Introduction To Computers

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ADVANCED COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

MODULE
SECRETARIAL STUDIES
rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/
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DEFINE A COMPUTER
An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept, process & output
data/information for use by the operator.
A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program, generates results, and
usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and control units.
A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous arithmetic operations or
logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
Computer program:
A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer follows in processing
data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem. See also software.
A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a computer in
order to bring about a certain result.
STATE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Input unit
Output unit
Main memory
Central processing unit [ALU & CU]
A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
CPU
Control unit- issues

commands to
computer elements &
interpret stored
Arithmetic &
logic unit- performs
Input Unit
logic
Data &
instructions
Output Unit
Information after
processing
Main MemoryHolds data & instructions &

results of processing
Backing/Auxiliary
Storage-
supplements
the main storage.
The CPU consists of the ALU & CU

KEY
Data Instructions
Command Flow
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT?

DEFINE HARDWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
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Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the
data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the
hardware to accomplish tasks.
DEFINE SOFTWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs and
data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose.
Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by
directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to
another piece of software.
TYPE OF COMPUTERS/COMPUTER CATEGORIES

Supercomputers
Mainframes
Minicomputers
Microcomputers
Supercomputers
Describes a category of extremely powerful computers specifically designed for high-speed
numeric computation.
The computers can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
High capacity computers capable of executing instructions faster than main frame & are
extremely expensive.
The speed of executing these instructions generates extreme heat, and therefore the
computers require special cooling system to operate.
Uses include weather forecasting, scientific and mathematical research, and design of
high-speed aircraft and space exploration.
Mainframes
Are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and usually
have one or more central processors with faster instruction processing speeds?
They typically process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
Mainframes have large primary storage capacities.
Many mainframe models have the ability to service hundreds of users at once.
Some commercial organizations require large amounts of data to be processed in the list
possible time.
Mainframes allow one to perform such functions
Uses of mainframes include: data warehousing, commercial airline ticketing & reservations,
government record keeping & financial servicing
Application categories: Host computers, Database servers, and Transaction processors.
Minicomputers
Are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful
than most mainframe computer systems.
Serve in industrial process-control manufacturing plant computers and play a major role in
CAM.
Also take the form of powerful technical workstations for CAD applications.
Often used as front-end processors/computers to help mainframe computers control data
communications networks with large numbers of data entry terminals.
Also used as powerful Network servers to help manage large interconnected LANs that tie
together many workstations
Downsizing is a term that was commonly used in the early nineties when smaller
computers, capable of much of the functions of mainframes, began capturing the computer
market.
Minicomputers are suitable for mid-sized companies that require the computing power of
mainframes to be efficient and at the same time be cost effective.
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Users of mini-computers would be smaller banks & financial institutions, supermarket

chains and departmental stores.
Application categories: Network servers, and Application systems
Microcomputers
We refer to a microcomputer as a personal computer or PC.
Microcomputers categorized by size include: Desktops, Laptops for example.
Most microcomputers are single user computers.
The late nineties have seen a huge influx of microcomputers whose sole aim was to provide
affordable computing power to the general public.
They are now used as Network servers. The demand for microcomputers and the changes in
microchip technology have produced cheaper computers that are affordable to students
and the general public.
Can support CAD.
Users of microcomputers range from students, who use them for word processing, to a
salesperson. Who depend on the microcomputer for information?
Application categories: PCs, Network servers.
Network servers are powerful microcomputers that controls & coordinates communication
& resource sharing in LANs of interconnected PCs & other devices.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A PERSONAL COMPUTER
Shopping for a personal computer (PC) can be enjoyable, or it can be frustrating.
Unfortunately, some shoppers believe all personal computers are alike so their main objective
is to find the cheapest one. Doing so can be a mistake. The old saying "You get what you pay
for" is true. Many buyers have later discovered the computer they purchased lacked important
components and features. Avoid making this mistake. The following sections provide some
useful guidelines to help you in your search for the right PC.
Plan Before You Buy
Before spending your money, prepare a written list of your computing needs
and how and where you will be using your new system. Following is a list of
questions that will help you identify your needs.
1. How much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal computers range
from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more feature-rich PCs are
usually more expensive. Also, personal computers soon become obsolete. Within a
few years you may want or need one that is faster and more versatile.
2. Where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in your home or office,
a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need to take it with you,
you should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer weighing 4 pounds
or less.
3. Which applications will I run on my computer? Make a list of applications for
which you plan to use your PC. For example, will you use your PC to prepare letters
and reports? Analyze numeric and financial data? Prepare visual presentations?
Access the Internet? Listen to music? Create and work with graphics?
4. How long will I keep this computer? Try to estimate the length of time (years) you
will use your computer before buying the next one. If you expect use your PC for
several years or if you think you may later want to add new applications, consider
one that is expandable, so you can add new components, such as a modem, printer,
or add-on boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so you can connect these
devices to your PC.
5. Check out the manufacturers and sellers reputations and warranties and
become familiar with various brands and models. Talk with friends, co-workers,
classmates, teachers, and others about their PCs. Ask about the performance of
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their PCs and get recommendations from persons you trust. Eventually you may
need to have your PC serviced. Ideally, the vendor has a service department that
can repair your PC. If not, you may need to locate a third-party to provide this
service.
6. PC architecture. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of the PC
and its system unit, and not all architectures are the same. For example, the
architecture of an Apple Macintosh differs from that of an IBM or compatible PC.
Therefore, software written for an Apple Macintosh PC may not run on an IBM or
IBM-compatible PC. Although some users prefer a Macintosh PC, more software is
available for IBM and IBM-compatible PCs.
7. Microprocessor. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely important.
Processing speed, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), is probably the
first consideration. The higher the number of MHz or GHz, the faster the processor
will manipulate data. If speed is important, consider choosing a microprocessor
with a speed of 866 MHz or more. PCs containing microprocessors with speeds up to
1.5 GHz and higher are available.
8.
Main memory. Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary storage of
programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application software
requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer software
versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now come with
64 megabytes (MB), 128 MB, or more of RAM. Make certain the PC has sufficient
RAM to run the software you will be using.
9. Secondary storage. What type(s) and amounts of secondary storage are you likely
to need? Typical computers come with a floppy disk drive and a hard disk drive
already installed. A standard floppy disk can store up to 1.44 MB of data, although
other types of floppy disks are available that provide greater storage capacity. A
hard disk drive contains one or more rigid storage platters and provides for the
permanent storage of considerably more data. However, the disk itself cannot be
removed from the drive. The storage capacity of a hard disk is an important
consideration because it is used to store all system and application software.
Typical hard disk capacities are 20, 40, or 60 GB and more. Be certain the PC you
are considering has sufficient secondary capacity for your needs.Other secondary
storage devices and media are available. CD-ROM drives provide high storage
capacities. Most software publishers store their programs on CD-ROM because of
the high capacity and because CD-ROMs operate faster than floppy disks. If you will
use your PC to play movies, your purchase should include a DVD (digital video disk)
drive. If you will work with large files, consider purchasing a computer that
includes a CD-RW drive. A CD-RW disk is a reusable high-capacity disk that allows
you to store huge amounts of data and to erase data no longer needed.
10. Ports. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines the
number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For example,
you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer is equipped
with an appropriate port (slot). Be sure the PC contains the necessary slots for the
add-on boards and peripheral devices you will be using with your computer.
11. Input Devices. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although other
kinds of input devices are available. Most keyboards and mice operate similarly.
However, there are slight differences in how each "feels" to the user. Before buying
a PC, you may want to test the keyboard and mouse for comfort and ease of use.
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Some sellers will allow you to exchange the keyboard or mouse that comes with the
computer for a different one.
12. Output Devices. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard copy
form. Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have to
purchase a hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.
13. Monitors. There are wide differences among PC monitors, with resolution being
perhaps the most important variable. Resolution refers to the clarity of the text
and images being displayed. Before making a purchase, carefully evaluate the
monitors resolution. Many vendors allow you to choose from monitors with varying
resolutions. A resolution of 1,024 by 1,024 is considered high-resolution, in which
text and images display exceptionally clearly. High-resolution monitors are typically
more expensive.Monitor size is another important consideration. Viewing areas
range from 15 diagonal inches to 21 inches and higher. Larger monitors are usually
more expensive, but may be worth the extra cost. For example, an individual with
weak vision may prefer a larger monitor. If your desktop space is limited, consider
purchasing a flat-panel monitor, which occupies less space. Flat-panels are more
expensive than standard monitors, however.
14. Printers. Two popular types of printers are inkjet and laser, both of which are
versatile and capable of producing high-quality output in color. Examine a variety
of printers and models and check the price and output quality of each type and
model.
Most inkjet printers are quiet, produce high-quality output, and are
relatively inexpensive, although the ink cartridges they use can be
expensive. Print resolution is an important factor to consider. Some offer
impressive resolution and can produce output of amazing color.
Laser printers are fast and can produce high-quality output in both black
and color tones. Color laser printers are more expensive than those using
only black toner. The cost of color laser printers ranges from a few hundred
to thousands of dollars. Choose Software to Match Your Needs List
You have been delegated the task of selecting a new printer from a range of different
options currently on the market. The machine has to serve a small network of
microcomputers in your office. Software used includes a word processing package,
database, spreadsheet, and presentation packages. Assuming that cost is not a major
constraint, list 10 features of the printers, which you would investigate in your evaluation.
1. Print quality, for example the print from dot matrix printers varies with the number of
pins and even the best are inferior to laser printers.
2. Character formation, whether made from dots as in matrix printer, or full characters
as with daisywheel or laser printer
3. Multi-part, i.e. whether several copies can be printed at once, as with an impact
printer.
4. Fonts or type style; early computer users were satisfied with any quality whatsoever,
but the advances into areas such as word processing and desk top publishing have
stimulated a demand for varying type faces or fonts within the same document
5. Letter quality, whether the quality is equivalent or superior to that of a good
typewriter and so acceptable for the word processing of mail. Some printers have a
choice of two print modes, draft quality and letter quality.
6. Speed, in terms of characters per second.
7. Graphics capabilities.
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8. Flexibility, for example is it suitable for one task only, such as good letter quality but
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
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not graphics, as with daisywheel printers, or good graphics but slow speed and
indifferent letter quality, as with some dot matrix printers.
Sheet feeding, in terms of single sheets, friction feed or sprocket feed.
Capital cost or what it costs to buy.
Running cost or what it costs in ribbons, print toner, special stationery & maintenance.
Compatibility with standard packages; many programs support a range of printers by
generating the correct control characters for fonts, features like italics and underline,
and for graphics.
Robustness; some very cheap printers are ideal at home but would not last very long in
an office.
Reputation of the manufacturer as a supplier of printers.
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.

1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire
easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest killer of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not
exposed to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of
power failures, which may be fatal.
DATA SECURITY /PROTECTION

Data Security/Protection
Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural hazards,
deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by malicious or
terrorist acts, illegal access to data by hackers [people who break into the system]
& accidental destruction of data by hardware or software failure [operator error].
MEASURES TO ENSURE DATA SECURITY
1. Data Encryption/Decryption- Data is coded before transmission over a WAN &
decrypted only if you have the key & code to decrypt the data on the receiving end.
The process of transforming a message in ordinary language i.e. plain text to produce
what is called cipher text which is then send along a communication line/link. The
receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the message.
Definitions of decryption on the Web:
The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the process
of converting cipher text to plaintext. Decryption is the opposite of encryption.
Definitions of encryption on the Web:
Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order to
prevent anyone except the intended recipient from reading that data. There are many
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types of data encryption, and they are the basis of network security. Common types include
Data Encryption Standard and public-key encryption.
Definitions of cipher text on the Web:
Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information content (ie,
its meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.
2. Firewall- a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC

or network through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to and
from the PC and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security criteria. Any data that
does not meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also process encrypted data. They verify the
validity of the user. User would require access to the firewall before they can transmit data.
Latest firewalls also have the ability to detect virus software in packets of data that is sent
through the network. Firewalls disallow data transmission if it detects strains of virus on the
data being transmitted.
3. Usernames & Passwords-Passwords restrict only authorized personnel/users to
have access to the data or computer rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an
aspect of accountability, if a file is deleted, the person with the password will
be reported as the culprit through logging. Passwords can be forgotten. Widely
used by companies to protect their equipment & data
4. Authorized entry to computer installations-Most installations have card
readers, voice recognition systems or keypads on the doors that prohibit entry
to unauthorized personnel.
5. Backing-up files on external disks periodically.
6. Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3
generations of backup.
7. Saving work frequently
8. Avoiding viruses.
9. Restricting access to the computer room. Access could be only through codes,
voice recognition etc.
10. Installing fire alarms.
11. Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
12. Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.
13. Having a security guard 24 hours a day.
Summary - Keeping data secure
Measures that can be taken to keep data safe include:

Making regular back-ups of files. (Back up copies should be stored safely in fireproof safes or in another
building.)
Protecting yourself against viruses by running anti-virus software.
Using a system of passwords so that access to data is restricted.
Safe storage of important files stored on removable disks - eg locked away in a fireproof and waterproof safe.
Allowing only authorized staff into certain computer areas, eg by controlling entry to these areas by means
of ID cards or magnetic swipe cards.
Always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them.
Avoiding accidentally deletion of files by write-protecting disks.
Using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no apparent sense.
BACK UP
Copying or saving data to a different location. One can restore the backup copy
if data is lost or damaged.
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To create a copy of a disks contents on another location for safe keeping.

Since hard drives are not infallible, it is recommended that you backup its
contents regularly.
DISASTER PLANNING
Many companies have comprehensive emergency plans so that even after suffering a
severe:
Bomb
Fire damage
Natural disaster, the company can be up and running within a day or two.
A disaster recovery service/program provides for example

Office space
Computer facilities
Phones
Desks, at an emergency BACKUP site.
A completely up to date copy of the company Database may be permanently maintained at this site with all
transactions being transmitted to this remote site updating the database, copying etc.
The data should be backed up/stored to one or more media to ensure recovery in case of disaster.
The back up procedures and media should be tested periodically to assess their effectiveness.
Definitions of disaster plan on the Web:

The documented policies and procedures intended to either prevent damage, minimize damage, or recover
from damage to record materials.
Definitions of disaster recovery plan on the Web:
The document that defines the resources, actions, tasks and data required to manage the business recovery
process in the event of a business interruption. The plan is designed to assist in restoring the business process
within the stated disaster recovery goals.
Part of an overall contingency plan. The plan for a process whereby an enterprise would restore any loss of
data in the event of fire, vandalism, natural disaster, or system failure.
MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS
Key threats to data security
Data can be lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard disk.
Data can become corrupt as a result of faulty disks or disk drives, or power failures.
Data can be lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files.
Data can be lost or become corrupted by computer viruses.
Data can be hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered.
Data can be destroyed by terrorist activities, war, bombs and fire.
Data can be deleted or altered by unpleasant employees wishing to make money or seek revenge on their
employers.
Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact and
preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it. [15].
THREAT
Hardware failure
Electrical faults
IMPACT
CONTROL
You are grounded

You cannot access the system
Data is incorrectly/ incompletely
processed
Have spares in the warehouse.

Do regular servicing
Have a disaster plan
Run hardware diagnostics
frequently
Loss of data
Disk crushes
Damage to hardware
Have standby generators

Install UPS [uninterrupted
power supply]
Install Surge suppressors/
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Software failures
Natural disasters/ physical

threats
Viruses
Hackers, Computer crime
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Operations are grounded
Absolute destruction
Deletion & corruption of files

Reformatting of documents
System may fail to work
Security is breached
Security is bypassed
Destruction of files
Data is stolen
protectors
Buy software from reputable
vendors.
Do regular back ups
Software diagnostics
Relocate backups to other
areas free from disasters
Install a reliable anti-virus
software
Never download unknown email attachments
Scan unknown diskettes
Change passwords regularly
Employ a security guard
Install a firewall
Prevent unauthorized access to
computer facilities.
War and Terrorist activity
Human error
Definitions of computer abuse on the Web:

The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability,
confidentiality, or integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes fraud,
embezzlement, theft, malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and
misappropriation
Definitions of hacking on the Web:
Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an
information system or network. Hacking means illegally accessing other people's
computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities on the
network or computer systems.
DATA INTEGRITY/RELIABILITY
Refers to the correctness AND The accuracy of data after being transmitted or
processed
Data in the computer system may become incorrect, corrupted or of poor quality in
many different ways & at any stage during data processing.
Consequences of system failure:
Loss of business due downtime
Delays
Air traffic control system could well have catastrophic results
COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
Hacking i.e.
Hackers are users of computer systems that gain unauthorized access into a computer
system.
Cracking of ineffective security systems so as to gain unauthorized access to
commercially sensitive or confidential personal files
Computer Fraud/Crime
Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems, especially
with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make unauthorized use of
computer resources.
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E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another

TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
a) Intellectual Crime cracking into a computer system for the purpose of
transferring or obtaining funds is a typical e.g.
b) Destruction of property destroying a computer property
c) Theft Software piracy which is unauthorized copying of software. Hardware &
software being taken away without the knowledge/consent of its owners.
d) Fraud achieved by the manipulation of computer records.
e) * Spamming wherever outlawed completely or where regulations
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
controlling it are violated.

* Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems.
* Unauthorized access to or modification of
o programs (see software cracking and hacking).
o data.
* Intellectual property theft, including software piracy.
* Industrial espionage by means of access to or theft of computer
materials.
* Identity theft where this is accomplished by use of fraudulent
computer transactions.
* Writing or spreading computer viruses or worms.
* Salami slicing is the practice of stealing money repeatedly in
extremely small quantities.
* Denial-of-service attack, where company websites are flooded
with service requests and their website is overloaded and either
slowed or crashes completely.
* Making and digitally distributing child pornography
MEASURES TO COUNTER OR COMBAT COMPUTER CRIME [COMPUTER SECURITY]

Careful vetting of employees
Separation of duties
Use of passwords
Security manager software-to monitor attempts to access the system whether
successful or not.
Educating staff
Prevention of unauthorized access to the computer operations room
Data Encryption/Decryption
COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.
Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth
DEFINITION2.
A virus is a computer program designed to enter your computer and tamper with your files
without your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the activated virus
can not only infect other programs and documents on your computer, it can duplicate and
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transmit itself to other computers that are connected to yours, just like a physical virus can
move from one human host to another.
Viruses began in the late 1980s as personal computers and electronic bulletin boards became
more common. Back then, operating systems, word processing programs and other programs
were stored on floppy disks. Hidden viruses were programmed onto these disks; as the disks
were transferred from person to person, the virus spread.
WHO CREATES VIRUSES?
Where do viruses come from? Every virus is created by an author with a different motivebut
all virus builders feel their actions are justified. For some, a killer virus is the ultimate
technical challenge, like climbing a mountain. For others, creating viruses is a form of selfexpression. Some disgruntled employees, consumers or citizens turn to virus building as
revenge for perceived injustices. And though its a frightening thought, some viruses are built
and aimed by legitimate (but disreputable) businesses to weaken competitors. Other virus
authors want to make their mark in Internet history; these writers get a thrill out of seeing
their virus cause damage enough to attract news headlines both online and on the evening
news.
What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.
Reduced memory or disk space

Files are overwritten or damaged
Hard drive may be erased
Data is modified /corrupted.
Change files & date stamp
Drive lights blink without reason
Longer times are experienced when loading programs
Slower system operation.
Todays viruses are far more potent than the beginner versions we saw several decades ago.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,

clicking on spam,
visiting corrupt websites and links online,
Opening spreadsheets or even the original methodinfected disks.
But the Internet is now the superhighway for virus transmission.
Some aggressive virusessuch as the Melissa virusautomatically duplicate copies of itself
to the first 50 people in your computer email address book. A frightening prospectopening
an email from someone you trust to be greeted by a virus, and thats exactly what the
author is counting on, your trust.
The damage caused by these viruses varies from minor delays in computer function to
complete destruction of your hard drive. For companies, the price is far higher. A downed
website can cost a company millions of dollars a day.
How does the virus infect your computer? Because floppy use is nearly extinct and the
majority of CDs that change hands cannot be altered, you will most likely bump into a virus
through online activity.
Some viruses attack your boot sector, the start up section of your hard drive. Other viruses
infect executable program files, activating each time the program is started. The virus
travels into the memory and further copies itself.
Macro-viruses are the most common type of computer virus. This type of virus attacks data
files containing macros. Macros are lists of commands or actions found under key headings.
The virus resembles a macro but when the file is opened, the virus is activated.
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Multi-partite viruses are a combination of the boot sector and file virus. These begin in the
boot sector and affect both your boot records and program files.
Characteristics of computer viruses
The demonstrated characteristics of computer viruses include several remarkable items, including size,
versatility, propagation, effectiveness, functionality, and persistence.
1)
Size. The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been demonstrated to be surprisingly
small. This has facilitated the ability of these programs to attach themselves to other applications and escape
notice for long periods of time.
2)
Versatility. Computer viruses have appeared with the ability to generically attack a wide variety of
applications. Many do not even require information about the program they are infecting.
3)
Propagation. Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this program is running, the virus is able
to spread to other programs and files accessible to the computer system. The ability to propagate is essential to a
virus program.
4)
Effectiveness. Many of the computer viruses that have received widespread publicity have had far-reaching
and catastrophic effects on their victims. These have included total loss of data, programs, and even the
operating systems.
5)
Functionality. A wide variety of functions has been demonstrated in virus programs. Some virus programs
merely spread themselves to applications without otherwise attacking data files, program functions, or operating
systems activities. Other virus programs are programmed to damage or delete files and systems. The effectiveness
of these programs is enhanced through the use of several phases of operation, in which the virus propagates
through a system or lies dormant until triggered by a specified event. This allows the virus program increased time
to spread before the victim system's user becomes aware of its presence.
6)
Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data, programs, and even system
operation has been difficult and time consuming. In many cases, especially in networked operations, eradication
of viruses has been complicated by the ability of the virus program to repeatedly spread and reoccur through the
networked system from a single infected copy.
Attributes of a computer virus
o Auto replicating [self replicating].

o Attaches itself to a program or file
o It infects as it travels
o Reproduces itself
o Distribute itself
o Copies itself
o Duplicate copies of itself
o It spreads
o It is software
o It can destroy
o It hides
DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES
o Cause damage to data
o Extract data from machines for spying or theft
o Slow machine performance
o Corrupt data
o Damage software, hardware and files
o Damage the computer by damaging programs
o Reformatting of the hard disk
o Deletion of files
How computers are infected with Viruses?

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Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers.
Floppy disks or other
media that users can exchange.
Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.

Opening an E-mail attachment. Email attachments.
Accepting unknown program installations from the internet
Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated software.
Booting a PC from an infected medium.

Executing an infected program.
Opening an infected file.
Shareware.
Antivirus tools/packages/software
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
Dr Solomons Antiviral Package

Norton Antivirus Package
AVG Antivirus
Microsoft Antiviral Package
McAfee VirusScan
F-PROT anti-virus package
Protector Plus 2000 for
Windows ver 7.2.H03
Anti Trojan Elite ver 3.7.5
Panda Antivirus platinum 7
ver 7.06
AntiSpy ver 4.4.2
avast! 4 Professional Edition
ver 4.6.652
DrWeb Anti-Virus, Home
Edition ver 4.30a
Dr.Web Anti-Virus for
Workstations ver 4.30.a
File Sharing Sentinel ver 1.0.1
Real Password Protector 2005
ver 2.0
16) Code(Red) Hunter v1.5 ver

v1.5
17) Digital Patrol ver 5.00.12
18) BitDefender
19) Kaspersky
20) F-Secure Anti-Virus
21) PC-cillin
22) ESET Nod32
23) CA Antivirus
24) Norman Virus Control
25) AntiVirusKit
26) AVAST!
27) Panda Titanium
28) Windows OneCare
29) ViRobot Expert
30) PCTools AntiVirus
31) WinAntiVirus
32) CyberScrub AntiVirus
33) The Shield AntiVirus
Scanner examine every file on a specific disk drive, looking/searching for known virus
signatures. A signature is a string of software code that identifies a virus program. Every
virus has a unique signature
Anti-virus measures
The fight against computer viruses involves five kinds of counter-measure:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Preparation includes making backups of all software (including operating systems) and making a
contingency plan.
Prevention includes creating user awareness, implementing hygiene rules, using disk
authorization software, or providing isolated 'quarantine' PCs.
Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes) disinfect
viruses.
Containment involves identifying and isolating the infected items.
Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or replacing corrupted
data.
Precautions/Safety guides against viruses
Install a reliable antiviral package
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Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.

