield was obtained in the T100 treatment in both years.

Fig. 1. The relationship between seed yield (Y) and seasonal crop evapotranspiration
(ETc ). R2 : determination coefcient; ** Signicant at the 1% probability level (P < 0.01).

B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

117

Table 3
Seed yield, quality components, water use efciency (WUE), seasonal mean CWSI, and mean CWSI before soybean irrigations in 2005 and 2006.
Year

Treatment

Seed yield
(t ha1 )

Protein
content (%)

Oil content
(%)

Protein yield
(t ha1 )

Oil yield
(t ha1 )

WUE (kg m3 )

Mean CWSI

Mean CWSI
before irrigation

2005

T100
T75
T50
T25
T0
LSD0.05
F-test

3.93 aa
3.42 b
3.23 bc
3.01 c
2.16 d
0.3479

31.3 c
32.1 bc
32.8 abc
33.7 ab
35.0 a
2.343

19.4 a
18.7 ab
17.5 bc
17.3 bc
16.5 c
1.596

1.23 a
1.10 ab
1.06 b
1.01 b
0.76 c
0.1570

0.77 a
0.64 b
0.56 c
0.52 c
0.36 d
0.06066

**

**

0.49
0.50
0.56
0.63
0.55

0.18
0.25
0.34
0.54
0.92

0.23
0.33
0.42
0.61

0.43
0.46
0.50
0.53
0.56

0.15
0.21
0.35
0.59
1.04

0.20
0.30
0.44
0.68

2006

a
*
**

T100
T75
T50
T25
T0
LSD0.05
F-test

**

3.59 a
3.23 ab
2.94 b
2.45 c
1.98 d
0.4397

30.7 b
32.0 ab
32.3 a
33.1 a
33.2 a
1.599

20.5 a
19.5 ab
19.1 b
18.9 b
18.9 b
1.054

1.10 a
1.03 ab
0.95 bc
0.81 c
0.66 d
0.1456

0.73 a
0.63 b
0.56 b
0.46 c
0.37 d
0.08935

**

**

**

The values marked with the same letter are statistically homogeneous in the LSD test.
Signicant at the 5% probability level (P < 0.05).
Signicant at the 1% probability level (P < 0.01).

Whereas the percentage of protein decreased as the amount of


applied water increased, the yield of soybean protein increased. A
polynomial relationship with an R2 of 0.85 (P < 0.01, RMSE = 0.07)
existed between the protein yield and ETc (Fig. 2).
In both years the lowest oil percentages were obtained from
the soybeans that received the T0 treatment (16.5% and 18.9%,
respectively), and the highest oil percentages were obtained from
the soybeans that received the T100 treatment (19.4% and 20.5,
respectively) (Table 3). A previous study with soybeans showed
that the oil content was greatest and the soybean yield was maximal with irrigation and the application of manure (Xiaobing et al.,
2004). Because the maximum seed yield in our study was obtained
from treatment T100 in both years, our results agreed with those
of Xiaobing et al. (2004). Another study, which was conducted to
investigate the effect of irrigation regimes and soybean cultivars on
seed composition, demonstrated that whereas the cultivar Dwight
accumulated a higher oil content without irrigation compared
with that accumulated under full-season and reproductive stage
irrigation, the cultivar Freedom accumulated a lower oil content
without irrigation compared with that accumulated under fullseason or reproductive stage irrigation (Bellaloui and Mengistu,
2008). This result suggests that oil content may depend on the level

Fig. 2. The relationship between protein yield (PY) and seasonal crop evapotranspiration (ETc ). R2 : determination coefcient; ** Signicant at the 1% probability level
(P < 0.01).

of water stress (drought) (Specht et al., 2001), genotype (Maestri


et al., 1998; Piper and Boote, 1999), and the timing to full maturity
of these cultivars (Zhang et al., 2005). Other studies have demonstrated that yield and oil content are generally positively correlated
and that the high yield potential of soybeans is achieved when sufcient water and fertilizer are available (Calpten, 1986; Schoner
and Fehr, 1979; Xu and Zhang, 1995). Oil yields varied from 0.36
to 0.77 t ha1 in 2005, and similarly, oil yields ranged from 0.37
to 0.73 t ha1 in 2006. The highest oil yield was calculated for T100
treatment similar to the oil percentage. The seasonal ETc values
were linearly related to soybean oil yield (Fig. 3) (R2 = 0.96, P < 0.01
and RMSE = 0.03). Our results showed that the oil yield increased
linearly with increasing irrigation water amount or ETc .
3.3. Water use efciency
Water use efciency values were varied from 0.49 kg m3 to
0.63 kg m3 and from 0.43 kg m3 to 0.56 kg m3 in 2005 and 2006,
respectively (Table 3). In both years, the WUE values were higher
in treatment T25 than that of the other irrigation treatments have
higher water level. The quadratic relationship obtained through
comparison between WUE and ETc was showed this trend clearly
(Fig. 4) which has a determination coefcient of 0.63 (P < 0.01,

Fig. 3. The relationship between oil yield (OY) and seasonal crop evapotranspiration
(ETc ). R2 : determination coefcient; ** Signicant at the 1% probability level (P < 0.01).