Never download unknown files from the internet
Boot the system from virus free disks
Using write protect tabs on floppy disks
Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy diskettes
should not be used
COMPUTER LANGUAGES
(a) Machine Language
A computer language made up of binary digits (0s and 1s)

The most fundamental way to program a computer, using instructions made up entirely of
strings of 0sand 1s.
The language is far from English and any mathematical notation.
Machine language is not portable and is machine dependent meaning it cannot be moved
from one machine to the other.
Errors are very difficult to remove and programs are difficult to write using machine
language.
(b) Low Level Language
Low level means the language can better communicate with the system.
LLL are closer to machine code
They use mnemonics i.e. ADD to add SUB to subtract etc
Easier for a programmer to write a program in LLL than machine language.
Programs have to be translated from source code into machine language
A programming language that utilizes macroinstructions and statements that closely

resembles human language or mathematical notation to describe the problem to be solved
or the procedure to be used.
Programs are much easier to write / read because the are next English
[English like statements].
(c) High Level Language
A programming language where each instruction corresponds to several machine code instructions. A compiler or
interpreter must translate instructions in this language before they can be processed.
MACHINE LANGUAGE
ADVANTAGES
A very powerful language
No translation is needed
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE

ADVANTAGES
Easier to use than machine language
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Much harder to code for programmers
because its a series of 1s & 0s.
Not portable
Machine Dependent
Errors are difficult to remove
DISADVANTAGES
Machine dependent
Harder to code than HLL
Not portable
DISADVANTAGES
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It is a portable language
Programs are much easier to read/
write coz its close to English
language.
Programs are problem oriented.
Errors are removed before translation
to Machine code [during compiling].
Slower in execution
Programs tend to be wordy hence they
take long to compile.
Requires more memory.
LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR PROGRAMS
A Translator is a program that translates a source program/code into an equivalent object

code [machine code] before the program is executed by the computer.
Compiler
Translates a complete program written in HLL into machine code before it
is executed.
Produces a translated document.
E.g. COBOL compiler.
Assembler
Translates a source program written in assembly language into machine
code.
Interpreter
A computer program that translates one statement at a time [source code] and
generates the machine code for that statement only & executes it there & there before
moving to the next line/statement.
Interpreter translates line per line and does not produce a translated document.
E.g. Pascal Interpreter, BASIC Interpreter.
Compare & contrast Interpreter & Compiler

1) Compiler- fast execution of program.
2) Interpreter- Slowed down execution of program.
3) Compiler- compiler time overhead.
4) Interpreter- No compiler time overhead
5) Compiler- Stand alone executables
6) Interpreter- Dependency on interpreter
7) Compiler- Compiler is complex [time, space]
8) Interpreter- Relative simplicity of interpreter
List the advantages & disadvantages of interpreters & compilers.
1. A compiled program will always run faster than an interpreted one
2. Object code generated by compilers may be saved on disk & run as many times as required
without being compiled.
3. A compiler gives more helpful error messages.
4. Compiler gives the line number where the error has occurred.
5. An interpreter will find the error at the first instance whereas the compiler will list all
errors after compiling.
6. A compiler will check the syntax of the entire program whereas the interpreter only checks
the syntax of statements that are executed during that particular run of a program.
7. Interpreters are very convenient for program development, since making modifications
does not mean the whole program has to be reloaded & recompiled which takes
considerable time.
8. Interpreter is cheaper than compiler & is simpler to use
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9. Many interpreters will allow a program to run up to a point where an error occurs, let the
programmer fix the error & then continue to run the program from that point.
10. With an interpreter debugging is easier since the code is executed line by line.
11. Line by line interpretation can be slow
12. Interpreter can test your code as you write it
13. With an Interpreter there is no need to create object code & link programs.
GENERIC SOFTWARE AND THE ORGANISATION OF DATA
Define Software
Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.
Definitions of software on the Web:
Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example,
Word, PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.
Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.
System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS, Communication
control programs. Service and utility programs, and programming language translators.
Definitions of system software

A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to allow a computer, and other
programs, to function. Different from an page layout application that the user may have,
system software is what allows the page layout application to interact with the monitor display,
the RAM, the hard drive and the rest of the computer.
OPERATING SYSTEM
The main control of a computer system.
It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer programs and
may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system accounting, compilation,
storage assignment, data management and related services.
Definitions of operating system on the Web:
The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer
functional. On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are other
operating systems often found in scientific and technical environments.
A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates
the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and MacOS are common
operating systems.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion of
specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and word processing programs or
inventory or payroll programs.
o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal,
organizational, or processing task, such as graphics software.
o These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while
operating system software allows the computer to work. A computeraided dispatch system is application software, as is each word
processing program.
OPERATING SYSTEM
Description of the operating system
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For a computer to be able to operate a computer programme (sometimes known as application or

software), the machine must be able to perform a certain number of preparatory operations to ensure
exchange between the processor, the memory and the physical resources (peripherals).
The operating system (sometimes referred to by its abbreviation OS), is responsible for creating the link
between the material resources, the user and the applications (word processor, video game, etc.). When
a programme wants to access a material resource, it does not need to send specific information to the
peripheral device but it simply sends the information to the operating system, which conveys it to the
relevant peripheral via its driver. If there are no drivers, each programme has to recognise and take into
account the communication with each type of peripheral!
The operating system thus allows the "dissociation" of programmes and hardware, mainly to simplify
resource management and offer the user a simplified Man-machine interface (MMI) to overcome the
complexity of the actual machine.
Roles of the operating system

The operating system has various roles:
1.
Management of the processor: the operating system is responsible for managing allocation
of the processor between the different programmes using a scheduling algorithm. The type
of scheduler is totally dependent on the operating system, according to the desired
objective.
2.
Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible for
managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to each
user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a memory
zone on the hard drive, known as "virtual memory". The virtual memory lets you run
applications requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the system. However,
this memory is a great deal slower.
3.
Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control of access
of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral administrators or
input/output administrators).
4.
Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for smooth

execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to operate. This
means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
5.
Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security relating to

execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only by programmes
and users with the relevent authorisations.
6.
File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file system and
the user and application file access authorisations.
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Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of indicators

that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.
OPERATING SYSTEM
Definition
Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?
Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU, controls
the input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer system, and
provides various support services as the computer executes the application programs?
Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs and the
hardware?
All communications go through the operating system.
E.g. when a user issues a command to print, the O/S receives the command
& processes it according to priorities with the use of interrupts.
Once the processor is free to execute the command, the O/S sends the
message to the processor & receives the output, which is then directed to
the printer.
Examples:
NOVELL,VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS, Windows Me, Windows XP, 95, 98,NT
2000, MS Dos, UNIX, Linux, and MacOS are common operating systems.
Types of operating system
There are several types of operating system, defined according to whether they can simultaneously
manage information measuring 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits or more.
System
Programming Single user Multi-user Single task
Multi-task
DOS
16 bits
Windows3.1
16/32 bits
not pre-emptive
cooperative
Windows95/98/Me 32 bits
WindowsNT/2000 32 bits
pre-emptive
WindowsXP
32/64 bits
pre-emptive
Unix / Linux
32/64 bits
pre-emptive
MAC/OS X
32 bits
pre-emptive
VMS
32 bits
pre-emptive
FACTORS ONE SHOULD CONSIDER WHEN

a) Making comparisons of the microcomputer operating systems
available in the organization
b) Making microcomputer operating system acquisition decision.
Is the OS a single or multitasking operating system? Many microcomputer OS are
single tasking, meaning they allow only one person to run one program at a time.
Multitasking and multi-user OS permit more than one program to run and more than
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one person to use the system at one time. Multitasking OS may allow a user to
receive a fax message at the same time one is searching a database.
Is it a task switching operating system? A task switching OS lets one load more
than one program at a time and allows switching between the programs. The task
that one is working with is the foreground task and the suspended tasks are
background tasks.
What utilities are available with the OS? Some of the most commonly used
utilities on microcomputer OS are delete, copy contents of one diskette to another,
format a diskette, delete files stored in a diskette, and compress data.
Is the OS hardware dependent? An OS may be limited to running on specific
hardware or may have versions that allow it to run on different types of computer
systems.
What user interface is offered by the operating system? Graphical User Interface
and Command Driven User Interface are examples of user interfaces. See Interface
section.
Types of operating systems

Multiprocessing
Multitasking
Multi-user
Multi programming
Single user
Modes of operation
Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex operating
systems.
Real time processing

When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time operating
system is used. For example, the engine management system within a car uses a real time
operating system in order to react to all the things going on within the engine. A real time
operating system does not necessarily have to be fast. It simply has to be quick enough to
respond to inputs in a predictable way. Embedded computers often contain an RTOS as many
are used to control something.
Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of systems such as
industrial processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real time processing is
computer games. For example, when an action is selected in a game, the data is fed back to
the computer and the systems updated.
Multi-programming
Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs appear to be running
at once.
The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in and out of
processor time according to priority. For example, while one job is being allocated printer
time, another will be being processed in memory. The processor is so fast that it seems that
many jobs are being processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking
This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time. Multi-tasking
allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of the computer.
This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the printer and
downloading a web page.
However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this, you would need
parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal computers.
Multiprocessing
An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors, assigning each
to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job) concurrently.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single
computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more than one
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processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between them.[1] There are many variations on this
basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with context, mostly as a function of
how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple chips in one package, multiple
packages in one system unit, etc.).
Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a
system as opposed to a single process at any one instant. However, the terms multitasking or
multiprogramming are more appropriate to describe this concept, which is implemented mostly
in software, whereas multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple
hardware CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and multiprogramming, only one of the
two, or neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to use the same
system together.
Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person can make use
of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower the response
time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response time at the most is a fraction
of a second and the user feels they are being dealt with immediately.
Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application

software that allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer. Timesharing systems are multi-user systems. Most batch processing systems for
mainframe computers may also be considered "multi-user", to avoid leaving the
CPU idle while it waits for I/O operations to complete. However, the term
"multitasking" is more common in this context.
An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access (such as
via Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time. Another example
uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple terminals powered by a
single machine - this is an example of the use of thin client.
Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users,

typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
Is most commonly used when talking about an operating

system being usable only by one person at a time, or in
reference to a single-user software license agreement.
Multi-user operating systems such as Unix sometimes have a
single user process available for emergency maintenance.
Batch processing
A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch and
processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices and daily
transactions are dealt with this way.
This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs where
no human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is ready to deal
with them. Often batch processed jobs are done overnight.
What is a single-user operating system?

We are all familiar with the concept of sitting down at a computer system and writing
documents or performing some task such as writing a letter. In this instance there is one
keyboard and one monitor that you interact with.
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Operating systems such as Windows 95, Windows NT Workstation and

Windows 2000 professional are essentially single user operating systems.
They provide you the capability to perform tasks on the computer system
such as writing programs and documents, printing and accessing files.
Consider a typical home computer. There is a single keyboard and mouse that accept input
commands, and a single monitor to display information output. There may also be a printer for
the printing of documents and images.
In essence, a single-user operating system provides access to the computer system by a single
user at a time. If another user needs access to the computer system, they must wait till the
current user finishes what they are doing and leaves.
Students in computer labs at colleges or University often experience this. You might also have
experienced this at home, where you want to use the computer but someone else is currently
using it. You have to wait for them to finish before you can use the computer system.
What is a multi-user operating system?

A multi-user operating system lets more than one user access the computer system at one
time. Access to the computer system is normally provided via a network, so that users access
the computer remotely using a terminal or other computer.
In the early days of large multi-user computers, multiple terminals
(keyboards and associated monitors) were provided. These terminals sent
their commands to the main multi-user computer for processing, and the
results were then displayed on the associated terminal monitor screen.
Terminals were hard-wired directly to the multi-user computer system.
Today, these terminals are generally personal computers and use a network to send and receive
information to the multi-user computer system. Examples of multi-user operating systems are
UNIX, Linux (a UNIX clone) and mainframes such as the IBM AS400.
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The operating system for a large multi-user computer system with many terminals is much
more complex than a single-user operating system. It must manage and run all user requests,
ensuring they do not interfere with each other. Devices that are serial in nature (devices which
can only be used by one user at a time, like printers and disks) must be shared amongst all
those requesting them (so that all the output documents are not jumbled up). If each user
tried to send their document to the printer at the same time, the end result would be garbage.
Instead, documents are sent to a queue, and each document is printed in its entirety before
the next document to be printed is retrieved from the queue. When you wait inline at the
cafeteria to be served you are in a queue. Imagine that all the people in the queue are
documents waiting to be printed and the cashier at the end of the queue is the printer.
Operating system utilities

The operating system consists of hundreds of thousands of lines of program instructions and
these are stored on hard disk of the computer. Portions of the operating system are loaded into
computer system memory (RAM) when needed. To manage the computer system, users,
printers, files and write programs, the operating system is generally provided with a number of
utility programs. The utilities are used for
Managing Files and Documents

Development of Programs and Software
Communicating between people and with other computer systems
Managing user requirements for programs, storage space and priority
Operating System Interfaces

In addition, the operating system provides each user with an interface that accepts, interprets
and executes user commands or programs. This interface is commonly called a SHELL or
command line interpreter (CLI). In some systems this might be a simple text mode line-by-line
entry using keywords (such as MSDOS or UNIX), in other systems it might be highly graphical
using windows and a pointing device such as a mouse (such as X-Windows).
Advantages and problems of multi-user operating systems

The advantage of having a multi-user operating system is that normally the hardware is very
expensive, and it lets a number of users share this expensive resource. This means the cost is
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divided amongst the users. It also makes better use of the resources. Since the resources are
shared, they are more likely to be in use than sitting idle being unproductive.
One problem with multi-user computer systems is that as more users access it, the
performance becomes slower and slower. Another disadvantage is the cost of hardware, as a
multi-user operating system requires a lot of disk space and memory. In addition, the actual
software for multi-user operating systems tend to cost more than single-user operating
systems.
What is a multi-tasking operating system?
A multi-tasking operating system provides the ability to run more than one program at once.
For example, a user could be running a word processing package, printing a document, copying
files to the floppy disk and backing up selected files to a tape unit. Each of these tasks the user
is doing appears to be running at the same time.
A multi-tasking operating system has the advantage of letting the user run more than one task
at once, so this leads to increased productivity. The disadvantage is that more programs that
are run by the user, the more memory that is required.
Revision Exercise 1
List FOUR things an operating system does.
List THREE home appliance devices in your home that probably have an operating system
controlling their function.
List FOUR hardware devices on a typical home computer that an operating system has to
initialize when it is turned on.
List THREE possible errors that might occur in a typical home computer that an operating
system has to handle.
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State THREE possible basic routines an operating system might provide for handling a hardware
device.
Functions of an operating system
Controls and coordinates the computer system

Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts of
the computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
It is a platform for application programs
Provides user interface
Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
Provides error correctional routines
Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
Records details of processing for control analysis
File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
Reports errors when they occur.
Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users. It
may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the
same time.
Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.
Memory management, allocates memory to various jobs or tasks
Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, multitasking, timesharing, housekeeping &
handling errors.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE- consists of programs that manage and support a computer system and its
information processing activities. These programs serve as a vital software interface between
computer system hardware and the application programs of end users.
3 functional categories
System management programs

Programs that manage the hardware, software, and data resources of the computer
system during its execution of the various information processing jobs of users.
The most important system management programs are operating systems and operating
environments, followed by telecommunications monitors & Database Management
Systems.
System support programs

Programs that support the operations and management of a computer system by
providing a variety of support services.
Major support programs are system utilities, performance monitors, & security monitors.
System development programs

Programs that help users develop information system programs and procedures
and prepare user programs for computer processing.
Major development programs are language translators, programming tools and
CASE [computer-aided software engineering] packages.
APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
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Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.
Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the shelf.
APPLICATION
SOFTWARE
Word processing
software
EXAMPLES
A collection of software that permits the user to create,
edit and print documents. Most word processing packages
come with spell-checkers, grammar checkers and
thesaurus programs for creating drawings and table of
contents.
Allows managers to prepare budgets, tax analysis, sales
and profit projections. Managers can design templates,
which contain formulas used to create columns or row
averages. Spreadsheets allow managers to simulate various
solutions. A user may enter a number of different values
and see the effect on the results such as profit margins
Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in
different records. DBMS is an important managerial
decision support tool for managers at all levels of the
organization.
Ms word, Word perfect, Word

star, Ms works ,word processor
WordPro
Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3
Ms Access, DBaseIV, Oracle
Pay plus ,Pay well

Pastel, Tetra 2000
Ms PowerPoint,
Lotus freelance graphs
Ms publisher, Aldus
Internet explorer , Netscape ,
Mosaic
Ms Outlook, Ms Exchange
AutoCAD, CAM
Spreadsheet
software
Database
management
software
4
5
6
Payroll
Accounting
Presentation
graphics software
7
8
Desktop Publishing
Multimedia
9
10
Communication
Design
Lets users or managers prepare slides containing charts,

text and images. Presentation graphics software usually
provides libraries of clip art images that can be cut and
pasted into a slide to make the slide more attractive and
informative
Advantages of using a word processor (e.g. MS Word) rather than a manual typewriter in an office
1) Ability to correct mistakes
2) Ability to view documents on screen before printing
3) Ability to incorporate diagrams
4) Ability to move parts of text to other sections of the document.
5) Ability to save or store documents for future reference or use.
6) Ability to alter or change document layout.
7) Ability to print a lot of copies [no retyping]
8) Ability to insert tables
9) Ability to format document [font, paragraphs, bullets etc]
Other - Good reasoning
List 10 facilities that spreadsheets offer. [10 marks]
Format cells, rows and columns, specifying for example, the alignment of text, number of
decimal points, height and width of a cell.
2. Copy cell contents to other locations
3. Determine the effect of several different hypothetical changes of data
4. Insert, move or delete rows and columns
5. Use functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN in formulae
6. Create a simple database and sort or query the data to produce a report
7. Write macros to automate common procedures
8. Create templates i.e. spreadsheets with formats and formulae already entered, into which
new figures may be inserted.
9. Create multi-dimensional spreadsheets using several sheets, and copy data from one sheet
to another
10. Create many different types of charts and graphs
a)
1.
List 5 factors to consider when buying application software. [10]

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Cost. This includes the original cost of the package, technical support, and upgrades.
Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety
Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
Compatibility with existing hardware & software. Will the package run on existing
hardware? Can files be easily transferred from existing systems without re-keying? Can files
created in the package be exported to other systems in use in the company?
It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase software on
CD media your computer should have compact disk drive.
Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are appropriate for
those who use the software infrequently.
Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system
requirements e.g. Pentium 4, reference manual, registration information, supplier details
and user manual.
Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in that area
Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
Easiness of installation
Technical support. Is support available? Is it very costly? Often, technical support contract
can add 50% or more to the price of a package, but without it no support at all will be
given by the manufacturer.
Easy of learning. Are tutorials supplied? Are books on the software available in bookshops?
Are training courses available?
Easy of use and user- friendliness. Is it easy to use, for example using pull down menus,
icons, helpful error messages when you do something wrong?
Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.
Do you have enough resources on your PC to install it e.g. it may require 256MB RAM,
80GB HDD. Memory requirements; software packages vary in the amount of memory they
require. Will the system require expenditure on more powerful hardware?
Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my personal computer
system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the
processor used in my computer (486, Pentium, Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)? and
with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers,
that I have on my personal computer system?
Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use immediately but
powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as my familiarity with the
program increases?
Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn?
Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or documentation?
Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical assistance
number included in the software documentation? Does the manufacturer have a bulletin
board or Internet address for technical assistance questions? Does the manufacturer
charge for technical assistance? for product revisions or upgrades?
Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my use of the
program?
Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that warranty?
Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?
Benefits of application software to the user.
Installation should be easy, quick and should be provided by the vendor/supplier.

Good documentation is usually provided with the application for reference purposes.
Onsite assistance from the supplier or vendor
Provision of cheaper future upgrades upon acquisition of an application provided you
have completed the registration information.
Value for money
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What is software and what is application software?

Software is just another name for program. We often use the term to refer to a group of
programs. For example, you might get asked the question "what sort of software do you have?".
In this case, the person is asking you what types of software do you have, and how many
different software programs do you have. I guess you could think of someone asking a snake
collector the question "What sort of snakes do you have?". For the snake collector, they
obviously have many different types and sometimes several of the same species. Software is
similar. So you might respond to such a question by answering that you have some word
processing software such as Microsoft Word and some games such as Quake and Sim City.
Application software excludes the operating system and those programs that are part of the
operating system. In general, you buy application software for your computer. An example
might be a word processor or a reference atlas.
What are general categories of application software?
In general, software is divided into a number of general categories.
Business
Business software allows users to perform tasks

related to running a business, such as paying
accounts, keeping track of goods and items for
sale, inventory software and writing reports.
Examples of business software are Microsoft Works
and Lotus Notes.
Education
Education software is designed to teach or educate

users. These include encylodedias, reference books
and instructional programs.
Examples of education software are Encylopedia
Britannica and Microsoft Magic School Bus.
Entertainment/Games Entertainment software is designed for you to have

fun with! Its purpose is to keep you entertained!
This includes games software.
Examples of entertainment software are Microsoft
Age of Empires and Sim City 2000.
Utility
Utility software is designed for you to perform

routine tasks associated with the storage and
manipulation of your information. This includes
software such as schedulers, clocks, media players
and communication tools.
Examples of utility software are McAfee Virus Scan
and Arcada backup software.
Applications software comes in different 'flavors' - or types:
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Utility programs - these can be part of an operating system, but are also available for separate
purchase. Examples include virus checkers, disk defragmenters, back up utilities and disk
checker software.
Generic - general purpose software that is not written for any particular type of business.
Examples of this include word processors and spreadsheets.
Integrated - a collection of software that has a common set of commands/icons. Usually they
include word processors, spreadsheets and graphics software, but they can contain databases as
well. They tend to be cheaper than purchasing each application separately.
Specific - software written for a defined purpose. Accountancy software is a good example of
this, and can be bought by anyone.
Bespoke - also known as 'tailor made'. A company may need a particular piece of software that it
cannot purchase because it does not exist yet - or it does not like what is available. The company
can commission the software to be specially written for them. This tends to be expensive.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

1. Commercial / generic Packages/ Off the shelf software
Commercial software is computer software sold for profit; such software

represented, until recently, the vast majority of all software used.
These are bought from a vendor.
Also known as off the shelf packages e.g. MS Office, Pastel.
Also known as work enhancement applications
Generic or Off the shelf software has the advantage of cost effectiveness due
to larger market & the ability to incorporate available technology in the
shortest possible time.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place i.e.
o
o
o
o
o
Word Processing packages

Spreadsheet packages
Database /Information retrieval Packages
Graphics packages
Data communications Software
Advantages of an off the shelf package

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
It is cheaper than custom-written software. The development costs of the package

may be millions of pounds, but the customer may be able to buy it for a few
hundred pounds, since sales are made to thousands of other customers.
It is immediately available and already thoroughly tested so is unlikely to have
major bugs in it
Documentation is usually available in the form of reference manuals, user guides
and tutorials
Training courses may be available form third party trainers.
Technical support is usually available from the manufacturers via a Web site or
telephone line [at a price].
Other users of the package can be consulted as to its suitability before purchase.
Upgrades are usually available every year or two
Disadvantages
1. The package may not do exactly what you want it to do;
2. It may not run on the firms existing hardware
3. It may not interface with other software already in use in the organization.
2. Homemade / Customized packages/ Tailor-made Software
Customized software is software designed around a company or other organization's

processes to make those processes more efficient.
It is distinct from market software [commercial or generic], which approaches
problems in a general way so that the product can be sold to more than one
customer.
Has been written by the vendor specifically for a users needs. Also known as inhouse packages, tailor-made packages.
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E.g. most payroll packages, billing software, product design applications

Is that application that has been written for a specific users needs by a software
vendor?
It is non-standard software.
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Being customized, the non-standard software may not be used by any other
organization.
It has huge support costs after implementation.
Dependency syndrome with the supplier. There is heavy reliance on the developers of
the software for its continued existence & maintenance
Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under, shuts down, or
liquidate or if its development staff leaves.
May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance
contract with.
Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive to
build.
Custom built is expensive to maintain
Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological
advancement in the field of computers.
3. Managerial applications
Help to make management decisions
Decision support systems
Database Management Systems Report Writing Tools
MAKE NOTES ON:
How application packages solve problems?
Typical problems which can be solved by application packages
Customization of packages using macros
UTILITY SOFTWARE/ PROGRAMS
Also known as System support programs.

Utility software (also known as service program, service routine, tool, or utility
routine) is a type of computer software. It is specifically designed to help manage and
tune the computer hardware, operating system or application software, and perform a
single task or a small range of tasks; as opposed to application software which tend to
be software suites. Utility software has long been integrated into most major
operating systems.
Examples
Disk defragmenters. Examples include a Disk defragmenter can detect computer files
whose contents have been stored on the hard disk in disjointed fragments, and move
the fragments together to increase efficiency;
Disk checker can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are
corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more
efficiently operating hard drive;
Disk cleaner can find files that unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete
when his hard disk is full.
System Profilers. A System profiler can provide detailed information about the
software installed and hardware attached to the computer.
Backup software can make a copy of all information stored on a computer, and restore
either the entire system (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an
event of accidental deletion).
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Disk compression software can transparently compress the contents of the hard disk, in order to fit more
information to the drive.
Virus scanners. Virus Scanners scan for computer viruses among files and folders.
Compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file.
Encryption utilities use a specific algorithm to produce an encrypted stream or encrypted file when provided
with a key and a plaintext.
INTEGRATED SOFTWARE APPLICATION PACKAGES
Software that contains several applications rolled into one. Integrated software usually includes
word processing, spreadsheet, database, graphics and communication capabilities. Two popular
integrated software packages are Microsoft Works and ClarisWorks:
In integrated software, you will be able to work on a spreadsheet to perform

calculations, store addresses and phone numbers in a database and be able to link
information from the spreadsheet & the database when you work with the word
processor in the integrated package.
Object Linking Embedding [OLE] is a standard that, Allows applications to be linked
together.
OLE-DB allows applications to import virtually any form of data into the database.
Definitions of integrated software on the Web:
A group of applications designed to work together and share data easily.
Software that combines the features of several different applications in a single
program (eg, word processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics, and communications)..
Advantages of integrated applications
Easy to use
Generally costs much less
Require or needs less RAM
Ability to pass data from one module to another.
Takes up much less hard disk space
Better organization of information. Data is stored in the database, calculations in an
electronic spreadsheet & images in a graphical application package
Disadvantages
Limited portability. The same applications must exist on every computer that you wish
to open the document.
Offer fewer features and less versatility than stand alone versions or software.
Functional limitation. Its rigid you cannot change it to suit your specific needs.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
1) Solid works office suite
5) Lotus SmartSuite 97
2) Microsoft Works
6) Window works
3) Claris Works
7) First Choice
4) Microsoft Office 97
ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF INTEGRATED SOFTWARE is the developer's office suite for those who
create new software. These packages offer programs including word processing, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) editors, web navigation tools, e-mail, bulletin board managers, application builders,
scripting languages, directory browsers, help browsers, and program editors.
A suite of programs for home computer use can include software that a home user would find helpful,
such as word processing, money management, e-mail, a web browser, an encyclopedia, and a dictionary. A
lawyer's office suite typically includes a combination of word processing, proofreading, document
assembly, research, web navigation, and e-mail programs.
A variety of manufacturers offer these integrated software packages, and each has its own unique
advantages depending on the needs of its targeted customer base. This article describes the typical
business office suite.
The first efforts to combine capabilities resulted in integrated programs, such as Microsoft Works and
Claris Works. Each was a single program that combined several software functions, such as simplified
versions of word processors, spreadsheets, and databases. Early versions of these programs created
documents that could not be exported into more sophisticated full-sized word processing or spreadsheet
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applications. Their primary benefit to the user was that multiple office functions could be accomplished
using one piece of software.
Microsoft Office 97 and Lotus SmartSuite 97 are both fully functional integrated software packages of
several programs. When they were introduced, they were immediately adopted by many businesses
because they allowed several applications to share data easily. Each suite included word processing,
spreadsheet, organizer/scheduler, database, graphics, and e-mail programsall designed to work
seamlessly together. They allowed users to create complex documents that incorporated information
generated by two or more of the applications, such as a word processing document that included
diagrams, graphs, spreadsheets, and hyperlinks.
Pasting, Linking, and Embedding
Integrated software offers users a variety of cut and paste tools to share data among applications. On the
simplest level, information can be cut or copied from the source application (for example, a block of cells
from a spreadsheet) and pasted into the target application (such as a word processing document). With
the paste tool, a user can place a snapshot of the desired section of the spreadsheet in the document.
The cutting and copying tools save the desired spreadsheet cells in multiple formats so that the paste
process will be successful with a display of the added material in the format that works best. Although the
cut, copy, and paste tools are the simplest way to share information, the data in the target document is
not kept current if changes are made in the source location. The old data remains until the new data is
pasted in its place.
Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) helps resolve this limitation by pasting an embedded link or object in
the target application. This process requires the paste link or paste special tools, instead of paste. OLE
works only with OLE-enabled applications. When a link is pasted into a target document, it becomes a
compound document. All compound documents require the cooperation of all linked applications to
create the final product and require that all source applications be kept in their original location. If one
of the source applications is moved, or if the compound document is moved, the link is broken and the
document remains incomplete until the link is reestablished. As long as the link is intact, all changes
made on the source applications are displayed on the compound document.
For example, if the compound document is an analytical paper created on a word processor that includes
links to a drawing and a spreadsheet, all three applications (the word processor, the drawing program,
and the spreadsheet software) must cooperate to display and print the finished paper. Once the
document is created, all subsequent changes made on the spreadsheet or drawing are tracked by a system
of reminders. The next time the paper is opened using the word processor, the reminders deliver the
changes, which then appear in the document.
A second kind of compound document is one that includes embedded objects, which are created by using
the paste special tool. The successful use of embedded objects requires that all source applications
remain in their original locations. Embedded objects can be edited directly from within the compound
document, without the need to open the source document first. To make changes to an embedded
spreadsheet, for example, the user first opens the compound document and then double clicks on the
cells that are embedded on the page. This causes a small window to open so changes can be made
directly on the page. However, these changes are not transmitted to the source document. Likewise, any
changes made to the original spreadsheet are not reflected in the word processing document.
Another option, called paste as hyperlink, creates a hyperlink of the pasted object, such as the cells of a
pasted spreadsheet. By double clicking on a hyperlink, the user opens the source application for
easy editing. As long as the link remains valid, all changes made on the hyperlinked file are
reflected in the compound document.
SOFTWARE PACKAGE
A computer program supplied by computer manufacturers, independent software
companies, or other computer users.
Also known as canned programs, proprietary software or packaged programs.
A software package is a special method for the distribution and installation of software
on computer systems.
Proprietary software/Applications
Is software offered for sale or license where the vendor controls the source code?
Much of the software users are accustomed to is known as proprietary software. With
proprietary software users are not allowed to see the source code. Nor are they able to
modify the code for their own use or to distribute to others. In some cases certain
customers are allowed to view the source code - sometimes for an additional fee - but
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even then they are not able to alter and re-distribute the software. Examples of
proprietary software include Microsoft's Office suite.
Proprietary software is a term used to describe software in which the user does not
control what it does or cannot study or edit the code, in contrast to free software.
Non-proprietary software
Non-proprietary software is, in its widest possible sense, software that has no
proprietary restrictions attached to it, particularly the restriction about the access to
the source code. Non-proprietary software is the opposite of proprietary software,
which is software where the source code has not been made available, or it is
protected by restrictive licensing clauses.
SOFTWARE PIRACY
Unauthorized copying of software.

unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.
unauthorized copying of software
The production of illegal copies of software.
By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software
piracy, which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge problem mainly
because it is so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a program
than it is to tape a music CD that you have borrowed from a friend. Software pirates
give up the right to receive upgrades and technical support, but they gain the use of
the program without paying for it.
Implications of Software piracy
Loss of business to software companies.

Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as a
result you cant install it.
Virus Spread
Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation and
money.
Piracy harms all software publishers, Regardless of their size. Software
publishers spend years developing software for the public to use. A portion of
every dollar spent in purchasing original software is channeled back into research
and development so that better, more advanced software products can be
produced. When you purchase pirated software, your money goes directly into
the pockets of software pirates instead.
Software piracy also harms the local and national economies. Fewer legitimate
software sales result in lost tax revenue and decreased employment. Software
piracy greatly hinders the development of local software communities. If
software publishers cannot sell their products in the legitimate market, they have
no incentive to continue developing programs. Many software publishers simply
wont enter markets where the piracy rates are too high, because they will not
be able to recover their development costs.
Software piracy harms everyone in the software community including you, the
end user. How?
1) Piracy results in higher prices for duly licensed users,
2) Piracy reduces levels of support, and
3) Delays in the funding and development of new products, causing the overall
selection and quality of software to suffer.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOFTWARE PIRACY
There are five basic forms of software piracy, and all are damaging both to the software
publisher and to you, the end user. The five basic types of piracy are:
Soft lifting. This form of piracy occurs when extra copies of a program are made within an
organization for employees to use. It also includes "Disk swapping" among friends and
associates.
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Hard-Disk Loading. Some computer dealers load unauthorized copies of software onto the
hard disks of the computers they offer for sale, as an incentive for an end user to purchase
a computer from that particular dealer.
Counterfeiting. This is the illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted software, often in a
form designed to make the product appear legitimate. Software counterfeiting can be very
sophisticated, including significant efforts to replicate packaging, logos, and anticounterfeiting techniques such as holograms. It can also be unsophisticated, consisting of
inferior or hand-written labels, with disks folded into a plastic bag and sold on street
corners. A recent trend in counterfeiting is the emergence of compilation CD-ROMs, where
numerous unauthorized software publishers programs appear on one CD-ROM. In any
form, software counterfeiting is very damaging to both the software developer and
legitimate end users.
Online. This form of piracy occurs when copyrighted software is downloaded to users
connected through a modem to an electronic bulletin board or the Internet without the
express permission of the copyright owner. This should not be confused with sharing public
domain software or providing shareware. Shareware is software that may or may not be
copyrighted but is generally offered for little or no charge by the author for nearly
unrestricted use, including copying or sharing with others. Microsoft distributes
promotional products, free software, updates, or enhancements over bulletin boards or
online services, which may or may not be licensed for use solely with licensed Microsoft
products. You should check the EULA accompanying the product to determine how it can be
used.
License Misuse. This form of piracy occurs when copyrighted software is distributed
outside the restricted legitimate channels it was designed for or the product is used in
ways not allowed in the license agreement. Examples of license misuse include:
(1) Academic product misuse
This form of license misuse occurs when a product that is manufactured, licensed,
and specifically marked for distribution to educational institutions and students at
reduced prices is diverted into normal commercial channels of distribution.
Typically this product will contain a sticker indicating that it is academic product
and for use only by educational institutions.
(2) Not for Resale (NFR) product misuse.
Again, this form of license misuse occurs when a product that has been clearly
marked "Not for Resale," and is typically distributed as a promotional or sample
product and is not licensed for normal commercial distribution and use, is diverted
into normal commercial channels of distribution.
(3) Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) stand-alone product. This form of
license misuse occurs when OEM version software has been unbundled from its
designated computer system and distributed as a separate, stand-alone product.
Microsofts agreement with computer manufacturers prohibits them from distributing
Microsoft products in this fashion, i.e. without accompanying computer hardware.
Microsoft products on the retail shelf should never include a line on the front cover of
the Users Guide that states, For Distribution Only With New Computer Hardware.
(3) Microsoft Easy Fulfillment (MEF) product misuse. This form of license misuse
occurs when a Microsoft Easy Fulfillment (MEF) product is diverted into normal
commercial channels of distribution. The MEF product may be distributed only to
end users who have a Select or Open (MOLP) license and who order the product in
accordance with their license terms. The MEF product has a sticker on the jewel
case identifying the product as Microsoft Easy Fulfillment.
(4) Volume licensing misuse. Volume Licensing enables organizations to acquire the
rights to copy and use specific Microsoft software products with agreements
tailored to the number of products needed at the particular organization. These
volume programs offer a broad range of products and licensing options and reduce
administrative overhead and software management costs.
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Microsoft offers two types of volume license:
a. Select provides savings for medium and large organizations with significant volume
requirements through forecasting software needs over a two-year period.
b. Open provides savings for small and medium organizations for licenses of as few as
20 units of a particular software product, with a simple ordering process.
Misuse under volume licensing occurs when organization copies software purchased
through the volume program on more computers than specified in their license
agreement. Other violations occur when an organization allows concurrent use of
software products (which currently is offered only as an option under the Select and
Open programs) without the purchase of the option that allows for this concurrent use.
User licenses show users rights to use pieces of software.
Definitions of data processing on the Web
Taking the raw data gathered by interviewers, finding and correcting any errors,
tabulating it and creating spreadsheets similar types of documents so that response
patterns can be read and interpreted.
The systematic performance of operations upon data, eg, handling, merging, sorting,
computing. Synonymous with information processing.
DATA
Relationship between Data and Information
Data is raw information
a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully
knowledge for the person who receives it. Information is the output of
information systems.
Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
Methods of data collection {see Systems Analysis & Design}
Questionnaires
Observation
Sampling
Interviews
Written documents & research
MAKE NOTES ON:

Verification
o The act of reviewing, inspecting, testing, checking, auditing, or otherwise
establishing and documenting whether items, processes, services, or documents
conform to specified requirements.
o An effort to test the accuracy of the questionnaire response data. The concern is
uniquely with data accuracy and deals with neither the reliability nor the validity
of measures.
Validation
o The process of evaluating software at the end of the software development process
to ensure compliance with software requirements. The techniques for validation
are testing, inspection and reviewing.
o Determination of the correctness of the products of software development with
respect to the user needs and requirements.
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DATABASE
Is a collection of files?
An organized collection of interrelated files.
Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly and easily from
a chosen reference point?
Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data
records that provides data for many applications.
Examples of databases are MS Access, MS Works Database, and DBaseIV.
File-Is a collection of related records.
Record-Is a collection of fields. It is a collection of fields arranged in a
predefined order.
Field-Is a collection of single items. It is an implementation of the data
attribute. It is the smallest unit of data to be stored in a database.
Primary key-Is a field whose value identifies one & only one record in a file.
Secondary key-An alternative index for identifying an entity. Its value can
identify single entity occurrences of all entity occurrences. A subset of all
entity occurrences.
Foreign key-Are pointers or links to occurrences of a different file. A foreign
key in one file must be a primary key in another file.
Descriptors-Are any other fields that describe business entities.
Database Administrator [DBA] tasks
The designer of the database

After the initial design, the DBA must monitor the performance of the database,
and if problems surface (such as a particular report taking an unacceptably long
time to produce), appropriate changes must be made to the database structure.
Keeping users informed of changes in the database structure that will affect them;
for example, if the size or format of a particular field is altered or additional fields
added
Maintenance of the data dictionary for the database, and responsibility for
establishing conventions for naming tables, columns, indexes 7 so on.
Implementing access privileges for all users of the database; that is, specifying
which items can be accessed and / or changed by each user.
Allocating passwords to each user.
Providing training to users in how to access and use the database.
Manage the organizations

o -data resources
o -database plans
o -design
o -operations
o -training
o -user support
o -security & Maintenance
Maintain data consistency and security
Approve access to data stored
Approve access procedures
ABILITY to delete, add, modify existing data must be tightly controlled.
Database Management System (DBMS)

The DBMS is an application program that provides an interface between the operating system
and the user in order to make access to the data as simple as possible.
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Q* What is a DBMS (Data base Management System)

Is a collection of software programs that:
i.
Stores data , in a uniform and consistent way
ii.
Organizes the data, into records in a uniform and consistent way
iii.
Allows access to the data, in a uniform and consistent way
A collection of software programs that stores organizes and allows access to the data
in a uniform and consistent way
Is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database?
A general purpose software system that facilitates the process of defining constructing
and manipulating databases for various applications.
DBMS functions
1. Data storage, retrieval and update. The DBMS must allow users to store retrieve and
update information as easily as possible, without having to be aware of the internal
structure of the database.
2. Creation and maintenance of the data dictionary
3. Managing the facilities for sharing the database. The DBMS has to ensure that
problems do not arise when two people simultaneously access a record and try to
update it
4. Back up and recovery. The DBMS must provide the ability to recover the database in
the event of system failure.
5. Security. The DBMS must handle password allocation and checking, and the view of
the database that a given user is allowed.
The data dictionary

The data dictionary is a database about the database.
1. It will contain information such as:
2. What tables and columns are included in the present structure?
3. The names of the current tables and columns
4. The characteristics of each item of data, such as its length and data type;
5. Any restrictions on the value of certain columns
6. The meaning of any data fields that are not self-evident; for example, a field such as
course type;
7. The relationships between items of data
8. Which programs access which items of data, and whether they merely read the data or
change it?
OBJECTIVES AND BENEFITS OF DATABASE APPROACH
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Data redundancy is reduced reduces the duplication of data.

Data inconsistence avoided.
Sharing of data is promoted since data is stored in centralized.
Standards are enforced, thru the data dictionary /catalogue
Base of application development /maintenance is available
Uniform security/ privacy /integrity control s are applicable to group of users
7.
SECURITY Passwords, access controls
PRIVACY - Authorized users
INTEGRITY Accurate data
8. Integration of data is achieved - since data is stored in one db
9. Data independence is achieved/ observed - it is the immunity of applications to changes
in storage structure and access strategy.
10. Data accessibility and responsiveness.
11. Structured Query Language e.g. select name from customer where town = Harare
RISK TO DATABASE APPROACH
1. New, specialized personal
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Backup important DBMS function (Recovery)

Shared data conflict and concurrency control
Technological complexity
Expensive to develop a large database and installing a DBMS can be difficult.
More hardware capability is required storage requirements overhead control data
and the DBMS required more memory
Problems of inconsistence can arise if a distributed data approach is used.
Longer processing time may result from high volume transaction processing
applications.
Security and integrity are major concerns.
Centralized database are vulnerable to errors fraud and failures.
Advantages and any disadvantages of databases

#
ADVANTAGES
1
Supports data sharing
#
1
Ensures increased data security
Ensures data independence
Data integrity is guaranteed. The functions

in the DBMS can be used to enforce the
integrity rules with minimum programming in
the application programs.
Reduces or minimizes data redundancy
Consistence of data is ensured
Support data integration. Since related data

is stored in one single database, enforcing
data integrity is much easier
Related data can be shared across programs
since the data is stored in a centralized
manner
Enforcing of standards in the organization
and structure of data files is required and
also easy in a Database System, since it is
one single set of programs, which is always
interacting with data files
The application programmer need not build
the functions for handling issues like
concurrent access, security, data integrity,
etc. The programmer only needs to
implement the application business rules.
This brings in application development ease.
8
9
10
DISADVANTAGES
Limitations of databases arise from
increased technological complexity
Developing a large database and installing a
DBMS can be difficult and expensive.
More hardware capability is required, since
storage requirements for the organization of
data, overhead control data, and the DBMS
is greater
Problems of data inconsistency can arise if a
distributed database approach is used.
Longer processing times may result from

high volume transaction processing
applications since extra layer software [the
DBMS] exists between application programs
and the Operating system.
Security and integrity of data are major
concerns.
Centralized databases are vulnerable to
errors, fraud and failures.
Q* Limitations of file Processing Systems that the DBM system address

i.
Data duplication - Same kind of information is stored in several files
ii.
Lack of Data integration Independent files make it difficult to provide end users with
info for ad-hoc requests that require accessing data stored in different files
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Data dependence In a file processing system, the organization of files, their physical
location on storage hardware and application software used to access those files
depend on each other.
Changes in format and structure o data and records in file require changes to all the
programs
Database Environment
i.
Database
ii.
Database users
iii.
DBM System
iv.
Data Dictionary
v.
Database Administrator
vi.
User/system interface
Database Users
i.
Casual users
ii.
Nave users parametric users
iii.
Sophisticated end users
I. Occasionally use it, and if they do a HLL such as AQL may be used.
II. Those who use Standard queries and updates only e.g. bank cashiers, data entry
clerks e.t.c.
III. Know the whole range of facilities on a database environment.
Q a. Explain the 3 Major disadvantages of a file system (6)
b. Give and explain any 7 functions of a DBM System
FUNCTIONS OF A Database Management SYSTEM
1. Storage, Retrieval &Update
2. Catalogue
3. Logical transactions
4. Concurrency control
5. Recovery
6. Security
7. Communications
8. Integrity
9. Data Independence
10. Utilities
1. Storage, Retrieval &Update
- Allows users with the ability to store, retrieve and update data in the
database.
2. Catalogue
- Allows a catalogue in which descriptions of data items are stored and which is
accessible to users
3. Logical Transactions
- Allows a mechanism which will ensure that either all of the updates
corresponding to a given transaction are made or not made. .e.g.
ABORT ROLLBACK or undo all the changes
COMMIT- Transaction gone thru and is already in the database.
4. Concurrency Control
- Allows a mechanism to ensure that the database is updated correctly when
multiple users are updating the database concurrently
LOCKING OR DEADLOCK situations must be avoided
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5. Recovery
- Allows a mechanism for recovering the database in the event that the
database is damaged in any way.
A before / after image is usually created
6. Security
- Allows a mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the
database.
- Authorizations, encryption features and limited views can be used as security
provisions
7. Communication
- Must be capable of integrating with communications software on the database
environment on a multi-user environment.
8. Integrity
- Allows a mechanism to ensure that both the data in the database and changes
to the data follow certain rules.
9. Data Independence
- (Has facilities to) support the independence of programs from the actual
structure of the database.
10. Utilities
- Provide a set of utility services e.g. optimized
COMPONENTS OF A DBMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Data dictionary/directory
Data language
Application development tools
Security software
Report writers
Query language
Web server software
Teleprocessing monitors
Archiving, backup and Recovery systems
1. DATA DICTIONARY/ DIRECTORY

Contains the names and descriptions of every data element in the
database.
Also contains descriptions of how data elements relate to one another.
Ensures that data is stored in a uniform and consistent manner hence
reducing redundancy.
2. DATA LANGUAGES
Data description language (DDL) describes the characteristics of data elements.

DDL requires the application program to use standardized commands to retrieve and
process data from a database.
Data manipulation language (DML) consists of commands such as FIND, GET, INSERT
3. APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
A program designed to help programmers develop application programs that use the
database e.g. CASE TOOLS
4. SECURITY SOFTWARE
Provides a variety of tools to shield database from unauthorized access and from
viruses
5. REPORT WRITERS
Allows programmers, mgrs and others to design out put reports.
6. QUERY LANGUAGE
A set of commands used primarily for accessing data from a database.
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You can ask ad-hoc questions of the database interactively without the aid of
programmers.
Examples SQL, NLQ, QBE. Structured Query language, Natural language Queries and
Query by Example.
7. WEB SERVER SOFTWARE
Turns the computer system housing database into a web server and enables users with
web connection to access data from wherever they are located.
Also convert data into a format that is readable by standard browsers.
8. TELEPROCCESSING MONITORS
A software package that manages communication between the database and remote
terminals.
9. ARCHIVING, BACK UP AND RECOVERY SYSTEMS
Provides the database manager with tools to make copies of the database.
Restart/ Recovery systems are tools used to restart the database and to recover lost
data in the event of a failure.
Database Models
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Hierarchical database model

Network database model
Relational database model
Object-oriented database model
i) Hierarchical database model

Each record is related to others in a parent-child relationship or tree
structure.
Relationships between among records form a hierarchy or tree structure.
The relationship among records is one to many since each data element is
related only to one element above it.
Searching a record involves moving progressively downward from a root and
along the branches of the tree until the desired record is located.
Hierarchical database
A logical data structure in which the relationships between records form a hierarchy or
tree structure.
The relationship among records is one to many, since each data element is related only
to one element above it.
DEPT
course
Student
ii) Network database Model
Relationship among records is many to many
Allows entry into a database at multiple points because any data element
or record can be related to many other data elements.
Permits a record to be a member of more than one set at a time
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Network database
A logical data structure that allows many to many relationships among data records.
It allows entry into a database at multiple points, because any data element or record
can be related to many other data elements.
Hierarchical and network models are less flexible than other database
models because the relationship between records must be determined and
implemented before a search can be conducted.
Network database Model
iii) Relational Database model

All data elements within the database are viewed as being stored in the
form of tables
Database Packages based on this structure link records in different or
various tables to provide information to users as long as the share common
data elements.
Data is organized in 2-dimensional tables.
Relational database
A logical data structure in which all data elements within the database are viewed as
being stored in the form of tables.
DBMS packages based on the relational model can link data elements from various
tables as long as the tables share common data elements.
-
CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER NO.
-
CUSTOMER NAME
-
CUSTOMER ADDRESS
-
iv) Object oriented database model
Each object in an object-oriented database model is bound together with its own data
and a set of instructions that describe the behavior and attributes of the objects.
Objects use messages to interact with one another.
Every object is described by a set of attributes.
E.g. the object building in a database or architectural drawing may have the attributes
TYPE, SIZE, COLOUR just as in any.
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Every object must have a set of procedures or routines or a set of methods.

E.G methods for an architectural drawing might include instructions to display, rotate,
or explode the drawing on a screen.
FILE PROCESSING
Is the process of updating the records in a file to accurately reflect changes in
the data?
It can be a manual process where procedures are in place to update forms,
which are sent to the respective person responsible for the update.
It can also be a computerized process where information is first stored in
transaction files until the master file is updated.
File processing methods:
Batch Processing
Transactions are collected and processed in batches [groups].
Transaction processing in which transactions are gathered and stored
for later execution.
E.g. a supermarket chain operates 5 outlets. At the end of the day all
information on sales [transaction file] is collected, & the main records
[master file] are updated with the sales for that day.
Performs a group of tasks all at once, while requiring little [or no]
interaction with the user.
It is a great time saver because the computer can perform repetitive
functions quickly & consistently.
Real-time Processing
The master records are updated as and when the transactions occur.
A form of transaction processing in which each transaction is executed
as soon as complete data becomes available for the transaction.
A supermarket chain would be linked by a network to a main computer.
Each time a sale is made the stock information is updated and the sale
information is also updated.
It is expensive and complicated.
Record and file locks are implemented to avoid problems with realtime processing.
Centralized processing
An information system where all critical data and programs are stored
on one main computer, usually a mainframe. Unlike the task-sharing
concept of a client/server system, the central computer retains all the
brains and brawn.
A computing environment in which all processing takes place on a
mainframe or central computer.
Puts all processing and control authority within one computer to which
all other computing devices respond.
Distributed Processing
The ability to have several computers working together in a network,
where each processor runs different activities for a user, as required.
Computers connected together by a communications network. Data
processing occurs on each of the computers, unlike a centralized
processing system in which terminals are connected to a host computer
that performs all of the data processing.
Use of computers at various locations, typically interconnected via
communication links for the purpose of data access and/or transfer.
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A computer system in which processing is performed by several

separate computers linked by a communications network. The term
often refers to any computer system supported by a network, but more
properly refers to a system in which each computer is chosen to handle
a specific workload, and the network supports the system as a whole.
Offline processing
When your computer performs an operation when it is not connected to
any other computers, it is working offline.
Means that your computer is not currently connected to an Internet
server.
Not connected (to a network). Not available to the network
Online processing
A general term for when one computer is interacting directly and
simultaneously with another computer. Many sources of information
are available online.
Available for immediate use.
The master file is updated with the transactions through some form of
communication link.
All real-time processing involves online processing.
Not all online processing needs to be real-time.
Require interaction of the user.
Master file is the main information source in any type of

organization.
File processing is the update of the master file [actual
records] through manual or computerized methods.
File types
Master file-Refers to a file that contains all the organizations records. It
contains records of relatively permanent nature.
Definitions of master file on the Web:
A database file, often created manually as needed, that contains static records used to
identify items, customers, vendors, bills of material, work centers, etc. as opposed to
files used to track the dynamic status of orders and inventory balances.
Transaction file-Contains records that describe events.

Contains details of transactions and or activities of the
organization. The file does not necessarily contain all records since
transactions are done at different times in some situations.
Definitions of transaction file on the Web:
A list of transactions. In a business this might be a list of sales for the day. At the end of
the day the transaction file is merged with a master file to update such information as
shop stock levels and year to date sales totals. One way of thinking of a transaction is
that it represents a change to a database. Processing a single sales transaction will
mean updating several database tables. ...
Scratch files- [Work files/Temporary files] are special files that contain
temporary duplicates of subsets for alternate sequencing of a master or
transaction file.
Definitions of scratch file on the Web:
A temporary file holding intermediate data during an operation, such as when
calculating arc intersections, or building feature topology.
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Log files-Are special records of updates to other files especially master and transaction
files. They are used in conjunction with archive files or to retrieve lost data
Definitions of log file on the Web:
A file that lists actions that have occurred.
A coverage or workspace history file containing a list of all commands used to operate
on a coverage or all commands used in the workspace.
MAKE NOTES ON:
Requirements for file processing.
File maintenance e.g. updates, additions, deletions, appending
File organization methods & access
File Organization-Is the arrangement of data records on storage media
It determines the manner in which individual records can be accessed or
retrieved
TYPES OF QUERIES
i.
ii.
i.
DIRECT QUERY
INVERTED QUERY
ii.
DIRECT QUERY
Is one where the user can identify the entity in which he is interested?
He may want to know some of the particular of attributes of that entity.
e.g. Where a sales man wants to know the amount and location of a particular product
in the organization.
He is able to identify the product by name or product number and this identification is
used as the key for making the query which is also the primary record key.
The basic purpose of the direct query is to know the attribute values of already
identified entities
INVERTED ENTITIES
is one where the user does not know the identification of entities in which he is
interested
he wants to identify the entities by some criteria or attribute values
e.g. the purchase department requiring a list of items for wh9ch the stock level is
below the desired level
in this case user does not know the identity of items already but want to know it
only specify a criterion as the basis of the query
Obviously the primary key cannot be used for retrieval, it is not available
Some attribute like stock level has to be used for the retrieval of records
Definitions of cycle time on the Web:
The time usually expressed in seconds for a controller to complete one on/off cycle.
Definitions of access time on the Web:
The average time interval between a storage peripheral (usually a disk drive or
semiconductor memory) receiving a request to read or write a certain location and
returning the value read or completing the write.
The amount of time it takes a computer to locate an area of memory for data storage
or retrieval.
The time required to retrieve data from a storage device and transmit it to a specified
location.
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Definitions of random access on the Web:

Storage systems where data may be stored and accessed in any order, independent of
the ordinal position of the data when it was originally recorded. This is the opposite of
linear (3) access, or linear recording media such as magnetic tape, which necessarily
preserves the sequential relation of the data as it is recorded, and depends on this
sequential relation for accurate playback. See non-linear recording.
Able to read any location directly; without having to read sequentially to the location.
Definitions of sequential access on the Web:
Data must be read in the order it appears. This method applies to tape, and to a lesser
degree to disks.
Reading data from a file whose records are organized on the basis of their successive
physical positions. To reach a specific record, all records previous to that record must
be read, in order. Magnetic computer tapes are sequential access storage device.
Refers to reading or writing data records in sequential order, that is, one record after
the other. To read record 10, for example, you would first need to read records 1
through 9. This differs from random access, in which you can read and write records in
any order.
FILE ORGANIZATION
MODELS OF FILE ORGANISATION
i.
serial file organization
ii.
sequential file organization
iii.
indexed sequential file organization
iv.
direct file organization
v.
inverted file organization
Serial file organization
Is one where the records are not stored in any particular order?
They are stored in the order in which they are received. New records are added at the end
of the files.
This method of file organization is used when:
o The usage of the records is not clearly known
o As a means of recording transactions as they happen
o As dump files reflecting the physical layout of a file
o Or as a prelude to organizing the file in another order. E.g. Transactions may be
punched and stored on a serial file .the file may subsequently be sorted into a
desired sequence.
It gives maximum utilization of space but there is no room left for inserting other records.
Examples of files stored using serial organization are: archive files, output files, security
files.
It does not cater for direct access to records.
Is the only file organization method used on magnetic tapes?
Sequential file organization
Records are arranged in a predetermined sequence, determined by the primary key.