118

B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

Fig. 4. The relationship between water use efciency (WUE) and seasonal crop
evapotranspiration (ETc ). R2 : determination coefcient; ** Signicant at the 1% probability level (P < 0.01).

RMSE = 0.04). These ndings were in agreement with that of Burriro


et al. (2002), who reported that WUE increases with soil moisture
stress. Although T25 irrigation treatment has the highest WUE level,
this type of irrigation scheduling could cause 27.5% yield decrease.
However, we can offer the irrigation strategy of T25 for either water
shortage or high water fee conditions. Based on the ETc , yield and
WUE ndings of this study and recent economic situations nal
decision related to irrigation water management for soybean could
be made.
3.4. Crop water stress index and baselines
As shown in Fig. 5, the value of (Tc Ta )ul was calculated as 3.2 C
(n = 33) using the combined data of the 2 years. Also, the linear equation for the lower limit baselines was dened as (Tc Ta )ll = 1.8549
VPD + 0.6499 (R2 = 0.7561, n = 33, P < 0.001, RMSE = 0.73, and
Syx = 0.76). The intercept and slope of the lower baseline in this
study were somewhat different from previously published values
for soybean. Idso (1982) reported that the relationship between

Fig. 5. The canopyair temperature differential (Tc Ta ) versus the air vapor pressure decit (VPD) for non-water stressed and maximally stressed soybeans. R2 :
determination coefcient; ** Signicant at the 1% probability level (P < 0.01).

Fig. 6. Variations of the crop water stress index (CWSI) for each irrigation treatment
during the (a) 2005 and (b) 2006 experiments.

Tc Ta and VPD for well-watered soybeans was Tc Ta = 1.34


VPD + 1.44 (R = 0.897, and Syx = 0.83) for sunlit conditions. This
lower baseline equation was derived from climate data collected
over soybeans at Manhattan, Kansas and Fargo, North Dakota.
The intercept and slope obtained in that study were higher than
those obtained in our study. The equation determined by Nielsen
(1990) for non-water stressed soybean crops was Tc Ta = 2.02
VPD + 2.51 at Akron, Colorado. The intercept in that study was
higher and slope lower than the values obtained in our study. These
differences may be attributed differences in the climatic conditions
and plant variety used. Gardner and Shock (1989) suggested that
the VPD range from 1 to 6 kPa to dene a baseline that could be
suitable for use in CWSI calculations at other locations. In our study,
the range of VPD observed was approximately 14 kPa, narrower
than that suggested by Gardner and Shock (1989). Hattendorf et al.
(1988) noted that it might be more difcult to establish a meaningful non-water-stressed baseline due to climatic variability over
several years and due to the limited range of VPD in wetter years in
humid and sub-humid climates. However, we were able to dene a
baseline with a high coefcient of determination (R2 = 0.7561, and
P < 0.001). Additionally, Lebourgeois et al. (2010) showed that the
empirical approach of Idso et al. (1981), which was optimal in arid
or semi-arid climates, could be used effectively to measure plant
water status, even in humid conditions with low VPD.
Fig. 6(a) and (b) shows the seasonal course of CWSI values computed for each irrigation treatment in 2005 and 2006, respectively.
The highest CWSI value calculated for T100 treatment was 0.36. During the growing seasons of 2005 and 2006, CWSI values reached
0.47 and 0.37 for T75 ; 0.50 and 0.57 for T50 ; 0.68 and 0.80 for T25 ,
respectively. Throughout both growing seasons CWSI of T0 (rainfed)
uctuated close to 1. Although CWSI was calculated based on the
lower and upper limits derived from measurements obtained from
the fully irrigated (T100 ) and rainfed (T0 ) treatments, some CWSI
values related to the T100 and T0 treatments were lower than zero
and higher than 1.0, respectively. The CWSI values were affected not

B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

119

Fig. 7. The relationships between seed yield (Y), crop evapotranspiration (ETc ), protein yield (PY), oil yield (OY), water use efciency (WUE) and seasonal mean crop water
stress index (CWSI). R2 : determination coefcient; ** Signicant at the 1% probability level (P < 0.01).