Records are stored using a specific key to arrange ascending, descending, alphabetic
order etc.
Appropriate for files, which are stored on tape or disk?
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Appropriate for master files, sorted transaction files in a batch-processing

environment.
Not generally used for online systems that demand fast response.
Mainly used for batch processing applications
Suitable method to use when there is little need for file enquiry.
Simple method of writing to a file [easy to use].
Most effective method if records are going to be processed in the order that they are
read.
It can be used for variable length records as well as fixed length records.
Wastes space as some space is reserved for other records to be inserted in order to
preserve the order or organization.
E.g. Customer records could be organized sequentially according to customer number
[primary key] or customer name [secondary key].
Sequential records can be stored adjacent to one another or they can be arranged
sequentially with a linked list.
UPDATING
o
o
Updating on tape is carried out in batch mode by reading the whole file and rewriting it
after necessary modification on to a new file.
On disk can be carried out without rewriting the whole file.
RETRIEVAL
Retrieval of a record from a sequential file on tape media can be made only in the
sequential mode by reading all the records in sequence till the desired record is reached.
o Retrieval of a record from a sequential file on direct access media (DISK) can be made by
using sequential reach skip search, binary search.
HIT RATE
o In a batch processing run: The proportion of the number of records processed during a run to
the total number of records on the file is called a hit rate.
o The higher the volatility and the lower the frequency of updating,, the higher the hit rate.
PROCESSING OF SEQUENTIAL FILES
o Tapes provides for only serial access
o Disks can be accessed in a serial order or random order.
o
Direct/Random/Relative file organization
Files are stored randomly or haphazardly and an address or key field is used as reference.
Records are physically located at an address that is calculated from its primary key field.
The calculation of the address from the key field is called hashing.
Records are scattered on the storage disk instead of being arranged next to one another or
linked via a pointer field.
Records can be retrieved rapidly
Used on magnetic disks e.g. Floppy disks & hard disks.
Types of files: transaction files, master files.
Direct access [information is readily available].
Method is costly in terms of device used and space.
Indexed sequential file organization
Records are stored in sequence but in addition an index is provided to enable individual
records to be located directly after reading the index.
Records are pointed to by indexes.
Used with disks only not with magnetic tapes.
A method of storing data records in a file sequentially, But in addition some sectors of the
disk are reserved for an index-key field to locate data records in this organization.
Wastes space
The index may be ignored & the data is read sequentially.
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The file may be accessed sequentially but using the index to skip over unwanted records,
this is called selective sequential access.
The index may be read into memory & used to obtain data randomly.
Definitions of indexed sequential access method on the Web:

Is a combination or compromise between indexed blocks of data arranged sequentially
within each block.
o
ISAM stands for Indexed Sequential Access Method, a method for storing data
for fast retrieval. ISAM was originally developed by IBM and today forms the
basic data store of almost all databases, both relational and otherwise.
INVERTED FILE ORGANISATION

special case of indexed sequential organization
an index is maintained for every attribute in the record
the main file itself may not be stored if direct queries are not to be handled
the entire file data is, in any case, stored in the indexes
Useful for handling inverted queries.
MULTI-RING FILE ORGANISATION
useful for handling inverted query when sets of records have same attribute
value
Each set of records with same attribute values is linked into a ring.
A ring of records is a chain where the last in the chain points to the first.
One of the records is anchored to the index so that it provides an entry point
into the ring.
The index of the attribute is read first to retrieve records with a particular
attribute value.
All records with that attribute value can be located.
COMPUTER MEMORY
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The computer has two types of memory chips within the system unit, known as RAM and ROM.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Also referred to as Main Memory, Primary Memory or Working Memory is memory that is accessed
by the CPU as it processes information. The CPU also places results of processing on the memory
chip. The memory has the following characteristics.
1) can be read from
2) can be changed and can be rewritten
3) used for short-term storage of data i.e. it is temporary storage,
4) is volatile (data lost when power is turned off).
Static RAM
It is a volatile memory
Data is stored; it remains there indefinitely unless if the power is lost or new data is
written
Dynamic RAM
Is one which data is stored on capacitors, which require periodic recharging [refreshing] to retain
data?
*if you wish to upgrade your PC, you would buy additional memory chips to increase the power of
your computer (computer performance).
ROM (Read Only Memory)
This memory chip has essential programs that start up the computer hardwired on the microchip
during the manufacture of the computer. It forms what is known as FIRMWARE, being a halfway
between hardware and software. The characteristics of this memory are that:1) can be read from,
2) cannot be changed
3) is permanent
4) non-volatile (data not lost when power is turned off).
ROM
Stores instructions & data which do not change
It is written once during manufacture
It is for holding software such as MS-DOS.Windows 95, 98.XP.
It is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user
It is static & non volatile
It stores control routines for personal computers
VARIATIONS OF ROM
Allow users to store and in some cases to change data stored in ROM
PROM [Programmable ROM] is not programmed during manufacture but can be
programmed by the user. It is programmed according to the needs of the user
organization. If you make a mistake the ROM once programmed will became permanent
to the effect that any errors will never be corrected thus the user will throw away any
chip if errors are made.
EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM] can be programmed and erased as many times.
This time you dont have to worry about errors too much because there is room for
correction. The programming is done electronically. Stored data can be lost by exposing
it to Ultra Violet light over a period of minutes.
1) EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM] can be read, erased, rewritten,
without removing from the computer. The erasing & rewriting process is very slow
compared with reading, which limits their use. These can be erased & programmed
with electrical pulses. Can be erased in a few Milliseconds
MEMORY CAPACITY
Everything entering into the computer is converted into digital (number) form, and is stored in
that form. When one needs to view the information, it is converted into human sensible text,
graphics, audio or video by the operating system. A binary digit is known as a bit being either a
0 (zero) or a 1 (one). It is the smallest item that can be stored in a computers memory.
Memory capacity is measured in bytes, a byte being a set of eight (8) bits and the byte often represents a
single character. Measurement units used for computer memory are:
BIT
1 binary digit (Either a 0 or a 1)
BYTE
Eight bits.
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KILOBYTE (KB)
MEGABYTE (MB)
GIGABYTE (GB)
TERABYTE
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Half byte/4 bits

1024 bytes
Million bytes
Billion bytes
Trillion bytes
Menu driven interfaces
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often leads to a further
menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a numbered list of options to choose from:
A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.

A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a pull down menu
may be offered.
Features of menu driven interfaces include:
They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.
They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around - with a command
line interface you can go to the option required immediately.
Command line interfaces

A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing in
commands. The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command and presses enter
or return.
Features of a command line interface include:

In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order or the
command will not work.
Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without having to
find their way around menus.
An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory and
processing power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec machines.
Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could
launch half a dozen programs to do its task.
An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult to use
because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating system
for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on drive a would be:
dir c:\.
Graphical user interfaces
Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to GUI. The user chooses an option usually by pointing a
mouse at an icon representing that option.
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Features of GUIs include:

They are much easier to use for beginners.
They enable you to easily exchange information between software using cut and paste or 'drag
and drop'.
They use a lot of memory and processing power. It can be slower to use than a CLI if you are an
expert user.
They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number of operations.
When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X and Linux are all graphical
user interfaces.
A good user interface should:
be attractive and pleasing to the eye
allow the user to try out different options easily
be easy to use
use suitable colours for key areas
use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
have online help
It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to prefer pictures to
words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input or output devices
WIMP interface
Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with a
computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much more
intuitive 'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems
provide
"Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-down
menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers much more
straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line interface.
The WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers since they were
invented, and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows and on Unix and
other workstations through the X Window system.
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NETWORKING
LANs and WANs
There are two types of network: LAN and WAN.

A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a school or a college.
A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.
The Internet is a WAN.

A network of bank cash dispensers is a WAN.
A school network is a LAN.
LANs are often connected to WANs, for example a
school network could be connected to the
Internet.
Telephone lines are often used to connect WANs. LANs use
dedicated cables or wireless technology.
LAN
Local Area Network.

Are privately owned network within a single building or even on a single floor.
LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources e.g. printers and exchange
information.
Common LAN topologies are Bus, Ring and Star.
Resources are shared e.g. as above
Software is shared
Enhances communication between workstations
File sharing
Definitions of Local Area Network on the Web:
A computer network limited to the immediate area, usually the same building or floor
of a building.
(1) A computer network located on a user's premises within a communication across the
LAN boundary may be subject to some form of regulation. (2) A network in which a set
of devices are connected to one another for communication and that can be connected
to a larger network.
Communications network connecting computers by wire, cable, or fiber optics link.
Usually serves parts of an organization located close to one another, generally in the
same building or within 2 miles of one another. Allows users to share software,
hardware and data.
WAN
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Wide Area Network.

A WAN spans a large geographical area often a country or continent.
Also called long-haul network.
Transmission lines for a WAN can be leased or can be private lines. I.e. leased
telephone lines, fibre optics, coaxial cables, microwave radio links, satellite
connections etc.
Definitions of Wide Area Network on the Web:
A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications
network. The term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a
local area network. A wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but
the term usually connotes the inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An
intermediate form of network in terms of geography is a metropolitan area
network (MAN).
Advantages and disadvantages of networks

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORKING & SHARING RESOURCES OVER A NETWORK.
1. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment where
resources are shared and capacity problems reduced.
2. Resource sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different
machines to share modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example, users
can send network messages requesting to use a central printer, allowing everyone to
share that resource.
3. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer can be
installed, added to the network, and immediately accessed by other machines and
users.
4. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across several
machines. If one machine goes down, another can take its place and provide the data
to the applications.
5. Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between
machines on the network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company
newsletters, and other information.
6. Low cost. Single device shared by several machines reduce the need to buy many
peripheral devices. Resource sharing also serves money. An installation can have several
low-cost work stations accessing a single file-server. That puts a lot of processing power
on the users desk without the expense of large mainframe systems.
7. Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
8. Site licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several stand-alone licenses.
9. Files can easily be shared between users.
10. Network users can communicate by email.
11. Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
12. A file server is easy to back up as all the data is stored in one place
DISADVANTAGES
1. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data.
2. Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune the
network, monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network integrity
(ensure the network runs smoothly)
3. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures
become catastrophic.
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4. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages. For

example, a message that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may enter the
system via the network.
5. Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
6. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager
usually needs to be employed.
7. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-mail
might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used as stand
alones.
8. Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
9. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security
procedures are needed to prevent such abuse.
10. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security concerns, therefore,
network security is a priority in the development of network applications.
What is the Internet?

The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers
that communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibers. It is
literally the whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport
information.
When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web (WWW) which is
the most used feature of the Internet.
The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can contain text, pictures,
movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a language or code called HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language). A set of web pages is called a website.
Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the format "http" and a
domain (such as ."co.uk"). What goes in between is arbitrary, but often has the term "www "such
as in "http://www.name.co.uk". but it doesnt have to (e.g. http://news.bbc.co.uk).
Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is called the
homepage.
Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken to another
page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
When you move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you need a
program to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet Explorer.
To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There are many
different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of searching and indexing web
content. Google, MSN and Alta Vista are all examples of search engines, while Yahoo and Excite
are web directories (a bit like the Yellow Pages phone book) which have a search function built
in.
The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
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A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.
What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Internet? Discuss

These are far too broad and extending to all realms in life. For instance:1) Access to a wide range of information from any location worldwide where there is
internet access. i.e. airlines, resorts, books, authors.
2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a
cheque book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.
Advantages of the Internet
The Internet provides opportunities galore, and can be used for a variety of things. Some of
the things that you can do via the Internet are:
E-mail: E-mail is an online correspondence system. With e-mail you can send and
receive instant electronic messages, which works like writing letters. Your messages
are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the world, unlike traditional mail that
takes a lot of time.
Access Information: The Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of
information on any topic under the sun is available on the Internet. The search
engines on the Internet can help you to find data on any subject that you need.
Shopping: Along with getting information on the Internet, you can also shop online.
There are many online stores and sites that can be used to look for products as well as
buy them using your credit card. You do not need to leave your house and can do all
your shopping from the convenience of your home.
Online Chat: There are many chat rooms on the web that can be accessed to meet
new people, make new friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends.
Downloading Software: This is one of the most happening and fun things to do via the
Internet. You can download innumerable, games, music, videos, movies, and a host of
other entertainment software from the Internet, most of which are free.
Disadvantages of the Internet
There are certain cons and dangers relating to the use of Internet that can be summarized as:
Personal Information: If you use the Internet, your personal information such as your
name, address, etc. can be accessed by other people. If you use a credit card to shop
online, then your credit card information can also be stolen which could be akin to
giving someone a blank check.
Pornography: This is a very serious issue concerning the Internet, especially when it
comes to young children. There are thousands of pornographic sites on the Internet
that can be easily found and can be a detriment to letting children use the Internet.
Spamming: This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk, which serve no purpose
and unnecessarily clog up the entire system.
There is information overload for the internet. Sifting through relevant information
can be a task in itself.
If there is tremendous increase in internet use, then gaining access will be a problem.
If you come across any illegal activity on the Internet, such as child pornography or even
spammers, then you should report these people and their activities so that they can be
controlled and other people deterred from carrying them out. Child pornography can be
reported to:
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Your Internet service provider

Local police station
Cyber Angels (program to report cyber crime)
Such illegal activities are frustrating for all Internet users, and so instead of just ignoring it,
we should make an effort to try and stop these activities so that using the Internet can become
that much safer. That said, the advantages of the Internet far outweigh the disadvantages,
and millions of people each day benefit from using the Internet for work and for pleasure
The Web uses three standards namely:
1 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) which are web page addresses
2 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) the language used to design web pages
3 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:
WHAT IS NEEDED FOR INTERNET AND E-MAIL SERVICES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
A computer connected to a network,

The windows operating system installed
The communication and or browser software such as Ms-Exchange or Ms-Outlook, Internet
explorer, Netscape navigator
A modem
Telephone line
Subscription to an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
What do you need to get connected?

To connect to the internet you need:
1) A computer
2) A telephone line
3) A modem - the type of modem you need to use is dependant on the type of
connection you have. Some of the choices are:
An analogue modem and an ordinary phone line. This type of modem links your
computer to the phone and converts computer signals to analogue phone line
signals - and back again. Typical analogue modem speeds are 56Kbps (bps
stands for bits per second) which means they can receive about 6000
characters per second. This is the slowest and oldest type of connection and
becoming less common with the introduction of broadband.
An ISDN line and terminal adaptor. This digital connection is slightly faster than
an analogue connection.
An ADSL or cable telephone line and broadband modem. Broadband modems
are much faster than the other two options and their use is increasing.
4) An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
5) Browser software
ISPs are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs
include Freeserve, AOL, Virgin, Tesco, BT and many more. Most offer the same basic package of
Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own pages and local rate call charges.
A browser is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web. The most widely used
are Internet Explorer and Firefox. All browsers will have a number of similar features to help
you use the Web:
Forward and back buttons to move between pages
A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
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Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages

Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
HTML
When you go on the Internet, you see web pages. The web pages are written in a code called
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). This code is then converted into a viewable web page on
your screen. You need a browser to do this. A browser is a software application which has been
especially written to view web pages.
HTML code can be written by anyone, and there are three ways of doing it.
Type the code 'by hand' using a text editor such as Notepad. This requires you to know
how the code works and what it means, so it does require some learning. The
advantage however is that the writer has complete control of what is going on.
Use an office application. You can use a DTP, word processing or presentation package
to set up a normal page and then have the page converted to HTML by the program.
The disadvantage of this method is that you can only create a basic page.
A web authoring application is one that is written specifically for this purpose. Many
applications allow you to make changes to the page as it will look in an internet
browser and provide templates to which you can add your own content. The
disadvantage is that some measure of control is still lost. It is, however, much quicker
and much simpler to use this sort of software than the first two options to make a web
page or website.
Electronic mail
Electronic mail or email is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
computers via the telephone network. Because the telephone network covers the whole world,
email enables you to communicate world wide.
Email and web mail

Email
To set up email you need:

A computer
An internet connection via an analogue modem (ordinary phone line) or terminal
adaptor (ISDN) or broadband modem (ADSL and cable)
An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
Email software
Your Internet Service Provider will give you an email account, a password and a mailbox such as
yourname@hostname.co.uk. You can also set up an email account with a mailbox and
passwords with non-ISPs such as Google and Hotmail.
With a dial-up connection, you have to pay the cost of your internet phone calls (local rate),
and in most cases a subscription to your provider (though some are free). A broadband
connection is 'always on', with only a flat-rate subscription. Very few people pay by the minute
nowadays and the majority of people pay a monthly fee for broadband access.
Anti-virus scanning is becoming standard on email accounts and many email providers now offer
an anti spam (electronic junk mail) service.
Web mail
Web mail, as its name suggests, is web-based email. To use web mail, you do not need any
email software - just a computer connected to the internet via any one of the connection types
listed above, and a browser.
Users simply sign up to the web mail service of a web portal such as MSN or Yahoo. They are
given a unique user name and a personal mailbox on the portal's email server, and they can
then send and receive messages via a special web page.
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A basic web mail account is usually free, although this will have a very limited amount of
storage.
The advantage of web mail is that users can receive and send mail from any computer in the
world with internet access. If you have a dial-up connection you can download your emails and
then read them offline to avoid staying on-line for long periods.
Some ISPs will enable their regular email customers to access their mailbox via web mail as
well as through the email software on their PC.
Features of email
Automatic reply to messages

Auto forward and redirection of messages
Facility to send copies of a message to many people
Automatic filing and retrieval of messages
Addresses can be stored in an address book and retrieved instantly
Notification if message cannot be delivered
Automatically date and time stamped
Signatures can be attached
Files, graphics or sound can be sent as attachments, often in compressed formats
Web mail and mobile email can be used to receive and send messages while on the
move.
Using email
Email
Broadband email
- Your connection is always on - so simply write and address your message and hit 'send'
to send your mail and 'receive' to download any incoming messages from your email
provider's server.
Web mail
- Connect to the internet (if using a dial-up account) and open your browser.
- navigate to your web mail provider's portal and enter your user-name and password.
- all incoming mail will now be visible, and you can also compose and send mail, and
download attachments to your computer.
- When you're done, log out and close your connection.
Dial-up email
- Prepare your message offline as typing your message online will increase phone
charges.
- Connect to the internet and log on to your email account.
- Send your message and download any incoming mail sitting on your service provider's
computer.
- Log off and close your connection.
is evolving...
Many mobile phones already allow messages to be sent to the recipient's email inbox
while the sender is on the move. The latest generation of mobile phones enables users
to send and receive wireless email in exactly the same way as a static computer.
Email can be sent and received via digital TV, specially adapted phones, public kiosk
terminals and the latest generation of games console.
A spreading network of wireless 'hotspots' in public places allows people to send and
receive email via laptop computers.
A new range of in-car phones will enable motorists to check their email on the road
Benefits and concerns of using email

Email benefits
Fast delivery of your message
Available 365 days, 24 hours per day - and, with web mail, wherever you are in the
world as long as you have access to the internet.
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Cheap: when using broadband, individual mail transfers are effectively free. When
going online from a dial-up account, calls are charged at local rates and (for
conventional email) need only last a few seconds.
Facility to send the same message to more than one person
Graphics and text can be electronically transmitted and placed in a document by the
recipient.
The message can be sent anywhere in the world at the price of a local call, without
having to leave your desk.
concerns
It can only be sent to people who themselves have access to the internet.
Viruses are easily spread via email attachments - anti virus measures must be in place
to avoid this and are now offered by many e-mail providers.
Phishing - sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate company to
scam the user into providing information such as personal information and bank
account numbers on a bogus website. The details will then be used for identity theft.
No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their mail.
Spam! Or Junk mail
NETWORK SYSTEMS
Is one in which processing is carried out independently in more than one
location, but with shared & controlled access to some common facilities, which
normally include file storage & information resources?
Definitions of hub on the Web:
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at
one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all
packets. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from
one device (or segment) to another. ...
Node a terminal point in a communications network.
Workstation A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to
support the work of one person.
STAR NETWORK
Is a network in which nodes are connected to a central component as its hub?

The central component can be a switching device like a switch or PABX [private
automatic branch exchange], a computer [minicomputer to which workstations
or PCs are connected] or just a wiring center that is a common termination
point for the nodes, called a hub.
A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for multiple
nodes and that can relay [store & forward] signals along the appropriate paths.
Definitions of star network on the Web:
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A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a star
coupler.
A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub or
concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central point
representing the points of the star.
Advantages of star topology

It is easy to add or remove nodes
Because each node has its own link to the central node, the star is more reliable than
other topologies.
Full utilization of resources i.e. printer, sharing of processor
Direct connection of terminals to the main processor, means that if one terminal breaks
down it wont affect other terminals.
Disadvantages of star topology
All traffic between two nodes passes through the central node. If the central
component breaks down, the whole network is down.
The number of ports of the central component limits the number of connected nodes.
A star topology requires a lot of cabling since all data path connections must be to the
central node.
There is no direct communication between or among workstations
Sharing of processor delays in the processing of jobs.
BUS/LINEAR NETWORK
Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.

This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.
Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the individual
nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs it, to
keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid interference with
other messages already in the line.
The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of
destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for
any messages coming to them.
Definitions of bus network on the Web:
A single-cable LAN, in which all computers on the network are connected in series to a
single cable. On a bus network, each computer hears all of the transmissions going
down the line, and selects only those that are addressed to its location. This is the
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simplest and most common LAN technology.
Advantages of Bus Network/topology

When a node breaks down, the network does not break down.
A bus uses relatively less cables compared to other topologies
Direct communication due to direct connection.
Fast processing since there is no Host computer
Once a cable has been laid down any new equipment can easily be
connected to the network by a simple tapping into the cable.
Disadvantages of Bus Network/topology
In a bus topology it is not always easy to add a node. [E.g. installation of extra tap in
thick Ethernet].
Diagnosis/trouble shooting can be difficult.
Expensive to run [several processors] Detectors.
Communication between components of the network traveling in opposite direction
along the bus can collide causing loss of transmitted information.
Because of this collision a detection system has to be present to control the retransmission of lost information thereby making it a more expensive option
RING NETWORK
A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.

Each node has two neighboring nodes
Data flow is unidirectional.
A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination with
intermediate nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
The destination node copies the message and passes the message again to the
ring.
This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the source.
Definitions of ring network on the Web:
A network topology in the form of a closed loop or circle. Each node in the network is
connected to the next, and messages move in one direction around the system. When a
message arrives at a node, the node examines the address information in the message.
If the address matches the node's address, the message is accepted; otherwise the
node regenerates the signal and places the message back on the network for the next
node in the system. ...
Advantages of ring network
The message return provides the source with a form of
acknowledgement. The node removes its own message from the ring.
Little cabling needed compared to Star.
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Each node acts as relay unit.

Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in one
direction.
Relatively cheap to install.
Efficient and accurate means of communication.
There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as each
node controls transmission to and from itself.
Disadvantages of ring network
Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.
If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected
SYSTEM ANALYSIS & DESIGN

System
An organized group of interdependent components joined together to achieve a
defined goal.
A combination of elements or components that are interrelated or interact to achieve
a specific goal.
System Analysis
Analyzing in detail the components and requirements of a system.
Definitions of system analysis on the Web:
The process of analyzing a system were two tasks must be performed: modeling the
system and solving for the model's response.
Analyzing in detail the information needs of an organization, the characteristics and
components of presently utilized information systems, and the functional
requirements of proposed information systems.
Systems Design
Deciding how a proposed information system will meet the information needs of end
users.
Includes logical and physical design activities, and user interface, data, and process
design activities that produce system specifications that satisfy the system
requirements developed in the systems analysis stage.
Definitions of system design on the Web:
Design of the information processing system covering the activities of determining
detailed requirements, design of data/information flow, design of database, design of
user interface, physical design, and design of hardware/software configuration.
Systems design is the process or art of defining the hardware and

software architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a
computer system to satisfy specified requirements. One could see it as
the application of systems theory to computing. Some overlap with the
discipline of systems analysis appears inevitable.
SYSTEM ANALYST.
Is the person who conducts systems study to learn relevant facts bout a
business/system activity?
Is the person who studies the problems and needs of a business to determine how
people, processes & technology can best accomplish improvements for the business?
Definitions of system analyst on the Web:
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A person responsible for studying the requirements, feasibility, cost, design,

specification, and implementation of a computer based system for an organization/
business.
State the duties/tasks/roles/functions of a systems analyst
Investigating existing procedures & identifying user requirements.
To investigate & assimilate information about the way the system is currently
operating.
To analyze system performance in the light of systems objectives which are
identified by management
To develop & evaluate ideas about how the system can be improved
To design in detail a new system meeting the requirements which have been
identified?
To implement a new system once it has been fully developed
Coming up with System Alternatives
Testing the new system
Maintaining the system.
2. SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE STAGES

SDLC can be broadly categorized into:
1. Preliminary Investigation
Monitoring the work environment
Screening, selection and preliminary study of a proposed information system solution to a
business problem.
Means the gathering of information or facts to determine system development.

Feasibility study-Is a measure of how beneficial or practical the development of an
information system will be to the organization. It should be measured throughout the Life
Cycle. Feasibility checkpoints can be installed into the SDLC.
Definitions of feasibility study on the Web:
Feasibility study means a preliminary study to determine whether it is sufficiently probable that effective
and efficient use of ADP equipment or systems can be made to warrant a substantial investment of staff,
time, and money being requested and whether the plan is capable of being accomplished successfully.
An investigation which tries to clearly establish whether a project will work and achieve its expected results.
Such a study usually evaluates in detail a project's technical design, its costs and benefits, social and
environmental aspects, institutional issues, financial aspects, etc. Feasibility studies are usually carried-out
in the preparation stage of the project cycle
Operational feasibility
It is a measure of how well the solution of problems or a specific solution will work in the organization. It is also a
measure of how people feel about the system/project. It determines if it is worth to solve the problem & determines
the end user reaction.
Definitions of operational feasibility on the Web:
The process of assessing the degree to which a proposed system solves business problems or takes advantage
of business opportunities
Technical feasibility
It is a measure of the practicality of a specific technical solution & the availability of technical resources & expertise.
Availability of proposed technology & its application .The decision to buy new technology or use existing technology.
Availability of technical expertise.
Definitions of technical feasibility on the Web:
The process of assessing the development organization's ability to construct a proposed system.
Whether reliable hardware and software, technical resources capable of meeting the needs of a proposed
system can be acquired or developed by an organization in the required time
Economic feasibility
It is a measure of cost effectiveness of a project or solution. This is often called a Cost Benefit analysis. During the
early stages of the project, economic feasibility analysis amount to, little more than judging whether the possible
benefits of solving the problem are worthwhile. Costs are practically impossible to estimate at this stage.
Definitions of economic feasibility on the Web:
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A process of identifying the financial benefits and costs associated with a development project.
Whether expected cost saving, increased revenue, increased profits and reductions in required investment
exceed the costs of developing and operating a proposed system
Social feasibility
How the system is going to affect the workers/users. The analyst has to find ways of developing the
system taking into consideration the fear of the users as well as the operation staff. Fear of losing
jobs, wage reduction, loss of prestige & inability to learn a new job may result in resistance for
change.
2.
3.
4.
Analysis
Analyzing the current system. What is wrong and what to do in order to sort it out?
Interviews
Questionnaires
Walkthroughs
Observation
Reviewing Existing Documentation

Defining requirements of the current system
Evaluating alternative solutions
Selecting hardware & software required for the new system/acquisition stage.
Design
Designing the new system creating structure charts & diagrams that will help the
systems analyst.
Specifying the underlying mechanics of the old system together with any changes or
extensions requested.
Design to improve the old system.
Development
Constructing the new system the hardware & software are put in place.
Conceiving, designing, and implementing a system.
TESTING stages are implemented here.
Unit/module testing-Involves testing program components/modules as they are
produced.
Testing of individual software components.
Each module is tested alone in an attempt to discover any errors in its code.
In computer programming, a unit test is a method of testing the correctness of

a particular module of source code.
Integration/program testing-Involves testing the program components as they are put

together to form programs that are complete.
Integration testing
Testing of combined parts of an application to determine if they function together

correctly. Usually performed after unit and functional testing. This type of testing is
especially relevant to client/server and distributed systems.
The process of bringing together all of the modules that a program comprises for testing
purposes. Modules are typically integrated in a top-down, incremental fashion.
Testing of combinations of program units up to the level of the whole system.
Integration testing is the phase of software testing in which individual software modules
are combined and tested as a group. It follows unit testing and precedes system testing.
Regression testing
Regression testing helps to ensure that changes made to the software code do not
break other previously working parts of the software. It is important to do
regression testing frequently while writing code, because the code as a whole may
easily "regress" to a lower level of quality after making a change. Regression testing
is necessary, even though a change appears to be working correctly and is believed
not to affect the rest of the software.
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The bringing together of all the programs that a system comprises for testing
purposes. Programs are typically integrated in a top-down, incremental fashion.
The testing of a complete system prior to delivery. The purpose of system testing is
to identify defects that will only surface when a complete system is assembled. That
is, defects that cannot be attributed to individual components or the interaction
between two components. System testing includes testing of performance, security,
configuration sensitivity, startup and recovery from failure modes. [21]
User acceptance testing- Involves the users of the programs, testing to see whether it
meets what was stated in the requirements of specifications [ROS]. User acceptance
testing involves the testing by the user to ensure that the complete package not only
works but also does what the users requested it to do.
A formal product evaluation performed by a customer as a condition of
purchase.
Formal testing of a new computer system by prospective users. This is carried
out to determine whether the software satisfies its acceptance criteria and
should be accepted by the customer.
Volume testing - Testing where the system is subjected to large volumes of data.
Testing which confirms that any values that may become large over
time (such as accumulated counts, logs, and data files), can be
accommodated by the program and will not cause the program to
stop working or degrade its operation in any manner.
5.
pplications
System testing-Involves testing all programs in the full form in which they will be used
i.e. to see if they link and coordinate correctly as expected. It is the testing of the whole
system.
Testing that attempts to discover defects that are properties of the entire system
rather than of its individual components.
Testing that the system can cope with the anticipated volumes of
data.
Implementation
Delivering the new system The new system is delivered to the users. Sometimes small
groups are selected to try the new system.
People are trained to operate and use the system, and the organization converts to the
use of a newly developed system.
Getting the new system going.
Getting the people involved working with it.
CHANGEOVER = CONVERSION
CURRENT SYSTEM = OLD SYSTEM
Implementation Methods
Parallel changeover/implementation involves the system being implemented

at the same time when the old system is running.
Parallel changeover
Definitions of parallel conversion on the Web:
Is a process of converting from one information system to a newer system by using both systems concurrently
until the new system is demonstrably stable and reliable?
Step by Step/phased/ changeover or implementation occurs when the old

system is changed in phases/stages or a selected group is trained on the new
system prior to its full implementation.
Step by Step/phased/ conversion occurs when the old system is changed in

phases/stages or a selected group is trained on the new system prior to its full
implementation.
Definitions of phased conversion on the Web:
Is switching from an old system to a new system in phases throughout an organization.
Direct/Complete overhaul changeover would involve the shut down of the

current system & replacing it with the new system.
Involve the shut down of the current system & replacing it with the new
system.
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Definitions of direct changeover on the Web:

Where an old system is scrapped and immediately replaced by a new system.
Pilot changeover the new system is implemented by any of the above
methods [parallel, phased or direct] as a pilot system in only one of the
several areas of a company e.g. Depts, Branches for which it is targeted. A
company with 8 plants will use one plant as a pilot of the new I.S
Definitions of pilot changeover on the Web:
A way of introducing a new system in a company by changing a small part of the company over to the new system first
and ironing out any problems there before introducing it into the rest of the company.
6.
Maintenance
The monitoring, evaluating, and modifying of a system to make desirable or necessary
improvements.
System maintenance also known as the feedback stage
Complete all the documentation.
Let the system run and review it to ensure that it does what is required
The system analyst has to listen to user demands/needs to improve the current system
and make changes to operational needs of the new system that is implemented.
Does the system meet objectives?
FACT GATHERING
Objectives of FACT-finding or FACT-gathering
To find what the current system is supposed to accomplish
To determine inputs of the current system for example volumes, file structures, size &
frequency.
To determine the problems and difficulties presently being encountered.
To determine the nature of outputs and processing
To determine the cost of running and maintenance of the current system.
To identify the organizational structure
3. FACT GATHERING TECHNIQUES

Interviews
Talking directly with individuals responsible for operating the system to understand
what is transpiring in a system.
It is a reactive technique, that is, a person might respond differently to the same
questions depending on who is asking and how they are asked.
Discuss formally with (somebody) for the purpose of an evaluation;
An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are
asked to obtain information about the interviewee. Interviews can be divided into
two rough types, interviews of assessment and interviews for information.
A data-collection encounter in which one person (an interviewer) asks questions of
another (a respondent).
Contact with a respondent, or group of respondents, in order to obtain information
for a research project.
A research method, which involves a trained interviewer asking questions and
recording respondents' replies. These can be recorded by the researcher ticking
boxes in closed questions, writing down answers verbatim or as a summary, or by
using a tape recorder (usually for in-depth interviews) which allow data analysis to
be conducted later.
Observation
Involves looking at what is happening at a particular point and pretend to be
amongst what is taking place.
People dont put up shows
Precise results
Likelihood of drawing wrong conclusion
You are only limited to what you can see.
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Time consuming, as you need to observe a large specimen.

Lacks objectivity
Hawthorne effect when people are aware that they are being watched, they
tend to act differently. The system analyst who is unaware of this fact can
draw erroneous conclusions.
Sampling
Is the process of learning about the population by using a sample drawn from
that population?
A sample is part/ a representative of the whole population that is used to know
the behaviour of the population [research project].
The sample drawn should be representative
It should be adequate
It should be independent
It should be homogeneous
It involves selecting the sample, collecting the information & drawing a
conclusion of the population based on the info obtained from a sample.
Random Sampling methods are: Simple sampling, Stratified, Cluster &
Systematic sampling
Non-random Sampling methods are: Judgment, Convenience & Quota sampling
Reading existing documentation
Questionnaires
Is a list of questions pertaining to a survey/study, on a paper with filling in
spaces sent to a target group?
Questions can be structured or unstructured
Can easily be suited to the intention of the study
Can only be used by those who are literate
Respondents answer at their own time
Respondents may lie
Wrong people may fill
Time consuming
Can be misinterpreted
Response rate is low
Advantages and disadvantages of each
REASONS FOR PERFORMING A SYSTEMS STUDY
Solving a problem
Limitations or failures of the existing system
Competition
Opportunities created by new hardware
Possibility & need to integrate with other systems
Responding to new requirements
Implementing new technology
Making broad system improvements.
APPLICATION PACKAGES
PRESENTATION PACKAGE
Presentation is the process of presenting the content of a topic to an audience.
Presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics or Lotus
Freelance is often used to illustrate the presentation content. However, when more
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professional graphics are required, other software such as Adobe Illustrator and
CorelDraw may be used to develop complex charts and illustrations, such as market
segmentation graphs. ...
SPREADSHEET PACKAGE
A software application program designed to manipulate numerical data. (ie, accounting
data, time records, etc.) Common examples would include Lotus 1-2-3, MS-Excel, and
Corel Quattro Pro.
A spreadsheet is a sheet of paper that shows accounting or other data in rows and
columns; a spreadsheet is also a computer application program that simulates a
physical spreadsheet by capturing, displaying, and manipulating data arranged in rows
and columns. The spreadsheet is one of the most popular uses of the personal
computer.
An application program used as a computerized tool for analysis, planning, and
modeling that allows users to enter and manipulate data into an electronic worksheet
of rows and columns.
WORD PROCESSOR
Software (eg, Microsoft Word or WordPerfect) that allows the creation, editing and
formatting of text files.
A program which is used for entering and editing text documents on computer. The
standard word processor for most people is Microsoft Word. Alternatives include
StarOffice, OpenOffice, and WordPerfect.
A word processor (also more formally known as a document preparation system) is a
computer application used for the production (including composition, editing,
formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of viewable or printed material.
Dedicated word processor. A specialized computer typewriter designed only for word
processing
DATABASE PACKAGE
Software used to create, maintain, retrieve, and produce reports about information
kept in database records.
a computer program that allows the storage of large amounts of information and give
the capacity to search, retrieve, sort, revise, analyze and order data quickly and
efficiently (eg, Access). There are two types of databases, flat file databases and
relational databases.
GRAPHICS PACKAGE
In computer graphics, graphics software is a program or collection of programs that
enable a person to manipulate visual images on a computer.
Includes pictographs, typography and some types of text, as well as symbols,
photographs and geometric designs. Graphics are visual elements used to point readers
and viewers to particular information.
QUERY
In general, a query is a form of questioning, in a line of inquiry.
A request for information, usually to a search engine.
An object that requests information from a database and creates a dataset of the
requested information.
A word, phrase or group of words characterizing the information a user seeks from
search engines and directories. The search engine subsequently locates Web pages to
match the query.
INTERNET
An electronic network of computers that includes nearly every university, government,
and research facility in the world. Also included are many commercial sites. It started
with four interconnected computers in 1969 and was known as ARPAnet.
A worldwide network of computer networks. It is an interconnection of large and small
networks around the globe. The Internet began in 1962 as a resilient computer network
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for the US military and over time has grown into a global communication tool of more
than 12,000 computer networks that share a common addressing scheme.
The Internet is a worldwide communications network originally developed by the US
Department of Defense as a distributed system with no single point of failure. The
Internet has seen an explosion in commercial use since the development of easy-to-use
software for accessing the Internet.
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER
An ISP is a company that provides access to the Internet to individuals or companies.
ISPs provide local dial-up access from your personal computer to their computer
network and their network connects you to the Internet.
An institution (usually a private company) that provides access to the Internet in some
form, usually for money.
A business that delivers access to the Internet.
An organization that provides access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee. An ISP
can be a commercial provider, a corporate computer network, a school, college,
university, or the government.
E.g. Zarnet, Ecoweb, Comone, M-Web, Africa Online etc
EXTRANET
An extranet is a private network that uses the Internet protocols and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An
extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company. An extranet requires security and privacy. ...
Refers to an intranet that is partially accessible to authorized outsiders. Whereas an
intranet resides behind a firewall and is accessible only to people who are members of
the same company or organization, an extranet provides various levels of accessibility
to outsiders. You can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and
password, and your identity determines which parts of the extranet you can view.
A private, secure extension of a corporate intranet that allows organizations to build a
persistent network link with customers, vendors, or other business partners.
INTRANET
An internal use, private network inside an organisation that uses the same kind of
software which would also be found on the Internet.
Inter-connected network within one organization that uses Web technologies for the
sharing of information internally, not world wide. Such information might include
organization policies and procedures, announcements, or information about new
products.
Intranets are private networks, usually maintained by corporations for internal
communications, which use Internet - usually Web- protocols, software, and servers.
They are relatively cheap, fast, and reliable networking and information warehouse
systems that link offices around the world. They make it easy for corporate users to
communicate with one another, and to access the information resources of the
Internet.
TELNET
The Internet standard protocol for remote terminal connection service. TELNET allows
a user at one site to interact with a remote timesharing system at another site as if the
user's terminal was connected directly to the remote computer.
A text-based Internet program used for connecting to a remote host or server.
An Internet command that allows your computer to directly connect and interact with
remote computers, often through a text-based 'terminal' environment. Often involves
the need for passwords and access information.
INTERNET BROWSER
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Software package used to view pages on the World Wide Web (including Netscape
Navigator, Microsoft Internet Explorer and Mosaic).
A graphical tool designed to read HTML documents and access the WWW. Examples are
Microsoft's Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator or Mozilla Firefox.
A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with HTML
documents hosted by web servers or held in a file system. Popular browsers available for
personal computers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, and Safari. A
browser is the most commonly used kind of user agent. The largest networked collection of
linked documents is known as the World Wide Web.
What is a web/internet browser?
A Web browser is the vessel by which you are able to view the internet. This is a
program, which,
A browser is an application program that provides a way to look at and interact with all
the information on the World Wide Web.
Default
Default in computer science refers to a setting or value automatically assigned to a
computer program or device, outside of user intervention.
INTERNET ADDRESS
The numbering system used in TCP/IP internetwork communications to specify a
particular network or a particular host on that network with which to communicate.
Internet addresses are commonly denoted in dotted decimal form.
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number, a kind of telephone
number, used by machines (usually computers) to refer to each other when sending
information through the Internet. This allows machines passing the information
onwards on behalf of the sender to know where to send it next, and for the machine
receiving the information to know that it is the intended destination.
SEARCH ENGINE
Internet search engines (eg Google, AltaVista) help users find web pages on a given
subject. The search engines maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often
referred to as "spiders" or "robots") to collect information, which is then indexed by the
search engine. Similar services are provided by "directories," which maintain ordered
lists of websites, eg Yahoo!
E-mail
Electronic Mail.
A system whereby a computer user can exchange messages with other computer users
(or groups of users) via a communications network.
A form of communication where messages can be sent to individuals or groups on
NEWS GROUPS
A newsgroup is a discussion about a particular subject consisting of notes written to a central Internet site
and redistributed through Usenet, a worldwide network of news discussion groups.

Discussion groups on the Internet, each of which is focused on a particular topic. Discussion takes place by
posting messages for everyone to read, having online conversations, and sending email messages to
individuals or the group. There are thousands of newsgroups on different subjects.
Voicemail
Similar to an answering machine used for conventional phones, except that the messages are saved and
serviced at a central location, rather than ...
A network-based telephone answering and messaging service for each extension on a network. On most
systems messages can be retrieved from any ...
Voicemail systems provide a method of recording messages when you are on the phone, away from your desk,
or concentrating on important work. ...
A personal answering machine which allows callers to leave you messages, accessed by calling into your
mobile network.
Facsimile
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an exact copy or reproduction

Fax: send something via a facsimile machine; "Can you fax me the report right away?"
duplicator that transmits the copy by wire or radio
Fax (short for facsimile, from Latin fac simile, "make similar", i.e. "make a copy") is a telecommunications
technology used to transfer copies of documents, especially using affordable devices operating over the
telephone network. ...
A copy or reproduction; A fax, a machine for making and sending copies of printed material and images via
radio or telephone network; The image sent with the machine itself; To send via a facsimile machine;
normally only spoken as fax
Any system intended for the scanning, transmission, and reproduction of images of documents.
OFFICE AUTOMATION SYSTEM
A computer-based information system that collects, processes, stores and transmits

electronic messages, documents and other forms of office communications among
individuals, work groups and organizations; an office productivity application such as
word processing, document imaging or calendar
The integration of office information functions, including word processing, data
processing, graphics, desktop publishing and e-mail.
The backbone of office automation is a LAN, which allows users to transmit data, mail
and even voice across the network. All office functions, including dictation, typing,
filing, copying, fax, Telex, microfilm and records management, telephone and telephone
switchboard operations, fall into this category. Office automation was a popular term in the
1970s and 1980s as the desktop computer exploded onto the scene.
This drawing was made by the author in 1981 to depict an integrated terminal in the office of
the future. All these functions are available on today's computers
OFFICE AUTOMATION refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to digitally create,
collect, store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks and goals.
Raw data storage, electronic transfer, and the management of electronic business information comprise
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the basic activities of an office automation system. [1] Office Automation helps in optimize or automate
existing office procedures.
The backbone of office automation is a LAN, which allows users to transmit data, mail and even voice
across the network. All office functions, including dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, Telex, microfilm
and records management, telephone and telephone switchboard operations, fall into this category. Office
automation was a popular term in the 1970s and 1980s as the desktop computer exploded onto the scene.
[2]
Examples of OA include:
Generate Microsoft Word documents or business forms from data stored in other applications
such as Microsoft Access or Microsoft Excel.
Generate presentations from external data.
automatically send emails to customers or groups in Microsoft Outlook.
Create custom data entry mechanisms for Microsoft Office Documents.
Create custom procedures for CAD programs including AutoCAD, Autodesk Inventor and Solid
Works.
Maintain and organize data stored in Microsoft Excel or Microsoft Access.
Extract data from PDF files for further processing.
Create stand-alone executables to automate your office environment.
THE BASICS OF OFFICE AUTOMATION
Generally, there are three basic activities of an office automation system:
Data storage of information,

Data exchange, and
Data management.
Within each broad application area, hardware and software combine to fulfill basic functions.
Data storage usually includes office records and other primary office forms and documents.
Data applications involve the capture and editing of files, images, or spreadsheets. Word
processing and desktop presentation packages accommodate raw textual and graphical data,
while spreadsheet applications provide users with the capacity to engage in the easy
manipulation and output of numbers. Image applications allow the capture and editing of visual
images.
Text handling software and systems cover the whole field of word processing and
desktop publishing. Word processing, the most basic and common office automation activity, is
the inputting (usually via keyboard) and manipulation of text on a computer. Today's
commercial word processing applications provide users with a sophisticated set of commands to
format, edit, and print text documents. One of the most popular features of word processing
packages are their preformatted document templates. Templates automatically set up such
things as font size, paragraph styles, headers and footers, and page numbers so that the user
does not have to reset document characteristics every time they create a new record.
Desktop publishing adds another dimension to text manipulation. By combining the

features of a word processor with advanced page design and layout features, desktop
publishing packages have emerged as valuable tools in the creation of newsletters, brochures,
and other documents that combine text and photographs, charts, drawings and other graphic
images.
Image handling software and systems are another facet of office automation. Examples of
visual information include pictures of documents, photographs, and graphics such as tables and
charts. These images are converted into digital files, which cannot be edited the same way
that text files can. In a word processor or desktop publishing application, each word or
character is treated individually. In an imaging system, the entire picture or document is
treated as one whole object. One of the most popular uses of computerized images is in
corporate presentations or speeches. Presentation software packages simplify the creation of
multimedia presentations that use computer video, images, sound, and text in an integrated
information package.
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Spreadsheet programs allow the manipulation of numeric data. Early popular

spreadsheet programs such as Visi Calc and Lotus 123 greatly simplified common business
financial record keeping. Particularly useful among the many spreadsheet options is the ability
to use variables in pro forma statements. The pro forma option allows the user to change a
variable and have a complex formula automatically recalculated based on the new numbers.
Many businesses use spreadsheets for financial management, financial projection, and
accounting.
DATA EXCHANGE While data storage and manipulation is one component of an office
automation system, the exchange of that information is another equally important component.
Electronic transfer is a general application area that highlights the exchange of information
between more than one user or participant. Electronic mail, voice mail, and facsimile are
examples of electronic transfer applications. Systems that allow instantaneous or "real time"
transfer of information (i.e. online conversations via computer or audio exchange with video
capture) are considered electronic sharing systems. Electronic sharing software illustrates the
collaborative nature of many office automation systems.
Office automation systems that include:
The ability to electronically share information between more than one user simultaneously are
sometimes referred to as groupware systems. One type of groupware is an electronic
meeting system.
Electronic meeting systems allow geographically dispersed participants to
exchange information in real time. Participants in such electronic meetings may be within the
same office or building, or thousands of miles apart. Long-distance electronic sharing systems
usually use a telephone line connection to transfer data; while sharing in the same often
involves just a local area network of computers (no outside phone line is needed). The
functional effectiveness of such electronic sharing systems has been one factor in the growth of
telecommuting as an option for workers. Telecommuters work at home, maintaining their ties
to the office via computer.
Electronic transfer software and systems allow for electronic, voice, and
facsimile transmission of office information. Electronic mail uses computer based storage and a
common set of network communication standards to forward electronic messages from one
user to another. Most of these systems allow users to relay electronic mail to more than one
recipient. Additionally, many electronic mail systems provide security features, automatic
messaging, and mail management systems like electronic folders or notebooks. Voice mail
offers essentially the same applications, but for telephones, not computers.
Facsimile transmissions are limited to image relay, and while usage of this
communication option has declined somewhat with the emergence of electronic mail, fax
machines remain standard in almost all business offices in America. In addition, new
technologies continue to transform fax use, just as they have influenced other modes of
corporate communication. For example, facsimile converters for the personal computer that
allow remote printing of "faxed" information via the computer rather than through a dedicated
facsimile machine are now available. Indeed, these facsimile circuit boards for the
microcomputer are slowly replacing stand-alone fax machines. Simultaneously, other
traditional office equipment continues to undergo changes that improve their data exchange
capacities as well. Digital copiers, for example, are increasingly multifunctional (with copying,
printing, faxing, and scanning capabilities) and connectable to computer networks.
DATA MANAGEMENT Office automation systems are also often used to track both
short-term and long-term data in the realms of financial plans, workforce allocation plans,
marketing expenditures, inventory purchases, and other aspects of business. Task management
or scheduling systems monitor and control various projects and activities within the office.
Electronic management systems monitor and control office activities and tasks through
timelines, resource equations, and electronic scheduling. As in data exchange, groupware and
network computer systems are gaining in popularity for data management. Under such
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arrangements, multiple members of the office environment are provided with access to a
variety of information at a central electronic location
Electronic calendar
Packages are available that enable users to use electronic versions of a variety of office tools
such as calendar, appointment book, address book and contact list. These tools are an extension
of many of the features provided by time management software such as desk accessory packages
and mainframe office automation systems
Telecommuting
Telecommuting, e-commuting, e-work, telework, working from home (WFH), or working at
home (WAH) is a work arrangement in which employees enjoy flexibility in working location
and hours. In other words, the daily commute to a central place of work is replaced by
telecommunication links. Many work from home, while others, occasionally also referred to as
nomad workers or web commuters utilize mobile telecommunications technology to work
from coffee shops or myriad other locations. Telework is a broader term, referring to
substituting telecommunications for any form of work-related travel, thereby eliminating the
distance restrictions of telecommuting.[1] All telecommuters are teleworkers but not all
teleworkers are telecommuters. A frequently repeated motto is that "work is something you do,
not something you travel to".[2] A successful telecommuting program requires a management
style which is based on results and not on close scrutiny of individual employees. This is
referred to as management by objectives as opposed to management by observation. The terms
telecommuting and telework were coined by Jack Nilles in 1973.[3]
How Many People Telecommute?
Estimates suggest that over 50 million U.S. workers (about 40% of the working population)
could work from home at least part of the time [4] yet, in 2008, only 2.5 million employees (not
including the self-employed) considered home their primary place of business. [5]
Occasional telecommuters--those who work remotely (though not necessarily at home) totaled
17.2 million in 2008[6]
Very few companies employ large numbers of home-based full-time staff. The call center
industry is one notable exception to this; several U.S.-based call centers employ thousands of
home-based workers. For most employees, the option to work from home is granted as an
employee benefit; most do so only part of the time.[7]
Technology
The roots of telecommuting lay in early 1970s technology, linking satellite offices to downtown
mainframes by dumb terminals using telephone lines as a network bridge. The massive ongoing
decrease in cost and increase in performance and usability of personal computers forged the
way to decentralize even further, moving the office to the home. By the early 1980s, these
branch offices and home workers were able to connect to the company mainframe using
personal computers and terminal emulation.
Long distance telework is facilitated by such tools as groupware, virtual private networks,
conference calling, videoconferencing, and Voice over IP (VOIP). It can be efficient and useful
for companies as it allows staff and workers to communicate over a large distance, saving
significant amounts of travel time and cost. As broadband Internet connections become more
commonplace, more and more workers have enough bandwidth at home to use these tools to
link their home office to their corporate intranet and internal phone networks.
The adoption of local area networks promoted sharing of resources, and client server
computing allowed for even greater decentralization. Today, telecommuters can carry laptop
PCs around which they can use both at the office and at home (and almost anywhere else). The
rise of cloud computing technology and Wi-Fi availability has enabled access to remote servers
via a combination of portable hardware and software. [8]
Potential Benefits
Telecommuting offers benefits to communities, employers, and employees.
For communities, telecommuting can offer fuller employment (by increasing the employ-ability
of proximal or circumstantially marginalized groups, such as Work at home parents and
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caregivers, the disabled, retirees, and people living in remote areas), reduces traffic
congestion and traffic accidents, relieves the strain on transportation infrastructures, reduces
greenhouse gases, saves fuel, reduces energy use, improves disaster preparedness, and reduces
terrorism targets.
For companies, telecommuting expands the talent pool, reduce the spread of illness, reduces
costs, increases productivity, reduces their carbon footprint and energy usage, offers an
inexpensive method of complying with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA),
reduces turnover and absenteeism, and improves employee moral, offers an continuity of
operations strategy, improve their ability to handle business across multiple timezones, and
hasten their cultural adaptability. Full-time telework can save companies approximately
$20,000 per employee. [9]
For individuals, telecommuting, or more specifically, work from home arrangements, improves
work-life balance, reduces their carbon footprint and fuel usage, frees up the equivalent of 15
to 25 workdays a year--time they'd have otherwise spent commuting, and saves between $4,000
and $21,000 per year in travel and work-related costs (not including daycare). [10]
Environmental Benefits
Telecommuting gained more ground in the United States in 1996 after "the Clean Air Act
amendments were adopted with the expectation of reducing carbon dioxide and ground-level
ozone levels by 25 percent."[11] The act required companies with over 100 employees to
encourage car pools, public transportation, shortened workweeks, and telecommuting. In 2004,
an appropriations bill was enacted by Congress to encourage telecommuting for certain Federal
agencies. The bill threatened to withhold money from agencies that failed to provide
telecommuting options to all eligible employees.
If the 40% of the U.S. population that holds telework-compatible jobs worked from home half
of the time, - The nation would save 453 million barrels of oil (57% of Gulf oil imports) - The
environment would be saved the equivalent of taking 15 million cars permanently off the road.
- The energy potential from the gas savings would total more than twice what the U.S.
currently produces from all renewable energy source combined. [12]
Employee Satisfaction
Telework flexibility is a desirable perquisite for employees. A 2008 Robert Half International
Financial Hiring Index, a survey of 1,400 CFOs by recruitment firm Robert Half International,
indicated that 13% consider telework the best recruiting incentive today for accounting
professionals.[13] In earlier surveys, 33% considered telework the best recruiting incentive, and
half considered it second best.[14]
Decision support system

Decision support systems constitute a class of computer-based information systems including
knowledge-based systems that support decision-making activities.
Overview
A Decision Support System (DSS) is a class of information systems (including but not limited to
computerized systems) that support business and organizational decision-making activities. A
properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision
makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal
knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.
Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present are:
an inventory of all of your current information assets (including legacy and relational
data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts),
comparative sales figures between one week and the next,
projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions.
DSS components may be classified as:
1. Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze
2. User Knowledge and Expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the user
3. Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated
4. Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria
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Benefits of DSS
1. Improves personal efficiency
2. Expedites problem solving (speed up the progress of problems solving in an
organization)
3. Facilitates interpersonal communication
4. Promotes learning or training
5. Increases organizational control
6. Generates new evidence in support of a decision
7. Creates a competitive advantage over competition
8. Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker
9. Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space
10. Helps automate the managerial processes.
Electronic Data Interchange