only by Tc Ta , depending on the transpiration of crop but also by


the VPD of the air, and thus, CWSI was very sensitive to water stress
in the soybean crops. Based on these results a maximum CWSI value
of nearly 0.36 could be offered as a threshold number for excellent
irrigation timing and CWSI over that values could be caused water
stress and thus yield reduction.
3.5. Comparisons between yield, ETc , quality parameters, WUE
and CWSI
Seed yield, quality components, WUE, seasonal mean CWSI and
mean CWSI values related to data measured before irrigations
(CWSIbi ) of each treatment for both experiment years were calculated and are presented in Table 3. The seasonal mean CWSI and
CWSIbi values of the T100 treatment were 0.17 and 0.22 (2-year
averages), respectively. The results indicated that if the seasonal

mean CWSI exceeds 0.17, then the soybean seed, protein and oil
yields would decrease. Nielsen (1990) used four threshold values
of CWSI (i.e., CWSI = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5) to initiate irrigations and
determined that the threshold CWSI value of 0.2 resulted in the
highest seed yield of drip-irrigated soybean in Akron, CO, USA. This
value was close to the mean CWSI of approximately 0.22 before
irrigation that was obtained in our study.
Fig. 7 shows a summary of the comparison statistics between
the mean CWSI values and soybean seed yield, seasonal ETc , protein yield, oil yield and WUE. All relationships were signicant
at the 0.01 probability level. To dene the highest coefcient of
determination, linear, logarithmic, polynomial, power and exponential regression analyses were conducted. As a result, the
highest determination coefcients were calculated for the exponential relationship between seed yield and mean CWSI (R2 = 0.92,
RMSE = 0.19), the power relationship between ETc and mean CWSI

120

B.N. Candogan et al. / Agricultural Water Management 118 (2013) 113121

(R2 = 0.99, RMSE = 13.79), the exponential relationship between


protein yield and mean CWSI (R2 = 0.88, RMSE = 0.06), the logarithmic relationship between oil yield and mean CWSI (R2 = 0.95,
RMSE = 0.03) and the polynomial relationship between WUE and
mean CWSI (R2 = 0.67, RMSE = 0.03). Our results showed that as the
irrigation water applied or ETc decreased, CWSI values increased,
in line with decreasing transpiration and increasing crop canopy
temperatures. OShaughnessy et al. (2011) reported that average seasonal empirical CWSI values calculated for each plot from
temperature measurements recorded using infrared thermometer mounted on a center pivot lateral were inversely related to
crop water use with R2 values >0.89 and 0.55 for soybean and cotton, respectively. In addition, as CWSI values increased, soybean
seed, protein and oil yields decreased. In the study conducted by
OShaughnessy et al. (2011), there was a signicant inverse relationship between the empirical CWSI values and soybean yields in
2004 (R2 = 0.88) and 2005 (R2 = 0.83). The polynomial relationship
between WUE and CWSI demonstrated that highest WUE could be
obtained under CWSI close to 0.6. Additionally, increasing of CWSI
from 0.6 to 1.0 could not change WUE as much as ranging CWSI
between 0.0 and 0.6. Although the highest WUE could be obtained
for nearly a CWSI value of 0.6, this limited irrigation scheduling
strategy could be preferred for water scarcity and/or high level of
water costs.
The regression equations of seed yield versus mean CWSI, protein yield versus mean CWSI and oil yield versus mean CWSI
relationships, which are presented in Fig. 7, can be used for seed,
protein and oil yield predictions. The relationships with high correlations obtained from the regressions of mean CWSI on seed yield
and ETc in this study have also been reported in other studies under
different local conditions and crop types (Yazar et al., 1999; Irmak
et al., 2000; Orta et al., 2003; Simsek et al., 2005; Krnak and Dogan,
2009; Erdem et al., 2010; Al-Kayssi et al., 2011). Based on these
results, it could be stated that the CWSI values can potentially be
employed to quantify water stress for soybeans.

4. Conclusion
This study has demonstrated that the CWSI calculation methodology is suitable for irrigation scheduling of soybean in a sub-humid
climate and that CWSI values are sensitive to soybean yield and
quality components. Yields would be reduced if the seasonal average CWSI values were greater than 0.17, and an average CWSI of
approximately 0.22 before irrigation would produce the maximum
yield. Therefore, a CWSI value of 0.22 or smaller could be taken
as a threshold value to start irrigation for soybeans grown under
the conditions described in this study and when using the drip
irrigation method. The relationships between seasonal mean CWSI
and soybean seed yield, seasonal ETc , protein yield, oil yield and
WUE were highly signicant. Thus, the regression equations for
the relationships between seasonal mean CWSI and soybean seed
yield, protein yield and oil yield can be used by soybean managers
to achieve higher soybean yields and to predict seed yield, protein
yield and oil yield by evaluating the level of CWSI as an indicator
under sub-humid conditions.
Consequently, an irrigation schedule that considers water stress
could be employed when the cost of water is high and/or water is
scarce. Under this type of irrigation management strategy higher
WUE could be obtained. However, because of the yield reduction, all economic aspects of water limited irrigation scheduling
should be considered before making this decision. ETc , yield and
CWSI related ndings of this study could be useful for either
deciding the irrigation scheduling strategy or implementing this
plan based on CWSI, especially for sub-humid climate conditions.

Acknowledgments
This research is funded by The Scientic Research Projects Unit
of Uludag University (Project No. 2004/66; Project Leader: Prof.
Dr. Senih YAZGAN). The authors are indebted to American Journal
Experts (AJE) and Project Management Centre of Uludag University
for editing the English of this manuscript. Many thanks to Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Eyp Selim KKSAL from Ondokuz Mays University in
Samsun, Turkey for criticism of the manuscript.

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