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) refers to the structured transmission of data between
organizations by electronic means. It is used to transfer electronic documents from one
computer system to another, i.e. from one trading partner to another trading partner. It is
more than mere E-mail; for instance, organizations might replace bills of lading and even
Cheque with appropriate EDI messages. It also refers specifically to a family of standards,
including the X12 series. However, EDI also exhibits its pre-Internet roots, and the standards
tend to focus on ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)-formatted single
messages rather than the whole sequence of conditions and exchanges that make up an interorganization business process.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology in a 1996 publication [1] defines Electronic
Data Interchange as "the computer-to-computer interchange of strictly formatted messages
that represent documents other than monetary instruments. EDI implies a sequence of
messages between two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient. The
formatted data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient via
telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media.". It goes on further
to say that "In EDI, the usual processing of received messages is by computer only. Human
intervention in the processing of a received message is typically intended only for error
conditions, for quality review, and for special situations. For example, the transmission of
binary or textual data is not EDI as defined here unless the data are treated as one or more
data elements of an EDI message and are not normally intended for human interpretation
as part of online data processing." [1]
EDI can be formally defined as 'The transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards,
from one computer system to another without human intervention'. Most other definitions used
are variations on this theme. Even in this era of technologies such as XML web services, the
Internet and the World Wide Web, EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of
electronic commerce transactions in the world.
Advantages of using EDI over paper systems
EDI and other similar technologies save a company money by providing an alternative to, or
replacing information flows that require a great deal of human interaction and materials such
as paper documents, meetings, faxes, etc. Even when paper documents are maintained in
parallel with EDI exchange, e.g. printed shipping manifests, electronic exchange and the use of
data from that exchange reduces the handling costs of sorting, distributing, organizing, and
searching paper documents. EDI and similar technologies allow a company to take advantage of
the benefits of storing and manipulating data electronically without the cost of manual entry.
Another advantage of EDI is reduced errors, such as shipping and billing errors, because EDI
eliminates the need to rekey documents on the destination side. One very important advantage
of EDI over paper documents is the speed in which the trading partner receives and
incorporates the information into their system thus greatly reducing cycle times. For this
reason, EDI can be an important component of just-in-time production systems.
Bulletin board system
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Electronic bulletin boards (also known as message boards or computer forums) are
communication systems online where one can share, request, or discuss information on just
about any topic. While e-mail is a way to converse privately with one or more people over the
Internet, electronic bulletin boards are totally public. Any message posted on one can be read
(and responded to) by anyone else in the world who has access to the Internet or the particular
online service that is providing the message board. A large collection of electronic bulletin
boards is known as a newsgroup. Thousands of newsgroups exist on the World Wide Web, each
dedicated to a single topic, making it easier for one to navigate through the information
contained on it.
Electronic bulletin boards operate in a very simple manner. Any person can start a discussion on
a particular topic and then wait for replies. These lines of discussion are known as threads.
Some threads can go on endlessly, while other posts run the risk of getting no replies at all. The
longer threads tend to find people responding to not only the original post, but to the
subsequent replies as well. This can often lead to some confusion, since later posts in longer
threads often have nothing to do with the original subject.
The main advantage of electronic bulletin boards is the fact that they are so public. Because of
their accessibility, they give users the opportunity to get information from a huge number of
sources, each with the possibility of a unique, original, and even global perspective. There are
several disadvantages to electronic bulletin boards as well. Since they are so public and often
unedited, they are almost like an open invitation for troublemakers whose sole intention seems
to be to stir things up. The proliferation of unwanted ads (also known as spamming) is another
problem for computer forums. Some online providers like AOL have board hosts whose sole job
is to keep the peace and weed out irritating posts and threads. Also, most electronic bulletin
boards do not keep an archive of each thread and post. Some may disappear over a period of
time as
A Bulletin Board System, or BBS, is a computer system running software that allows users
to connect and log in to the system using a terminal program. Once logged in, a user can
perform functions such as uploading and downloading software and data, reading news and
bulletins, and exchanging messages with other users, either through electronic mail or in public
message boards. Many BBSes also offer on-line games, in which users can compete with each
other, and BBSes with multiple phone lines often provide chat rooms, allowing users to interact
with each other.
Originally BBSes were accessed only over a phone line using a modem, but by the early 1990s
some BBSes allowed access via a Telnet, packet switched network, or packet radio connection.
The term "Bulletin Board System" itself is a reference to the traditional cork-and-pin bulletin
board often found in entrances of supermarkets, schools, libraries or other public areas where
people can post messages, advertisements, or community news.
During their heyday from the late 1970s to the mid 1990s, most BBSes were run as a hobby free
of charge by the system operator (or "SysOp"), while other BBSes charged their users a
subscription fee for access, or were operated by a business as a means of supporting their
customers. Bulletin Board Systems were in many ways a precursor to the modern form of the
World Wide Web and other aspects of the Internet.
Early BBSes were often a local phenomenon, as one had to dial into a BBS with a phone line and
would have to pay additional long distance charges for a BBS out of the local calling area. Thus,
many users of a given BBS usually lived in the same area, and activities such as BBS Meets or
Get Togethers, where everyone from the board would gather and meet face to face, were
common.
As the use of the Internet became more widespread in the mid to late 1990s, traditional BBSes
rapidly faded in popularity. Today, Internet forums occupy much of the same social and
technological space as BBSes did, and the term BBS is often used to refer to any online forum
or message board.
Although BBSing survives only as a niche hobby in most parts of the world, it is still an
extremely popular form of communication for Taiwanese youth (see PTT Bulletin Board
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System). Most BBSes are now accessible over telnet and typically offer free email accounts,
FTP services, IRC chat and all of the protocols commonly used on the Internet.
to make the move to the Internet and provide commercial products with BBS capabilities.
Features
A classic BBS had:
A computer
One or more modems
One or more phone lines
A BBS software package
A sysop - system operator
An user community
The BBS software usually provides:
Menu Systems
One or more message bases
File areas
Voting Booths
Statistics on Message Posters, Top Uploaders / Downloaders
Online games (usually single player or only a single active player at a given time)
A doorway to third-party online games
Usage auditing capabilities
Multi-user chat (only possible on multi-line BBSes)
Internet email (more common in later Internet-connected BBSes)
Networked message boards setup by the SysOp
Most modern BBSes allow telnet access over the Internet using a telnet server and a
virtual FOSSIL driver.
A "yell for sysop" feature that would make the BBS computer emit an audible noise so
that if the SysOp was near the computer and chose to respond, he or she could join a
remote user in text-to-text chat.
Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing means meeting through a telecommunications medium. It is a

generic term for linking people between two or more locations by electronics.
There are at least six types of teleconferencing: audio, audiographic, computer,
video, business television (BTV), and distance education. The methods used
differ in the technology, but common factors contribute to the shared definition of
teleconferencing:
o
o
o
o
Use a telecommunications channel

Link people at multiple locations
Interactive to provide two-way communications
Dynamic to require users' active participation
What is a teleconference?
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A teleconference is a telephone or video meeting between participants in two or

more locations. Teleconferences are similar to telephone calls, but they can expand
discussion to more than two people. Using teleconferencing in a planning process,
members of a group can all participate in a conference with agency staff people.
Teleconferencing uses communications network technology to connect participants
voices. In many cases, speaker telephones are used for conference calls among the
participants. A two-way radio system can also be used. In some remote areas, satellite
enhancement of connections is desirable.
Video conferencing can transmit pictures as well as voices through video cameras
and computer modems. Video conferencing technology is developing rapidly,
capitalizing on the increasingly powerful capabilities of computers and
telecommunications networks. Video conferencing centers and equipment are available
for rent in many locations.
Interactive Technologies
The new systems have varying degrees of interactivity - the capability to talk back to the user.
They are enabling and satellites, computers, teletext, viewdata, cassettes, cable, and videodiscs
all fit the same emerging pattern. They provide ways for individuals to step out of the mass
audiences and take an active role in the process by which information is transmitted. The new
technologies are de-massified so that a special message can be exchanged with each individual
in a large audience. They are the opposite o mass media and shift control to the user.
Many are asynchronous and can send or receive a message at a time convenient for individuals
without being in communication at the same time. This overcomes time as a variable affecting
communication. A video, data and voice delivery system reduces travel costs. When the material
is retrieved and saved to a video tape or disc, the material can be used at anytime or anyplace.
As more interactive technologies emerge, the value of being an independent learner will increase.
Research shows that learning from new technologies is as effective as traditional methods. Large
groups are cost-effective and everyone gets the same information.
Types of Teleconferences
Audio Teleconference: Voice-only; sometimes called conference calling. Interactively links
people in remote locations via telephone lines. Audio bridges tie all lines together. Meetings can
be conducted via audio conference. Preplanning is necessary which includes naming a chair,
setting an agenda, and providing printed materials to participants ahead of time so that they can
be reviewed.
Distance learning can be conducted by audio conference. In fact, it is one of the most
underutilized, yet cost effective methods available to education. Instructors should receive
training on how to best utilize audio conferences to augment other forms of distance learning.
Audiographics Teleconference: Uses narrowband telecommunications channels to transmit
visual information such as graphics, alpha-numerics, documents, and video pictures as an
adjunct to voice communication. Other terms are desk-top computer conferencing and enhanced
audio. Devices include electronic tablets/boards, freeze-frame video terminals, integrated
graphics systems (as part of personal computers), Fax, remote-access microfiche and slide
projectors, optical graphic scanners, and voice/data terminals.
Audiographics can be used for meetings and distance learning.
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Computer Teleconference: Uses telephone lines to connect two or more computers and
modems. Anything that can be done on a computer can be sent over the lines. It can be
synchronous or asynchronous. An example of an asychronous mode is electronic mail. Using
electronic mail (E-Mail), memos, reports, updates, newsletters can be sent to anyone on the local
area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Items generated on computer which are
normally printed and then sent by facsimile can be sent by E-Mail.
Computer conferencing is an emerging area for distance education. Some institutions offer credit
programs completely by computer. Students receive texts and workbooks via mail. Through
common files assigned to a class which each student can assess, teachers upload syllabi,
lectures, grades and remarks. Students download these files, compose their assignment and
remarks off-line, then upload them to the common files.
Students and instructors are usually required to log on for a prescribed number of days during the
week. Interaction is a large component of the students' grades.
Through computers, faculty, students and administrators have easy access to one another as well
as access to database resources provided through libraries. The academic resources of libraries
and special resources can be accessed such as OCLC, ERIC, and Internet.
Administrators can access student files, retrieve institutional information from central repositories
such as district or system offices, government agencies, or communicate with one another. Other
resources can be created such as updates on state or federal legislation.
Video Teleconference: Combines audio and video to provide voice communications and video
images. Can be one-way video/two-way audio, or two-way video/two-way audio. It can display
anything that can be captured by a TV camera. The advantage is the capability to display moving
images. In two-way audio/video systems, a common application is to show people which creates
a social presence that resembles face-to-face meetings and classes and enables participants to
see the facial expressions and physical demeanor of participants at remote sites. Graphics are
used to enhance understanding. There are three basic systems: freeze frame, compressed, and
full-motion video.
Video conferencing is an effective way to use one teacher who teaches to a number of sites. It is
very cost effective for classes which may have a small number of students enrolled at each site.
In many cases, video conferencing enables the institution or a group of institutions to provide
courses which would be canceled due to low enrollment or which could not be supported
otherwise because of the cost of providing an instructor in an unusual subject area. Rural areas
benefit particularly from classes provided through video conferencing when they work with a
larger metropolitan institution that has full-time faculty.
Through teleconferencing, institutions are able to serve all students equitably.
Why Use a Teleconference?

Videoconferencing increases efficiency and results in a more profitable use of limited resources. It
is a very personal medium for human issues where face-to-face communications are necessary.
When you can see and hear the person you are talking to on a television monitor, they respond
as though you were in the same room together. It is an effective alternative to travel which can
easily add up to weeks of non-productive time each year. With videoconferencing, you never
have to leave the office. Documents are available, and experts can be on hand. A crisis that might
take on major proportions if you are out of town, can be handled because you're on the job.
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Videoconferencing maximizes efficiency because it provides a way to meet with several groups in
different locations, at the same time.
As the limited resource of funding has decreased, limited resources now include instructors,
parking spaces and buildings. Students now include time as a limited resources.
Teleconferencing enables institutions to share facilities and instructors which will increase our
ability to serve students.
Move Information - Not People

Electronic delivery is more efficient than physically moving people to a site, whether it is a faculty
member or administrator.
Save Time: Content presented by one or many sources is received in many places
simultaneously and instantly. Travel is reduced resulting in more productive time. Communication
is improved and meetings are more efficient. It adds a competitive edge that face-to-face
meetings do not.
Lower Costs: Costs (travel, meals, lodging) are reduced by keeping employees in the office,
speeding up product development cycles, improving performance through frequent meetings with
timely information.
Accessible: Through any origination site in the world. Larger Audiences: More people can attend.
The larger the audience, the lower the cost per person.
Larger Audiences: More people can attend. The larger the audience, the lower cost per person.
Adaptable: Useful for business, associations, hospitals, and institutions to discuss, inform, train,
educate or present.
Flexible: With a remote receive or transmit truck, a transmit or receive site can be located
anywhere.
Security: Signals can be encrypted (scrambled) when it is necessary. Encryption prevents
outside viewers.
Unity: Provides a shared sense of identity. People feel more a part of the group...more often.
Individuals or groups at multiple locations can be linked frequently.
Timely: For time-critical information, sites can be linked quickly. An audio or point-to-point
teleconference can be convened in three minutes.
Interactive: Dynamic; requires the user's active participation. It enhances personal
communication. When used well for learning, the interactivity will enhance the learning and the
teaching experience.
TELECONFERENCING
Why is it useful?
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1) Teleconferencing reaches large or sparsely-populated areas. It offers opportunities

for people in outlying regions to participate. People participate either from home or
from a local teleconferencing center. In Alaska, where winter weather and long
distances between municipalities serve as roadblocks to public meetings, the State
legislature has developed the Legislative Telecommunication Network (LTN). As an
audio teleconference system, LTN can receive legislative testimony from residents or
hold meetings with constituents during "electronic office hours." Although its main
center is in the capitol building, it has 28 full-time conference centers and 26 voluntary
conference centers in homes or offices of people who store and operate equipment for
other local people. The system averages three teleconferences per day when the
legislature is in session.
2) Teleconferencing provides broader access to public meetings, as well as widening
the reach of public involvement. It gives additional opportunities for participants to
relate to agency staff and to each other while discussing issues and concerns from
physically separate locations. It enables people in many different locations to receive
information first-hand and simultaneously. (See Public Meetings/Hearings.)
3) A wider group of participants means a broader range of ideas and points of view.
Audio interaction makes dialogue more lively, personal, and interesting.
Teleconferencing provides an immediate response to concerns or issues. It enables
people with disabilities, parents with childcare conflicts, the elderly, and others to
participate without having to travel. (See Americans with Disabilities.) In response to
requests from residents in remote rural areas, the Oregon Department of
Transportation (DOT) held two-way video teleconferences for its statewide
Transportation Improvement Plan update. Two special meetings were broadcast by a
private non-profit organization that operates ED-NET, a two-way teleconferencing
system. ED-NET provided a teleconference among staff members in one of the DOTs
five regional offices and participants at central transmission facilities in a hospital and
a community college in eastern Oregon.
4) Teleconferencing saves an agency time and travel costs. Without leaving their home
office, staff members can have effective meetings that reach several people who might
not otherwise be able to come together. Teleconferencing reduces the need for
holding several meetings in differ ent geographic areas, thereby decreasing public
involvement costs, particularly staff time and travel. Teleconferencing often enables
senior officials to interact with local residents when such an opportunity would not
exist otherwise, due to distance and schedule concerns.
5) Teleconferencing saves people money. It saves travel time, transportation cost,
babysitter fees, and lost work time. New York Citys Minerva Apartment Towers set up a
closed-circuit teleconference transmission between two apartment buildings for
residents to discuss issues within their site. Residents wishing to speak went to a room
in their own building to make comments over a link-up between the apartment
buildings.
6) Teleconferencing saves time by reaching more people with fewer meetings. A
teleconference may reach more people in one session than in several sessions held in
the field over several weeks. Usually, it is difficult to schedule more than two or three
public meetings in the field within one week, due to staff commitments and other
considerations. However, teleconference connections to several remote locations save
several days or weeks of agency time and facilitate a fast-track schedule.
Does it have special uses?
1) Teleconferencing is useful when an issue is State- or region wide. The World Bank
uses moderated electronic conferences to identify best public involvement practices
from front-line staff. The discussion focuses around fleshing out and sharing ideas so
that practitioners in different locations can learn from the experiences of others
around the world.
2) Teleconferencing helps increase the number of participants. People may be
reluctant to travel to a meeting because of weather conditions, poor highway or transit
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access, neighborhood safety concerns, or other problems. Teleconferencing offers

equal opportunity for people to participate, thus allowing more points of view to
emerge, revealing areas of disagreement, and enabling people to exchange views and
ask questions freely.
3) Teleconferencing is used for training. It opens up training hours and availability of
courses for people unable to take specialized classes because of time constraints and
travel costs. The National Transit Institute held a nationally broadcast session
answering questions about require ments for Federal major investment studies (MIS).
Over 1,700 people met at 89 teleconferencing sites to participate in the meeting.
Feedback from participants was overwhelmingly in favor of the usefulness and
practicality of the session.
4) Teleconferencing is used for networking among transportation professionals on
public involvement and other topics. North Carolina State University sponsored a
national teleconference on technologies for transportation describing applications of
three- and four-dimensional computer graphics technologies. They have been found
helpful in facilitating public involvement and environmental analysis.
Video conferencing needs are more complex. Basic equipment can involve:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Personal computers;
A main computer control system;
Special microphones
One or more dedicated telephone lines or a satellite hook-up;
A television or computer monitor for each participant or group of participants; and
A video camera for each participant or group of participants.
What are the drawbacks?

1. Teleconferences are somewhat formal events that need prior planning for maximum
usefulness. Although they require pre-planning and careful timing, teleconferences are
conducted informally to encourage participation and the exchange of ideas.
2. A large number of people is difficult to manage in a single teleconference, with
individuals attempting to interact and present their points of view. One-on-one dialogue
with a few people is usually preferable. Widely divergent topics are also difficult to handle
with a large number of people participating in a teleconference.
3. Costs can be high. Costs are incurred in equipment, varying sites for connections,
transmission, and moderator training. Substantial agency staff time to coordinate and lead
is likely.
4. Teleconferences take time to organize. Establishing technical links, identifying sites and
constituencies, and coordinating meetings can be time-consuming. Materials need to be
prepared and disseminated. However, teleconferencing saves time by being more
efficient than in-person meetings, and the savings may offset staff efforts and other costs.
5. Staffing needs can be significant. Personnel such as technicians and agency staff to set
up and coordinate meetings are required. Training to conduct a conference is necessary.
However, staff time and resources may be significantly less than if personnel have to
travel to several meetings at distant locations.
6. Community people are alienated if a meeting is poorly implemented or if anticipated
goals are not met. People need to be assured that the project and planning staff is
mindful of their concerns. Technical and management difficulties, such as poor
coordination between speakers or people being misunderstood or not heard, result in bad
feelings.
7. Teleconferencing reduces opportunities for face-to-face contact between participants
and proponents of plans or projects. It cannot replace a desirable contact at individual
meetings between stakeholders and agency staff in local sites. Effective public
involvement includes meetings in the community to obtain a feel for the local population
and issues. (See Public Meetings/Hearings; Non-traditional Meeting Places and Events.) A
teleconference supplements rather than replaces direct contact with local residents and
neighborhoods. Video conferencing, by contrast, enhances opportunities for face-to-face
exchange.
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8. The goals of a teleconference must be clear and manageable to avoid a potential

perception of wasted time or frivolous expenditures.
.
When is it used most effectively?
1) Teleconferencing is effective when participants have difficulty attending a meeting.
This occurs when people are widely dispersed geographically and cannot readily meet
with agency staff. Teleconferencing also serves people with disabilities, the elderly,
and others who may have difficulties with mobility. (See Americans with Disabilities.)
2) Teleconferencing is effective when it focuses on specific action items that deserve
comment. Teleconferences aid in prioritizing issues and discussing immediate action
items. Detailed, wide-ranging discussions may be more properly handled with written
materials and in-person interaction.
3) Teleconferencing helps give all participants an equal footing in planning and project
development. Teleconferences overcome geographic dispersal and weather problems to
aid contact with agency staff.
Tele text
Fax
Data service transmitted on TV lines not used for picture information, either utilising
spare capacity or instead of video information.
An over-the-air system for the transmission of text and simple graphics onto a
television screen (ie, a video newspaper). It utilizes the unused portion of the
broadcast scanning bar and requires a decoder. Teletext is essentially a one-way
system. By using a special keypad provided to the household, however, the user may
select specific pages to be seen.
Teletext is an information retrieval service provided by television broadcast companies.
Teletext pages can be viewed on television sets with suitable decoders. They offer a
range of text-based information, usually including national, international and sporting
news, weather and TV schedules. Subtitle (or closed caption) information is also
transmitted in the teletext signal.
A telecopying device that electronically transmits written or graphic material over

telephone lines to produce "hard copy" at a remote location.
abbr. Facsimile - a method of sending graphical data down a serial communication
system (usually a telephone line) that involves (conventionally) scanning a document at
one end, transmitting the data via modulated tones and then reproducing the picture
at the other end on heat-sensitive paper - computers are now able to link directly to
fax modems to allow computer-generated graphics to be transmitted as if they came
from a conventional fax - similarly, a computer and fax modem can be used ...
Scanning
The process of translating photographs into a digital form that can be recognized by a
computer
Process of using an electronic input device to convert analog information from media
such as maps, photographs, or overlays into a digital format usable by a computer.
Scanning is much like making photocopies of a printed page. However, instead of
producing a paper reproduction (or photocopy), a scanner stores the information it
records about an image digitally on a computer. A scanner uses arrays of photo
electrically-sensitive charged coupling devices (CCDs) or photodiodes, which use the
same technique, to examine the area of a real-world image immediately in front of
them and send an electrical signal indicating the presence of black or white, or
colors. ...
Expert system
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A software system with two basic components: a knowledge base and an inference
engine. The system mimics an expert's reasoning process.
Computer with 'built-in' expertise, which, used by a non-expert in a particular subject
area, can evaluate or make other decisions concerning that subject.
Problem-solving and decision-making system based on knowledge of its task and logical
rules or procedures for using the knowledge. Both the knowledge and the logic are
codified from the experience of human specialists in the field (the domain experts).
Codification can take many forms, including rules, frames, or scripts. Examples in
meteorology include systems used for the interpretation of satellite imagery and for
fog and turbulence forecasting. See also knowledge-based system.
'Expert Systems'
these are software programs that are written to simulate or mimic a human's expertise
or intelligence in some field of knowledge.
Examples include: Medicine - you feed in your symptoms and get a diagnosis.
Route itineraries for delivery vehicles - you enter the start point and destination and
shortest route is calculated.
What are expert systems?
An expert system is a program, which attempts to mimic human expertise by applying inference
methods to a specific body of knowledge called the domain. Knowledge is different from data or
information in that data is passive. Knowledge on the other hand is active in that it can be used to
infer new information from what is already known about a problem. As will be seen later, this
domain knowledge is frequently represented as rules.
Artificial Intelligence Expert systems owe their origin to the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI).
One of the pioneers of AI, Dr. Marvin Minsky defined AI as "The field of study which is attempting to
build systems which if attempted by people would be considered intelligent". AI is a broad field,
with some of the application areas shown in the diagram below.
Is a computer program that attempts to replicate the performance of a human expert at

some specialized reasoning task?
Also known as knowledge-based systems, expert systems are able to store and
manipulate knowledge so that they can help a user to solve a problem or make a
decision.
The main features of expert systems are:

1) It is limited to a specific domain (area of expertise)
2) It is typically rule-based;
3) It can reason with uncertain data (the user can respond dont know to a question);
4) It delivers advice;
5) It explains its reasoning to the user.
An expert system has the following constituents:
1. The knowledge base that contains the facts and rules provided by a human expert;
2. Some means of using the knowledge (the computer program, commonly known as the inference
engine);
3. A means of communicating with the user (the human-computer interface).
Benefits of expert systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
An expert system can complete some tasks much faster than a human, for example performing
all the calculations required to estimate the costs of a construction project which will enable
an immediate response to be made to a client.
A reduction in the downtime of an expensive piece of equipment when an expert system is able
to quickly diagnose a fault.
The error rate in successful systems is often very low and may lower than that of a human being.
Recommendations will be consistent: given the same facts, the recommendation will always be
the same and completely impartial.
An expert system can capture the scarce expertise of a well-qualified professional who may
leave or retire, and can be used at locations where the human expert is not available say, for
geological surveys or medical expertise in remote areas.
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An expert system can be used as a repository for organizational knowledge the combined
knowledge of all the qualified experts in an organization which makes the organization les
dependent on individuals knowledge, which may be lost when they leave.
Expert systems can be useful for training employees.
Limitations of expert systems

1. Experts systems can make mistakes, just as humans do, but even a low error rate in
the diagnosis of a disease, for example, may cause people to mistrust a computer
system.
2. Expert systems do not learn from their mistakes new knowledge has to be
entered into the knowledge base as it becomes available.
3. It can be difficult to acquire all the required knowledge from the human experts in
order to build the expert system. Expert systems work best when the problem is
very well defined and the facts and rules associated with the problem can be
clearly stated.
4. The use of expert systems within an organization can result in a decline in the skill
level of some of the people using the systems. If a large part of the task is handled
by an expert system, employees may not acquire the experience or knowledge that
gives them a feel for the task.
5. Over-reliance on an expert system may stifle creative thinking and lead to the
advice delivered being slavishly followed. For example an expert system which
delivers advice on whether a client should be given a loan may come to a different
conclusion from a human adviser who can spot exceptional circumstances that the
expert system does not take into account.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Uses of expert systems
Medical diagnosis
Fault diagnosis of all kinds gas boilers, computers, power stations, railway locomotives. If your gas
boiler breaks down, the service engineer may well arrive with a laptop computer and type in all the
symptoms to arrive at a diagnosis, and then use the system to find out the exact part numbers of any
replacement parts required for your particular model of boiler.
Geological surveys, to find oil and mineral deposits.
Financial services, to predict stock market movements or to recommend an investment strategy.
Social services to calculate the benefits due to claimants.
Industrial uses such as the expert systems in construction.
Heuristics
Expert systems are considered as a branch of AI because the method of problem solving is predominantly based on
heuristics. This contrasts very much with the conventional programming paradigm that uses algorithms to solve
problems. An algorithm is a step by step procedure that solves a category of problems. For example, algorithms may
be used to process a company payroll. A typical algorithm would use a step by step procedure on the input data such
as employee hours worked, overtime rate and so on, to generate output in the form of payslips for employees. The
steps in this procedure involve direct manipulation of numeric data to produce information.
Heuristics, on the other hand, solve a problem by trial and error guided by some reference to a predetermined goal.
There are many examples that we may encounter in our daily lives. For example, a motorist searching a multistorey
car park for a parking space would not use an algorithm to find a space. There is no guarantee that whatever
procedure is adopted a parking space will be found. The motorist may for instance, drive to the top-level first rather
than searching each level in turn. Whilst this strategy may sound attractive there is no guarantee it will work: there
may be no more spaces on the top-level available. The motorist then may have to try a lower level.
Representing knowledge using rules
As we have already seen, expert systems differ from conventional programming in that they process knowledge rather
than data or information. This knowledge is frequently represented in a computer in the form of rules; they store the
'rules of thumb that guide the human expert. For example, a typical rule used by the MYCIN expert system is
IF the stain of the organism is gram negative
AND the morphology of the organism is rod
AND the aerobicity of the organism is anaerobic
THEN there is strongly suggestive evidence (0.8) that the class of the organism is Enterobacter iaceae.
The inference engine
The real forte of expert systems is their capacity to make inferences or the drawing of conclusions from premises.
This is precisely what makes an expert system intelligent. Even when it is possible to represent domain knowledge as
rules, a human expert would not only have to know how to apply these rules but in which order they should be applied
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to solve a particular problem. Similarly, a computer expert system would need to decide which, and in what order, the
rules should be selected for evaluation. To do this, an expert system uses an inference engine. This is a program that
interprets the rules in the knowledge base in order to draw conclusions. Two alternative strategies are available:
backward chaining and forward chaining. A particular inference engine may adopt either or both.
Explanation facilities
The ability to explain their reasoning processes are another key feature of expert systems. Such explanation facilities
provide the user with a means of understanding the system behaviour. This is important because a consultation with a
human expert will often require some explanation. Many people would not always accept the answers of an expert
without some form of justification. For example, a medical expert providing a diagnosis and treatment of a patient
would be expected to explain the reasoning behind his/her conclusions: the uncertain nature of this type of decision
may demand a detailed explanation so that the patient concerned is aware of any risks, alternative treatments, and so
on.
Current applications of expert systems
A survey conducted by Waterman in 1986 showed that the majority of applications of expert systems that were built in
the 1980's were in the field of medicine., Durkin suggested that expert systems in medicine still account for about 12%
of those under current developments, However, other useful problem areas are emerging which lend themselves well
to expert systems. These include: help desk systems, knowledge publishing, configuration and intelligent front-ends.
Knowledge Publishing
Knowledge Publishing is a growing application area of expert systems. The idea of knowledge publishing is
encapsulated in the concept of a book. A book is a passive object in that it awaits us to read the part of interest.
Knowledge Publishing delivers knowledge to the user actively, by providing what the user specifically requests. There
are examples in common use that are disguised; that is, working within other systems. An example is GRAM@TIK the
very popular grammar checker sold with WordPerfect software.
Help desk applications
Help desk systems are likely to be a key growth area in the future. Most help desk programs are expert system based
and growth in this market is predicted at 20% - 30% per annum. Large savings in time and costs can be achieved
because people increasingly turn to the telephone when they have a problem rather than read manuals. The Compaq
computer company now includes an online printer help desk program with all printers sold. The Quicksource program
includes 5000 cases of printer problems to help diagnose the printer fault and it is estimated that 20% fewer customers
are telephoning the company for support. This has resulted in substantial savings for the company as well as a better
service for it's customers.
Configuration
The configuration system XCON is one of the most well known expert systems in use today. It was built by DEC
corporation for turning customer orders into feasible VAX computer configurations. The system was completed in the
early 1980's. It has been an enormously successful application and was followed by other large computer companies.
Another new wave of configuration applications is beginning to emerge suited to 'mass customisation' applications.
Intelligent front-end processors
An Intelligent Front-End (IFE) is software which sits between a user and a conventional software program. An IFE uses
KBS or AI techniques to make more effective use of software packages. Classical examples are found in database
software. An IFE would provide an easier to use interface with the database for example, by permitting more flexible
user dialogue. The IFE would do this by gaining an understanding of the user's requirements, and then using this
specification to generate instructions for running the software package. The dialogue with the user will often be
interactive. The IFE may also use a variety of techniques, particularly when carrying out the dialogue with the user to
produce the specification of the user's problem.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH COMPUTER USE AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
Are Computers a Health Hazard?
The first thing to know is that the risks are not likely to affect you unless you are a "habitual" computer
user. In other words, you're sitting at the computer pretty much all day, every day. Oh yeah... that's all of
us! That's not to say that the occasional computer user won't have problems. Everyone's level of
sensitivity is unique.
The buzz started in the 80's and culminated in the 1992 Health and Safety DSE (Display Screen
Equipment) regulations. Then came Carpal-Tunnel Syndrome followed by ergonomics. The hype has
subsided, since we all know the computer isn't going to kill us - but we have learned a lot over the past 20
years about potential health risks and more importantly, we've learned ways to avoid being at risk when
we're using computers.
Let's look at some of the most common medical problems and what you can do to avoid them.
1. Eye Strain:
Position your terminal at right angles to the window if possible; avoid facing directly into bright
light (coming at you from behind your computer screen).
Install an anti-glare screen.
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Adjust the brightness controls on the screen until they are comfortable to your eyes.
2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome:
Adjust your chair or table height to have your elbow angle at 90-100 degrees.
Position your keyboard so that you don't have to bend your hands uncomfortably upward to reach
the keys; place a raised wrist rest on the table in front of the keyboard if necessary.
Clinch your fists, hold for one second, then stretch your fingers out wide and hold for 5 seconds.
Organize your workday, if possible, to intersperse other tasks with your computer work so that
you're not sitting at the computer for several hours without a break. Variety is key.
Hold the mouse loosely and click lightly.
3. Neck and Back Strain:
Check your posture - sit up straight. Thanks Mom.
The monitor screen surface should be approximately 18-24 inches away from your torso.
Preferably chairs should be on wheels, have backrest tilt adjustment, and have arms.
Be sure you have enough desktop space for work papers and other equipment.
4. Conjunctivitis (itchy, bloodshot eyes) and Dermatitis:
Be sure the screen doesn't flicker or wave - this could indicate that service or adjustment is
needed.
Look away from the screen periodically.
Don't forget to blink - your eyes need the moisture.

5. The vision disorder
Due to excessive computer use has been identified as Computer Vision Syndrome. Symptoms are dry
eyes, headaches, blurred vision, eyestrain, and shoulder back pain.
To alleviate the problem it is suggested that computer users take regular

breaks, blink their eyes frequently, occasionally close their eyes for a few
minutes and every fifteen minutes or so look away from the computer to
stare at an object in the distance.
6. For the back pain and other muscular related problems,
It is suggested that people get up every hour, stretch and move around for about five minutes. They
should also do an activity which moves each foot and leg.
A computer user should be seated at least two feet away from the screen
with the screen below eye level. Their chair should be comfortable and they
should sit up straight in the chair with feet firmly on the floor. They should
not cross their legs.
7. Posture-related injuries
Back and neck pain, headaches, and shoulder and arm pain are common computer-related injuries. Such
muscle and joint problems can be caused or made worse by poor workstation design, bad posture and
sitting for extended periods of time.
Although sitting requires less muscular effort, it still causes fatigue and requires parts of the body to be
held steady for long periods of time. This reduces circulation to the muscles, bones, tendons and
ligaments and can result in stiffness and pain. If a workstation is not set up properly, these steady
positions can put even greater stress on muscles and joints.
Prevention tips muscle and joint injuries
Suggestions to reduce the risk of muscle and joint problems include:
Use an adjustable desk designed for use with computers; position the monitor so that it is either
at eye level or slightly lower.
Position your keyboard at a height that allows your elbows to rest comfortably at your side.
Forearms should be roughly parallel with the floor and level with your keyboard.
Adjust your chair so that your feet rest flat on the floor.
Use a footstool (if your feet do not rest on the floor when the chair is adjusted for good arm
position).
Switch to an ergonomic chair, which helps your spine to naturally hold its curve while sitting.
Use an ergonomic keyboard to offer your hands and wrists a more natural holding position.
Take frequent short breaks and go for a walk or perform stretching exercises at your desk. Stand
often.
8. Overuse injuries of the upper limbs
Muscles and tendons can become painful with repetitive movements and awkward postures. This is known
as overuse injury and these typically occur in the elbow, wrist or hand of computer users. Symptoms of
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overuse injuries in the upper limbs include pain, swelling, stiffness of the joints, weakness and numbness.
Prevention tips overuse injuries
Suggestions to reduce the risk of overuse injuries include:
Keep your mouse at the same height as your correctly positioned keyboard.
Position the mouse as close as possible to the side of the keyboard.

Use your whole arm, not just your wrist, when using the mouse.
Type lightly and gently.
Mix your tasks to avoid long, uninterrupted stretches of typing.
Remove the hands from the keyboard when not actively typing, to allow the arms to relax.
9. Eyestrain
Focusing your eyes at the same distance point for extended periods of time causes fatigue. The human
eye structurally prefers to look at objects further than six metres away, so any work performed close-up
puts extra demands on the eye muscles.
The illuminated computer screen can also contribute to eye fatigue. While there is no evidence that eye
fatigue is associated with damage to the eyesight, computer users may experience symptoms such as
blurred vision, temporary inability to focus on faraway objects and headaches.
Prevention tips eyestrain
Suggestions to reduce the risk of eyestrain include:
Make sure your primary light source (such as a window) is not shining into your face or directly
onto the monitor.
Tilt the monitor slightly to eliminate reflections or glare.
Make sure your computer screen is not too close to your face.
Position the screen so that it is either at eye level or slightly lower.
Reduce the contrast and brightness of your screen by adjusting the controls on the monitor.
Frequently look away from the screen and focus on faraway objects.
Have regular eye examinations to check that blurring, headaches and other associated problems
are not caused by any underlying disorders.
Low Back pain
Usually due to using the wrong type of chair, these have been four legged chairs found in any office for
visitors, executive chairs where the back is not separate from the seat and therefore cannot be adjusted to
offer any lumbar support.
If the user has not taken any time to adjust the chair.
Sitting on the edge of the chair and leaning forward can also cause problems and this often happens when
there are arms on the chair which are not adjustable in height or when the user is short in stature, the arms
on the chair will not move low enough to allow the user to get close enough to the desk.
Sitting with the legs crossed causes uneven weight on each buttock and strain on back muscles.
I have seen a lot of problems caused by arms on chairs that cannot be raised or lowered and recommend that all
chairs are purchased without arms for this reason.
Poor desk configuration
If the screen is placed off to one side, the keyboard should still be positioned centrally to avoid twisting the torso,
often if the screen is off to one side, the user will support one elbow on the desk putting strain in the muscles of the
back.
If odd pieces of furniture are used to make up a workstation ensure that they are the same height. It is best to draw
your proposed desk layout before moving furniture.
Having a set of drawers that prevent sideways movement
The L shaped desk layout allows more space and freedom of movement if writing and keyboard activity is required but
when two desks are butted onto each other, one set of drawers can restrict movement. The set of drawers restricting
movement can be removed with a screwdriver.
Ideally desks should be purchased without drawers and then modular drawer units can be placed in convenient
locations.
Room temperature
If a room is too cold muscles can go into spasm and injury is more likely.
Dehydration
Many office workers drink too much tea and coffee, which has a diuretic action so water is the best choice. Remember
that offices with several computers can make the air feel very dry.
Overstretching
Items used most frequently should be positioned within easy reach
If the hard drive/midi tower is housed under the desk, muscles can be pulled when bending over to switch the
computer on.
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Pain in the neck

Pain in the neck is often caused by too much up and down or side-to-side movement of the neck, a solution is
to use a document holder at the same height as the screen or attached to the screen so that it is only
necessary to transfer the gaze.
(These can be purchased from Gaynor in the computer shop for approx 4.00 and are much cheaper than in
the Lyreco catalogue. You will need to complete a purchase order form for this product. (Approval for the
use of purchase order forms has been sought from Mike Montgomery.)
Sitting with the telephone receiver in you neck.
Using bifocals because the neck is bent backwards to focus on the screen. These people should speak to their
Optician about using a special pair of glasses for computer use or have their bifocal section on the glasses
made wider.
If the screen is too high. The head should be in the neutral position with the gaze at a slightly downward
angle when viewing the screen.
Not taking posture breaks
Posture breaks are important to prevent overuse of one group of muscles, break up periods of keying and mouse work
regularly. (See information sheet on posture breaks and wrist exercises)
Pressure on the wrists from a sharp edge on a desk
Some desks have a sharp edge, which can cause pressure on the wrists. If users are trained typists, they usually do not
rest their wrists whilst keying but most self taught keyboard users do, this causes pressure and increased risk of injury
if the user is also working with their wrists bent. A gel wrist rest can be used to provide a soft cushion for resting the
wrists in between periods of keying or mouse activity. Gel mouse mats are also available.
Painful wrists or fingers
Painful wrists or fingers often occur when the chair is not adjusted to the correct height to allow a perfect L
shape between the shoulder, elbow and wrist, if the wrists are bent up or down then the fingers are not
horizontal to the keys or the mouse, the clicking finger is not horizontal to the control mechanism and the
wrist is left unsupported.
Striking the keys too hard or excessive mouse use can also cause painful fingers or by not keeping the mouse
close enough to the body. Ideally a mouse should be used directly in front of the shoulder and as close to the
body as possible.
Dirty mice are not efficient and require more clicking therefore increasing your risk of overuse syndrome.
Research has shown that intensive use of the mouse is more likely to cause symptoms of overuse syndrome than
keyboard activity; you should consider keyboard shortcuts (These can be viewed on a separate page.)
Alternative mice
There are various alternative mice that relieve and prevent symptoms of overuse:
Optical mice are more efficient because they do not get dirty balls!
Cordless optical mice allow more freedom

Tracker balls offer an alternative movement but one could argue that you are just exchanging one repetitive
movement for another and transferring the strain from the fingers to the thumb.
Joystick mice often have thumb controls.
Beware of mice that are advertised as being ergonomic because they may not be. Some mice totally fill the
hand and can be uncomfortable for users with small hands.
Touch pads can be used in either hand and are ideal for people with one-handed symptoms because they can
be used in either hand; the same amount of dexterity is not required for operation.
The whale mouse is ideal for mouse intensive work and can open out to fit any hand.
There are numerous options on the market but it is better to try before you buy.
You may want to contact other members of staff on the intranet at UWB to see if someone has a different type of
mouse for you to try or you can contact the OHSU to see if there is a mouse for you to borrow for a short period so that
you can evaluate its effects on your symptoms
Pain in the buttocks
Pain in the buttocks radiating down the thigh can be caused by a chair seat that is too long and causing pressure behind
the knees or from inadequate lumbar support.
Pain in the shoulders
Pain in the shoulders can be caused by having arms on the chair that cannot be adjusted this causes the user
to sit with the arms sticking out.
Sitting at the desk with one elbow supported on the desk and the other held lower or twisting the torso to
look at the monitor will also cause pain.
Pain in the knees
Pain in the knees can be caused by the fact that when the chair has been adjusted to the correct height to
allow the fingers to be horizontal to the keys, the feet are left unsupported, the solution is to purchase a
footrest the small step type called (twin plus in the Lyreco catalogue are best because they do not take up
much space under the desk, they can be adjusted according to the height of the person using them.)
If transcription is carried out it is better to have a large surface area on the footrest and the ability to keep
this level to support the footswitch.
Pain in the knees can also be caused by a seat that is too long resulting in pressure behind the knees.
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Eye strain
Eyestrain can be caused by glare from the monitor or from overhead lights. Ideally the desk should be placed
between lights and not directly under them. If this is not possible you may be able to switch the overhead
light off and use an angle poise lamp.
Glare from windows without blinds or with incorrectly fitted blinds.
Where there are casement window at the top and blinds cannot be used there is often glare from the sun on
the screen. Some vertical blinds are not efficient and additional blackout roller blinds would improve
efficiency and keep the room cool. If blinds cannot be fitted it may be possible to fit a tinted transparent
film to the window.
Other solutions:
See the Optician about middle distance correction
Ask about a slight tinted coating to your glasses

Contact IT if there is any flicker on your screen
If your monitor is old and small (14inch CGA, VGA) it will have poor resolution and should be replaced with a
17inch SVGA or XGA.
Clean your screen
Adjust your contrast or brightness
Make sure that you are not too far away from the screen (correct viewing distance is 18-20 inches)
Remove the antiglare device. (These can cause problems focusing because you have to look thought it to see
your screen.)
Introduce regular task rotation to break up periods of keying.
Choosing the right chair
Tudor Jones in the Estates department will order chairs for you and will be able to advise on models that are
appropriate for computer use, by using this service you will also benefit from considerable cost savings.
If you use a computer you should order a chair that has a height adjustable back and preferably without arms as these
often cause poor posture. If you really cannot live without arms on your chair they should be totally height adjustable
(They do cost extra).
When you receive your new chair you should read the booklet that is usually attached so that you understand how all
the mechanisms work. There is usually a handle or knob to raise and lower the height of the seat and another to
enable a rocking action.
It is important to use the rocking action, as this will reduce static loading.
There will be a mechanism for raising and lowering the height of the backrest to ensure adequate lumbar support.
(Sometimes you need to release a tension knob at the back of the chair to allow for movement of the backrest.
.
WORD PROCESSING TERMINOLOGY
Most computers today come with a word processing program which allows the user to
write text documents like letters, business correspondence, and even books. The first step
in learning how to use a word processor is to understand the terminology that is unique to
word processing programs. Here are a few basic terms that will help.
1. Typeface
A typeface defines the shape of the characters. Some common typefaces are Times New
Roman, Arial, and Courier. If you look closely, you will see that the letters in each of these
are shaped differently, some narrower, some rounder.
2. Font
A font is collection of letters and numbers in a particular typeface. The font includes the
typeface plus other qualities, such as size, pitch, and spacing. For instance, within the
Times Roman family, there are many fonts to choose from, including different sizes, italic,
and bold. If you are working in a word processing program, the font might be Times New
Roman, 10 point, bold. Changing the font can completely change the look and feel of a
Web page or document.
3. Format
In a word processing program, you can format any text that you create. Formatting
involves specifying the font, alignment, margins, and other properties. The format is the
layout of a document. The format determines how the document will appear on the screen
and how it will look when printed.
4. Alignment
The alignment refers to the way lines of text are arranged relative to the edges of a block
of text. For example, the text can be flush with the left side of the document (left
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aligned), flush with the right side of the document (right aligned), or centered horizontally
on the document (centered). There is also an alignment option called justified. In text that
is justified both the right and left sides of the text will appear to line up evenly.
5. Tab
The tab function in a word processor works much like the tab function on a typewriter. Tab
stops can be set in the ruler at the top of the page. When the tab key is pressed, the cursor
will move to the next tab location. This allows the user to indent paragraphs and lists.
6. Margins
Margins are the blank space to the left and right sides and at the top and bottom of a page.
The size of the margins can be increased or decreased. In Microsoft Word, this is done by
choosing File-Page Setup and changing the numbers on the Margin tab.
7. Header/Footer
The header is one or more lines of text that appear at the top of every page of a
document. The header often includes information like names and titles. The footer consists
of one or more lines of text that appear at the bottom of every page of a document. The
footer often includes the page number.
8. Line Spacing
Line Spacing refers to the number of blank spaces between lines of type. The most common
line spacings are single-spaced and double-spaced, but the line spacing in a word processor
can be set to almost any amount of line spacing.
9. Word Wrap
Word wrap is a word processing feature that permits information to be keyed on
successive lines without having to tap the return/enter key at the end of each line.
10. Table
A collection of data arranged in rows and columns. Tables are commonly used in word
processing programs. They are also used in spreadsheets and database programs.
11. Spell/Grammar Check
Word processing programs contain a spell check program which can verify the correct
spelling of words in a document. In some programs you will click on a menu choice or an
icon to start the spell checking. Some programs will automatically check your spelling as
you go, inserting a squiggly red line under words that may be misspelled. Grammar
checking works in much the same way with the program inserting a squiggly green line
under words that may be grammatically incorrect. Remember the spell check and grammar
checking are not foolproof. A word may pass both checks and still be incorrect.
12. Indent
An indent is one or more spaces that are used to move the text to the right of the left
margin.
13. Ruler
In a word processor, you can use the ruler to set the indent, margin and tab markers and
this can allow complex formatting options. Never use the space bar and return key to align
text.
14. Template
Templates establish the initial document setting and formats. A word processing program
like Microsoft Word uses the "normal" template as the basis for all documents. A user can
modify the "normal" document, and/or may create other templates to use.
15. Bullets & Numbering
A word processing program can automatically add bullets and/or numbers to the text.
16. Print Preview
This is a very useful feature. Click on the menu choice or icon for a Print Preview and you
will be shown an image of exactly what the printed output will look like.
17. Spelling checker
o A companion application that you use with a word-processing application to
check for misspelled words.
o A word processing function which searches for and corrects misspellings by
comparing a document's words with those in a built-in spelling dictionary.
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18. Macros
o A series of commands and instruction that you group together as a single command to
accomplish a task automatically. Instead of performing a series of time consuming
repetitive actions in MS WORD you can create and run a single macro.
19. Alignment
Alignment refers to the position of lines in a paragraph in relation to the document s left and right
margins; i.e., whether they are left-aligned, centered, right-aligned, or justified (evenly spaced).
20. AutoCorrect
AutoCorrect continuously checks your document for misspelled and unrecognized words and for
grammar errors. Right-click a word with a wavy red or green line beneath it to see a menu of
alternatives.
21. AutoFit
Use the AutoFit command to format each column to the width of the widest entry in that column.
22. AutoFormat
AutoFormat is a feature that automatically changes text as you type. AutoFormat includes such
formatting as numbered and bulleted lists, borders, capitalization, and common spelling errors.
23. BACKSPACE
The [BACKSPACE] key on the keyboard is most often used to delete data to the left of the insertion
point.
24. Bold
Bold characters appear on the screen in a higher intensity or in a different color than surrounding text.
Bold characters on the printed page appear as darker characters or makes them appear "fatter." Bold
should be used for emphasis, but like all formatting characteristics, should be used sparingly.
25. Borders
Borders are boxes that are placed around text, pages, and tables. Borders add emphasis or decoration
to the enclosed data, and they can be in any number of formats.
26. Bullets
Bullets are special characters or symbols that are used to set off a paragraph. Typically, each bulleted
paragraph is an item in a list, and it consists of the bullet symbol and indenting to set the bullet apart
from the text
27. Center
With center alignment, each line of a paragraph is centered between the left and right margins or
indents.
28. Centering
Centering is the placement of a line of text in the center of the screen or page where the left-most
and right-most characters in the line are the same distance from the left and right margins.
29. Click-anddrag
To click-and-drag, press the left mouse button and keep it down while you move the mouse on the
mouse pad.
30.
Dictionary
Word uses two kinds of dictionaries in tandem: a main dictionary and a custom dictionary. The main
dictionary cannot be altered. You can add words to your custom dictionary.
Alignment
31. Drag-and-
Drag-and-drop is a feature that allows you to move or copy information without using the Windows
Clipboard. To use it, you simply drag a selected item from one location to another. It is best used for
moving or copying small items short distances.
32. Folder
A folder is an area on the disk that can contain files and subfolders that are usually related by type,
purpose, or application.
33. Font
A font is a style and size of type, such as Times New Roman, 12 point, bold. A font is a set of all the
characters available in one typeface and size, including uppercase and lowercase letters, punctuation,
and numerals
drop
34. Font
Formatting
Font Formatting changes the appearance of the text. Font formatting includes enhancements such as
font style (bolding, centering, and underlining), point size (12 pt), and font typeface (Times New
Roman, Arial, and Courier).
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35. Frame
A frame is a container for text and graphics that can be placed anywhere within a document, including
the margins, and which forces existing text to wrap around it.
36. Hard Return
You can force Word to end a paragraph and move to the next line by pressing [ENTER]. When you press
[ENTER], you insert a hard return.
37. Header
A header is the contents of an area located within the top margin of a page.
38. Footer
A footer is the contents of an area located within the bottom margin of a page
39. Indentation
An indentation is an amount of space measured from the page margin that is applied to a paragraph or
an area of a document.
40. Italic
Italic characters appear on the screen slightly tilted to the right. Italics is usually used to provide
special emphasis to text.
41. Justification
Justification determines how lines and characters within those lines are printed. With full justification,
all lines start at the left margin and end at the right margin.
42. Justified
With justified alignment, all but the last line of a paragraph is aligned with both the left and right
margins or indents. To accomplish this, Word adjusts the spacing between words, which can result in
uneven and "loose" spacing.
43. Left
Left alignment is Word's default alignment for body text. The left side of the paragraph is aligned with
the left margin or indent, and the right side is "ragged."
44. Left
Left-justified text starts at the left margin and wraps all text at the right margin to form a ragged
appearance.
Alignment
Alignment
Justification
45. Line Spacing
Line spacing refers to the number of lines used by each line of text. In single-line spacing, each line of
text is followed by another line of text, and there are no blank lines in between. In double-line
spacing, each line of text is followed by a blank line.
46. Mail Merge
Mail Merge refers to the process of combining a data source, and a main document to produce a unique
output.
47. Margin
The margin is the amount of blank space, usually measured in inches or characters, above and below
and to the right and left of the main body of a document.
48. Margins
Margins are the areas that border the printed portion of a page along its top, sides, and bottom.
49. Menu Bar
The menu bar contains the names of Word's menus and is used to navigate through their commands.
50. Merge Cells
Use the Merge Cells command on the Table menu to combine selected cells in a row. This results in a
single cell with the combined width of the original cells.
51. Merge Field
A merge field is a placeholder inserted into a main document that instructs Word where to put
information that comes from a data source during a mail merge.
52. Mouse
A mouse pointer is a screen element that corresponds to the spot where you are rolling the mouse. The
mouse pointer can change depending on the current action.
53. Non-printing
Non-printing characters are those elements that can be seen in the document area of the screen, but
that cannot be printed; e.g., paragraph marks, spaces, tabs, and gridlines.
54. Normal Style
Normal style refers to the default text style that Word uses as a basis for defining all other styles.
Pointer
Characters
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55. Normal View
Normal View is Word's default document view and is the most practical view for performing such
routine functions as typing, editing, and formatting.
56. Office
The Office Assistant gives you tips as you work, and it can be used to get help about Word.
Assistant
57. Online Layout View
Online Layout View is better for viewing documents on-screen. It shows the document map which makes it easy to
move around in the document.
58. Outline View
Outline View provides a structured view of the document, arranging its contents according to heading levels and
opening the Outlining toolbar for modifying the document's organization.
59. Page Layout View
Page Layout View shows the document's margins, headers and footers, frames, and other elements, thus providing
a more accurate representation of what a document will look like when it is printed.
60. Paragraph
A paragraph in Word begins where you start typing, and it ends where you press [ENTER].
61. Paragraph Formatting
Paragraph formatting includes formatting options such as text alignment, indents, tabs, margins, and justification.
62. Pop-up Window
When you click a dotted-line hot spot, a separate window "pops up" on your screen. When you are done reading
the information in the pop-up window, you can click anywhere to close it.
63. Print Preview
Print Preview in Word allows you to see how your document will look on the page before it is printed.
64. Print Range
The Print range area allows you to specify parts of the document to print. The All option prints the entire
document. The Current page option prints the page where the insertion point is located. The Pages option allows
you to specify which pages to print by typing their page numbers.
65. Right Alignment
With right alignment, the right side of the paragraph is aligned with the right margin or indent, and the left side is
"ragged."
66. Save As
Use the Save As command on the File menu to open the Save As dialog box if you want to save the current
document under a new name or store it in a different folder or disk while also keeping the original version.
67. Save As Dialog Box
Use the Save As dialog box to save the current document for the first time, save the current document under a
different name, or save the current document in a different folder or on a different disk.
68. Scroll Bar
The scroll bar is a panel for moving the display horizontally or vertically within a window.
69. Scroll Bar Arrows
The scroll bar arrows, located at the ends of the scroll bars, may be clicked to slowly move the view within a
window up, down, or across.
70. Scroll Box
The scroll box is the box within a window's horizontal or vertical scroll bar that indicates your position within the
window. Use it to navigate windows horizontally and vertically in very large increments by clicking-and-dragging
them along the scroll bar.
71. Scrolling
Scrolling is the act of moving up and down (vertical scrolling) or across a window (horizontal scrolling) using the
scroll bars, the scroll arrows, or the scroll boxes.
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72. Selecting
Selecting is highlighting an object or data in order to perform a command or operation.
73. Selection Bar
The selection bar is an unmarked area in the left margin of a document that allows for easy data selection. When
you click within the selection bar, you select the line directly to the right of the mouse pointer.
74. Soft Return
When text is wrapped to the next line, Word enters a soft return at the end of the first line.
75. Spelling And Grammar Dialog Box
Use the Spelling and Grammar dialog box to fix spelling or grammar errors or to add words to the spelling
dictionary.
76. Spacing
Spacing refers to the space above and below a paragraph. Spacing is measured in points.
77. Spelling And Grammar Options
Set the grammar and spelling rules on the Spelling and Grammar card in the Options dialog box.
78. Standard Toolbar
Located under the menu bar, the standard toolbar gives quick access to various often used commands and
functions such as opening, saving, and printing files.
79. Start Button
Use the Start button on the Taskbar to show the Start menu to open applications.
80. Status Bar
Located at the bottom of the window, the status bar contains information about many formatting options such as
current font, insert and overtype mode, and page number.
81. Status Box
The status box is an informational panel on one end of the Taskbar that provides information about the system.
82. Taskbar
The Taskbar is a panel on the Desktop that contains the Start button, the Tray, and task buttons that correspond to
any open windows.
83. Template
A template is a preformatted document that serves as a model for other documents. Templates include common
formats such as addresses and date entries and allow you to create professional looking letters, memos, reports,
and other documents easily.
84. Text Wrapping
Choose a Text Wrapping option in the Frame dialog box to specify whether text should move around the edges of a
frame or stop above the frame and resume below the frame.
85. Times New Roman
Times New Roman is a serif font that is available on every Windows-based computer. Word's default font is Times
New Roman.
86. Title Bar
The title bar shows you the name of the current document and contains the standard Windows control buttons.
87. Toolbar
A toolbar is a group of tools of usually related functions. Toolbars can contain buttons, menus, or combinations of
both that can be used to quickly perform actions in Word.
88. Triple-click
To triple-click, hold the mouse steady while you press the left mouse three times quickly.
89. Triple-click Selections
Triple-clicking a word will select the entire paragraph in which it appears. Triple-clicking in the selection bar will
select the entire document.
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90. Underline
Underlining places a thin line beneath selected text. It is used primarily for emphasis, but not as often as bold or
italic
91. View
There are four views available in Word: Normal, Page Layout, Online Layout, and Outline. Some show you how the
document will look when it is printed, and some make working in Word quick and easy.
92. Window Menu
The Window menu provides a list of all the available windows and allows you to switch to any of them or arrange
all of them so that they can be seen at one time.
93. Widow/Orphan Control
Use the Widow/Orphan Control command to prevent Word from placing the last line of a paragraph at the top of a
page (widow) or the first line of a paragraph at the bottom of a page (orphan).
94. Wizard
A wizard is a feature of Microsoft applications that lets you work through a series of dialog boxes to help you
complete a task.
95. Wrapping Text
Wrapping text is an automatic feature of Word. When you reach the end of a line while typing, Word forces the
text to break onto a new line.
96. Writing Style
Use the various writing styles to define the grammar rules for checking grammar. Choose from casual, standard,
formal, or technical styles, or create your own custom style. You also can change the rules that each style uses to
check the grammar
ICT Guide Zimbabwe

Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is an umbrella term that includes all technologies for the
manipulation and communication of information.
Recently the Minister of ICT, Hon Nelson Chamisa announced a need for a national website, in order to put Zimbabwe
back on the global map. He was speaking to ICT stake holders in Harare recently. It was an important stance by the Hon
Minister in so far as top level awareness that something needs to be done to bridge the digital divide in Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe already has thousands of websites that are either hosted locally in Zimbabwe or outside the country. So its
not so much about the need of a national website per se but rather a broader surgical approach to the ICT challenges
that we face.
The digital divide or gap is set to widen even further if we dont take it upon ourselves to come up with specific
solutions for our specific challenges.
Problem resolution at this level, calls for a sober, firm and accurate understanding the variance between what is on the
ground and what needs to be achieved. Any half baked attempts to address the digital divide or gap will not only waste
resources and opportunities but literally take the nation a few decades backwards in terms of development.
A sound ICT policy impacts all sectors of the country from the economy through health right up to mining and farming.
In this article I will offer a birds eye view of key issues that impact and affect digitalization efforts. Hopefully this will
help the ICT leadership clarify, categorize and prioritize delivery mechanisms.
Zimbabwe just like most African or developing countries basically faces a number of
hurdles in order to roll out effective Internet & computer technologies to the general
population.
Rollout issues and challenges do include but not limited to;
1)
2)
3)
cost of computers and equipment

inadequate access technologies (data & voice)
inadequate electricity
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5)
6)
7)
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9)
10)
11)
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poor national & international bandwidth

regulation and licensing
Censorship and control
Brain drain & lack skilled manpower & IT. certifications
poorly designed and optimized websites
E-government
Infrastructure barriers
Financial & Economic barriers
Cultural barriers
Expensive software
Expensive hardware
Qualified personnel are expensive
The Internet connection fee is too high
VAT on Internet service is high
Technology Spending
Infrastructure: low IT expenditures, expensive to upgrade
Telecom access is expensive, and "data"=luxury.
Technology clusters, where IT skills are concentrated, are favored
Difficult to get access to capital markets
In this article I address some key elements that affect internet penetration and telephone usage. You will note that the
main factors that affect telephony also affect data communications. ICT has challenges in both the data and voice
arenas. When we talk about bridging the digital divide we seek to reduce or eliminate entry barriers that the people
face in both data and voice. A number of terms will be used loosely in both areas.
It is important however, for the ICT ministry to be able to dissect and separate common issues and independent issues
that affect data and voice. This approach is necessary so that the issues are addressed at a root cause level. We seek to
deal with the root problem like inadequate infrastructure manifested symptomatically as congestion or slow
connections. Voice and data networks are fast converging and this calls for a smart unified communications approach
whose success hinges on reliable, fast and robust network infrastructure.
1. Internet Access
In Zimbabwe just like most African countries most people who access the internet do so via Cyber cafes, colleges,
varsities, work place an some at home. The limiting factors are basically cost and unavailability. Most urban dwellers
either cant afford it or the ISPs serving them are out of capacity as discussed further below. There are people who
own farms who could easily afford it, but can not do so from where they are because there is no network coverage of
one form or the other in their area.
As a result internet penetration is very low due to a number of issues. One of ICTs core tasks is to help present
operators unclog their stuffed networks and also adopting the concept of cyber cafes for many communities whose
chance of using a computer or accessing the internet are next to none.
Donating computers to schools is great. More could be done in the form of setting up computer centers at libraries,
district offices, ALL colleges using the cyber caf approach. This has the advantage of also spinning some business to
the struggling ISPs.
Hopes are hinged on the 3G data access. All I can say for now is that we hope Econet will not make it an elite service
for the business brass. Last year when I was in Joburg I was pretty impressed about how easy it is to connect to the
internet MTNs 3G using a USB dongle with a 3G capable SIM card. Because right now in Zimbabwe before we even have
3G, is it possible to walk to a distribution shop and buy a SIM card ?
2. Telephone Access
The state of telecom facilities. The poor general level of telecommunication facilities--caused largely by policy
factors--is clearly the most critical inhibiting element..
Teledensity is a metric that is used to broadly estimate the number telephone lines per 100 individuls. Presently
Zimbabwe has a teledensity of about 3 .This means that there are about 3 telephone lines per 100 people. This figure
heavily depends on the accuracy of the actual number of telephone lines divided by the total population.
Now this is a very tricky estimation as millions of Zimbabweans have left the country while mobile operators have
availed more lines. The teledensity metric has been used as an indicator of economic development or governance.
Current voice providers include Telone , NetOne , Econet , Telecel. Now wireless usage in Zimbabwe has indeed
enabled many people a means of communication. Wireless growth rate is highest in Africa because cellular phones
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offer any one within coverage range an equal opportunity to communicate. At this stage Zimbabwe has serious
complications that basically point to a collapsed economy. Cellular operators have managed just to stay afloat in a very
un-business like environment. This has made it impossible for the operators to increase both capacity and coverage at
a time when spares and maintenance were made in hard currency whilst end users were paying in a currency that long
lost its value.
Stabilization of the economy should allow cellular companies to increase their coverage to more areas.
3. Cost of computers, equipment and software
Computer and internet penetration is very low in Zimbabwe due to the cost of owning a PC or MAC and the cost of
having an internet connection .What is needed in this area is for the stake holders to identify equipment manufactures
that can supply Zimbabwean market PCs in bulk and at competitive rates. Secondly in most developed nations people
throw away their PCs just to get a new one. Most of these PCs are recyclable easily and the Ministry can setup
collection centers in the US and UK to pick these PCs clean them up and store them in a container before shipping
them to Zimbabwe. This is already being done in Kenya and Ghana.
Thirdly the ministry should encourage local companies to team up with PC manufactures and open up assembly plants
in Zimbabwe. This should be one of ICTs long term plan and has bankable off shoot benefits like job creation , local
availability of PCs , generation of forex through exports and generation of revenue for the state via the taxman. The
more people have access to PCs whether publicly via schools , libraries or internet cafes the better. One way of doing
this is availing mobile digital libraries. Take an old ZUPCO bus. Refurbish it , install like 30 computers in the bus and
pull a diesel powered generator at the back. These mobile libraries are used in Rwanda to visit remote areas with no
PC access.
Windows based software is generally pricy because of licensing fees. The ICT ministry must encourage and even fund
open source software initiatives in Zimbabwe. This literally means that refurbished computers that are shipped into
Zimbabwe can run on free BUT extremely loaded Linux based like uBuntu.Ubuntu is a community developed operating
system that is perfect for laptops, desktops and servers. uBuntu comes loaded with thousands of FREE open software
applications like word processing , spreadsheets , presentations , databases , web servers , email servers , fax servers ,
call centers , phone billing , internet caf billing , hotel reservation , project management , programming tools ,
educational and scientific software and many more.
Cost of software as a stumbling block in ICT development can not be used as an excuse.
Cost, As mentioned earlier, the high price of Internet services in some countries, together with the absence of local
dial-up access outside almost all of the capital cities, severely limits access for the bulk of those with computers. As
far as the rest of the population is concerned, so far there have been few attempts to provide low-cost public-access
facilities at drop-in centers for those without computers.
4. Electricity
All ICT gadgets use electricity to function. Inadequate power generation and unreliable transmission and distribution
capacity has a direct impact on ICT development strategies. This means that there can be no meaningful digital
revolution if there is no electricity full stop. This calls for an elevated sense of urgency to resuscitate and improve
power generation, transmission and distribution capacity. It is too obvious that Zimbabwe has to look explore and
improve the present forms of power generation methods that may include but NOT limited to water , solar , wind ,
biogas and even nuclear energy.
Mail servers , web servers , routers , switches , base stations etc all need electricity to operate. So before we even
worry about creation of a national website , it is necessary that we have adequate electricity to power the servers that
will serve the web pages !
If people can not access the website because the hosting ISP has experienced a power outage, then our problems are a
lot wider and complex to be solved by having a national website.
Now erratic power supplies has made life horrible for ALL telcos or ISPs as they are forced to install alternative power
sources mainly diesel powered generators. This has pushed operation costs for all companies to go up. Not with
standing that the diesel in question was at one stage scarce and only available via the black market. This is one of the
many problems that have pushed the price of the service as soon as use of forex was officially approved.
5. Access technologies
Lack or unavailability of telecommunications infrastructure makes it difficult for remote areas to access e-services like
the internet or even basic email. Some farmers can afford PCs but how are they can not access the internet because
either the telephone infrastructure is inexistent, broken down or unreliable in their areas. This points back directly to
telco providers ComeOne ,Telone, Econet, NetOne, Telecel, Transmedia, Powertel, Africom, Ecoweb, ZOL, Mweb and
Telecontract just to mention the main players. It is very tough for these fellows to maintain their network
infrastructure because of overheads like electricity for plants and base stations.
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That aside , there is need for Zimbabwe to pursue more rigorous wireless last mile connection technologies like Wi-Max
, Wi-Fi , 3G , CDMA etc. Already Powertel and Telone are involved in CDMA rollouts in and around Harare. The access
technologies are further discusses under sub heading Broadband below.
6. National & International Bandwidth
Bandwidth, Lack of Internet bandwidth linking ISPs and countries is an increasingly severe constraint to efficient
information flows. This is largely a result of the high cost of international leased lines, which results in ISPs' crowding
too many users into channels of limited bandwidth. Such crowding is greatly exacerbated by the very limited peering
between ISPs within the same country and also between countries. As a result, it can take many minutes to download
a single Web page-speeds of 20 characters per second are not uncommon--even from another ISP's site across town.
Packets often must traverse at least two saturated international links because the peering point is in another country.
Not withstanding the limited access technologies available by remote stations to access e-resources , there is the
question of available national and international bandwidth.
Your connection speed to you ISP might be 56k but the speed with which you access local and international websites
will solely depend on the available capacity on the network you are connecting to. It means that to pull a page from
Harare ISP will depend on the traffic congestion between your access point to the web server which heavily relies on
the number of connections made to that site. Failure to connect to you ISP might be caused by total capacity of the
access network to handle your call. This is a national bandwidth issue. Zimbabwe has limited access points and this
literally means a lot of people are competing to gain access to a thin pipe. I am sure you know how frustrating it is to
try and drive your new BMW in a very congested road with pot holes!
To access emails from the web you will send a request via your ISP who will in turn forward your request to your email
hosting service. Now the issue of contentions comes into the picture again with internationally hosted sites. You have
to compete with other users from your ISP and other ISPs to access websites via the international gateway that maybe
a satellite dish in Mazowe! So international access bottleneck add to the other national bandwidth whores caused by
few POPs (point of presence).
What is needed then is an increase in access points and using thicker bandwidth pipes between these POPs. Between
main centers Zimbabwe uses fibre optics as the back bone. Also satellite alone can not meet Zimbabwe bandwidth
needs.
ICT must look into ways of connecting via fibre to the undersea cable in the Indian Ocean. The cables at the sea
connect to the rest of the world at lightning speed. Why fibre? Fibre has a higher carrying capacity. A fair comparison
between using copper wires and fibre would be comparing a wheel barrow to a gonyeti to carry 100 tons of sand.
In a nutshell ICT needs to do some audit of both the national and international bandwidth info. This audit will point out
major bottlenecks that choke Internet usage in Zimbabwe. The solution after the audit should include amongst other
things the following fibre network links:
- Harare to Mutare to provide a link the Indian Ocean under sea cables in Beira.I am reliably informed that
AfriCom is doing this project already.
- Bulawayo to Beitbridge to provide high speed link to SA fibre network. South Africa is Zimbabwes largest
trading partner
Having multiple gateways will assure and ensure that Zimbabwe does not experience total black out associated with
network failure. Investing in fibre optics today is not an option but a must/
7. Broadband Access
To address the slow speed and low bandwidth challenges that Zimbabwe faces , all efforts MUST point into the availing
of broadband access.
The term broadband commonly refers to high-speed Internet access. Technically this refers to data transmission rates
of at least 200 kilobits per second. When you connect to your ISP you have to values that you deal with , download
speed (down stream) and upload speed (up stream).As the names suggest , down streams refers to the data transfer
rate when you are pulling resources from the internet to you PC like downloading email, downloading software ,
listening to music or watching a video from Youtube.
Up stream refers to the data transfer rates when you are pushing or publishing content from you PC to the Internet.
Examples here including sending email , posting your profile to Facebook and publishing your website.
Pull and push. In general most internet users pull that push to the internet and as a result the rates of downstream
rates are higher than up stream rates.
Broadband allows a higher data transfer rates than dial up rates .An interesting comparison would be that of trying to
empty a 200L drum full of water using a hosepipe or a drinking straw!
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Types of broadband technologies

The term broadband describes the data transfer rates but does not describe the under lying technology (physical and
data link layer) used to achieve high data transfer rates. The main broadband technologies are briefly summarized
below.
- DSL (Digital Subscriber Line ) is a wireline transmission technology that transmits data faster over traditional
copper telephone lines already installed to homes and businesses.
- Coaxial cable make use of cable modem service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the same
coaxial cables that provide cable TV
- Fibre optic technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light and sends the light through transparent
glass fibres about the diameter of a human hair.
- Wi-Max , Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications technology that provides
wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes, from point-to-multipoint links to
portable and fully mobile internet access. The technology provides up to 72 Mbit/s symmetric broadband
speeds without the need for cables. This is the way to go especially for metropolitans. The technology is
based on the IEEE 802.16 standard (also called Broadband Wireless Access).
- 3G networks are wide-area cellular telephone networks that evolved to incorporate high-speed Internet access.
Theoretically data rates approach 14.4 Mbps down stream and 5.8Mbps up stream. Econet already has the 3G
license in Zimbabwe and we await its delivery. The other 3G license was granted to Powertel using CDMA
.This service is only limited to Harare/
- CDMA Wireless land lines using Wireless Local Loop 450 MHz system used as last mile connection by Telone in
the wake of copper cable thefts and shortage. Only available in Harare , Chitungwiza & Ruwa.
- Satellite broadband is another form of wireless broadband, also useful for serving remote or sparsely populated
areas .This technology basically uses satellite dishes pointed to the sky to connect to a geo-stationery
satellite orbiting above the earth.
- Broadband over Powerline (BPL) is the delivery of broadband over the existing low and medium voltage
electric power distribution network.
Broadband is always on.Does not block phone lines and no need to reconnect to network after logging off.
Summarily connection bottlenecks exist at an access level , national bandwidth level before you even look at the
international portion of the game. What we need is a bottom up approach and not top to bottom approach.
So after rolling broadband access architecture, the national network connecting to the international network MUST not
act as a bottle neck.
A typical scenario in most African countries is that you can use Wi-Fi to connect your laptop to your access point at 54
Mbps ! WOW thats a lot ! Nope.If the connection from your ISP to the internet is 56kbps then your broadband
connection speed to your access point is NULL & VOID.
8. Regulation /Monopoly/Licensing
Most African governments really put a tight lid when it comes to regulation of telecommunications and media. That
alone is a major obstacle in reducing the digital divide. For some strange reason or another most African governments
via the regulatory bodies tend to become an obstacle to innovation and development. Part of the fear is unfounded in
that some authorities fear that opening up the telecommunications will either threaten government owned
establishments or also fear of not being able to control information flow.
Of course this is insane. Only those who do evils stuff should be worried about a liberal telecommunications
environment. Naturally national security is a top priority for the regulation body. I must mention of that of late POTRAZ
has indeed tried to catch up with reality as I am aware that a few more companies have been granted different
licenses to operate different technologies in data, voice and wireless arenas like Econet doing 3G and AfriCom getting
engaged in VoIP.
Considering that some of the operators who have monopolies have failed to meet their service obligations to provide
reliable and affordable communications, ICT ministry should explore ways of allowing smart partnerships between ISPs
with local authorities/communities to provide telco service for their areas. For instance if the wireless company can
not afford to put a base station in my home area Jambezi or Lower Gweru , smaller operators must be allowed to run
and own base station in an area and share the profit with the back bone operator. What I mean is at a district center,
small operators will install a base station, a data link and a power generator if need be. Then connect to the big
operators switch via Wi-Max or microwave. These small operators cant afford to do a national rollout so they can
manage to setup their own base stations for their respective areas and then connect to the main carrier. How the
revenue from that base station is shared can then be worked out. These are the ideas that ICT should be researching
and establishing their viability potential.
9. The state of computerization. The low level of computerization in many organizations is one of the largest
barriers to using new communications technologies. The high price of equipment relative to available resources means
many organizations and departments involved in information gathering and dissemination remain critically
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underdeveloped in their use of computers and networks. Many machines are older, 286 DOS-based machines-for which
there are dwindling levels of support-and very few are networked, either locally or on a
10. Scarcity of computers. The scarcity of computers and the small base of skills also contribute to the low level of
institutionalization of much of the networking activity. E-mail and Internet access are usually limited to those with
the most resources
11. Vandalism. Due to high resale value, vandalism of the copper network infrastructure is a general problem.
12. Telone, Powertel and Transmedia
These 3 companies enjoy unmatched monopolies based on their origins or parenting company namely PTC , Zesa and
ZBC. These 3 companies have a combined capacity to reach all corners of Zimbabwe by virtue of their infrastructural
inheritance for both data and voice.
The ICT ministry must carry out very thorough performance audits these seasonal failures. It is an open secret that
their failure is mainly due to political meddling and interference which makes them operate more like social clubs
than companies.
Despite their failure for years to provide, adequate telephone services, electricity, radio and TV services these
companies have moved into the Internet market with, remarkable speed.
It is clear why NRZ has not conceived a Telco business unit based on their own data network for the rail system? Well
Transtel would be a great idea but likely to be plagued by the same virus that affects its other 3 cousins.
13. Taxation, Licensing and external investment.
Taxation. Import duties may be significant disincentives through their contribution to increased prices, but the
growing trend toward taxation of services may become an even larger impediment to the effective use of computer
networks.
The issue of regulation will not be complete if no mention is made of the prohibitive nature of the licensing fees in the
range of several million US dollars. What makes it even more complicated is that should one wish to partner with a
foreign investor, the imposition of fixed percentages for local ownership stake makes this really look like a circus.
Which sane investor is interested in investing in an environment where he /she are expected to invest more dollars but
get the minority share? 51 % local sounds really attractive and nationally correct since Indigenization is the core agenda
of empowering locals.
That however does not mean replacing common sense with hollow pride which has so far worked negatively against
Zimbabwe.
Pride alone has never fed any nation.
14. 802.11 Wi-Fi

It appears that the ruling in the 90s to ban or restrict use ISM frequencies 2.4 GHz and 5Hgz was not meant to protect
scientific equipment used in hospitals from interference but a strategic move to monopolize the bandwidth to
Transmedia. It is the national broadcaster of television, radio and Internet access services in Zimbabwe on the afore
mentioned frequencies. So one wonders what suddenly happened to hospital equipment protection.
Transmedia owns and operates all terrestrial broadcast infrastructures and as a new strategic business unit of ZBC it
bridged VHF and IP so as to tap into wireless access.
Because of monopoly of this frequency band, wireless broadband has not grown as expected. I doubt if Transmedia has
more than 800 customers with their tower located at Pockets Hill with no line of sight complication?
The ICT ministry together with POTRAZ must revisit the maximum power levels for Access Points to allow other players
to beam data and voice over using 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz (Wi-Fi). This will go a long way in enabling ISPs to connect more
people using wireless broadband. Right now ISPs are trapped between a rock and a hard place as their last mile
connection solution is limited to mainly to twisted copper wires since both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz are locked down to one
provider Transmedia.
15. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
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Voice over IP is still a grey area in Zimbabwe. Obviously its success depends on reliable network infrastructure. With 3G
on its way, POTRAZ should allow people to connect over IP and make calls. Also a smart combination of wi-max and wifi can bring voice to many people that presently have NO hope of getting a Telone line via copper or wireless CDMA.
Businesses and organizations might be forced to install a satellite dishes and then use their IP connectivity for both
data and voice and by pass the national operators because they cant get service from them!
Besides the obvious use of VoIP for voice , other spin offs can be realized in Zimbabwe like the deployment of call
centers .This allows local companies to generate employment for the local community , generate scarce forex and
revenue for the state in taxes. I used to think that this was common sense but it appears common sense is not so
common. Presently most favored call center destination for call centers are India, Malasyia, Philiphines and of late
Kenya and South Africa thanks to their open VoIP policy.
VoIP opens so many avenues of communication between end users. For instance through use of open source PBX like
Freeswitch, one can easily provide free voicemail mail service. This is how it works. A Linux server running a PBX is a
capability of creating infinite user extensions. So a particular user can sign up and be assigned an extension say 600244
and a PIN code 9561.Now this user will have to call an access number say 011 800 600 to check and or send
voicemails. If he does NOT have a personal phone this user can still use any phone just to retrieve his messages from
the system. So in short this person can advertise whatever business he is in and then specify his details as Please call
me on 011 800 600 ext 600244. Callers will be greeted by an interactive voice response system that will ask them if
they want (1) to check messages or (2) to send a message to another user.
16. Brain Drain & Skilled Manpower
Training and literacy, In general, the limited technical skills for the establishment of electronic network services
and the lack of literacy in the effective exploitation of network applications by users are major impediments to the
spread of new technologies. In addition, there have been no attempts to train the trainers in training techniques.. In
addition, relevant training guides, documentation, and online tutorial software to support trainers have been
insufficiently developed.
The effect of brain drain on the digital revolution is obvious. As the country continues to lose more and more skilled
and trained personnel, it becomes difficult for the nation to move forward in an attempt to turn around the economy.
This applies to all sectors of the economy and not just ICT. The GNU should be creative enough and try and lure skilled
personnel back by coming up with a well thought out come back home schemes. I am talking about highly trained
professionals from all walks of life. Trust me there thousands of Zimbabweans inside & outside the country prepared to
help rebuild the country.
The question of patriotism comes up. Ask what you can do for Zimbabwe and not what Zimbabwe can do for you?
Thats fair enough.
Trust me most skilled professionals would not mind an incentive in the form of some small piece of land somewhere in
Mvurwi or Insiza. If we expect to lure patriotic professionals to leave their well paying jobs at Cisco or Microsoft or BT
and join the ICT in Zimbabwe. Patriotism is a two headed beast.
17. ICT training & Certification
ICT training and development has not been spared the economic wrath that affects the whole country. As part of a long
term plan Zimbabwe ICT must look into establishing more ICT based institutes and academies as part of the digital
empowerment plan. Software programming is particularly one area in which ICT must look. Writing a computer code
requires very few resources other than a computer and programming knowledge of certain languages like C++ , Java ,
Python , Perl etc.
What is needed is that the ministry of ICT at a government level must travel to India and strike deals to have Indian
programmers to come and train students at various training academies mentioned.
Software is a great product that is easily exported. This is where the Hon Minister should be setting his eyes as a long
term plan. There is need to promote establishment of MORE academies that can provide ICT certifications that include
but NOT limited to A + , N+ , Security + , Linux + , Cisco etc.
18. Web Presence, Promotion and Optimization
Designing and placing a website on the internet is very simple and straight forward.
But what matters is whether the website has been designed properly and optimized well so that it is searchable on the
internet. People use search engines to look for information, products and services. A poorly developed website will
affect that websites visibility on the internet. Most search engines like Google , Yahoo , MSN and Dogpile use various
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algorithms to rank websites. But key making our website visible includes search engine optimization .This involves
items like :
-
using certain key words in your website title and header and also depends on the
number and quality of links on your web page
the actual content and relevance of your web pages
registering your website with different search engines
Linking out to other websites and have them linked back to you is useful in making your website visible on the internet.
A good website must be able to retain visitors and even encourage future visits. A good website must not only
disseminate information to its visitors but must be able to call the visitors to action .Like click here to subscribe for
free reports or click here to place a donation or click here to get a call back from us or enter your cell phone
here to receive promotional info via SMS etc etc.This makes the website interactive and not static.
19. Website Standards
Zimbabweans are a very tech savvy people. You dont need to look far. Zimbabweans based both in Zimbabwe and
outside run fairly successful websites ranging from news and media through money and shipping services right up to
digital telephony services. News websites dominate the number of websites ran by Zimbabweans on the internet.
Since Zimbabwe government ministries and departments already have dozens of websites that are hardly searchable on
the web, the ICT ministry must come up with a minimum standard guideline for website deployment.
Different ministries and departments do run their different websites, but some minimum quality standard or
benchmark MUST be created by ICT ministry .If you look at the different Zimbabwe government websites, you will see
varying designs which are not up to scratch if I could be generous with my comments. What is needed is a compliance
standard that is set up by ICT.
Hats off to the webmasters who have managed to setup theses websites with little or NO training and resources. What
needs to be done is to come up with a government website policy that clearly sets standards of design technique,
layout, interactivity, promotion and optimization.
SPREADSHEET TERMINOLOGY
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program written and distributed by Microsoft for computers
using the Microsoft Windows operating system and for Apple Macintosh computers. It features
an intuitive interface and capable calculation and graphing tools which, along with aggressive
marketing, have made Excel one of the most popular microcomputer applications to date. ...
Workbook
A spreadsheet document that contains one or more worksheets, a Microsoft Excel
document.
A collection of related worksheets contained within a single file. (in spreadsheet
applications).
The workbook is the main document used in software programs like Excel. A workbook
consists of individual worksheets, like an accountant's workbook, each of which can
contain data. Basically, a workbook is a very sophisticated ledger.
Worksheet
A single spreadsheet that contains rows and columns of data. In Excel, a worksheet will
have a little white tab at the bottom of the screen. A worksheet is treated like a
database table.
An electronic spreadsheet containing 256 columns by 16,384 rows. (in spreadsheet
applications).
A work area comprised of rows and columns, also known as a spreadsheet.
x-axis label
A label describing the x-axis of a chart. (in spreadsheet applications
Cell
An intersection of a row and column, the smallest element in which you can enter
data.
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A vertical selection of cells identified by one or more letters, starting with A at the
left side of the spreadsheet.
A horizontal selection of cells identified by a number, starting with 1 at the top of
the spreadsheet.
A user-defined selection of contiguous cells.
Named
Selection
Formula An equation that performs an operation on cell data and displays the result. For
example, to add the contents of cells A1 and A2, and display the results in A3, cell
A3 would contain =A1+A2, a simple formula.
Function A pre-defined formula that allows you to quickly perform a more difficult operation
on cell data, such as finding the average of a range of numbers. Functions always
take arguments, or additional information that enables the computation to occur.
For example, the argument to the AVG, or average, function is the range of cells to
be averaged: =AVG(A1..C10) averages all cells between A1 (in the upper left) and
C10 (in the lower right).
Cell reference
The column number and the row letter of a cell.
The address or name of a specific cell. Cell references may be used in formulas and are
relative or absolute. (Spreadsheet application).
A cell name used in a formula.
Cell pointer
A highlighted rectangle around a cell that indicates the active cell. (Spreadsheet
application)
Relative cell reference
Used to indicate a relative position in a worksheet. This allows you to copy and move
formulas from one area to another of the same dimensions. Excel, for example,
automatically changes the column and row numbers to reflect the new position. (in
spreadsheet applications).
Cell references in formulas that change when Excel copies them to another location.
Absolute cell reference on the Web:
A cell reference in which a dollar sign ($) precedes both the column and row portions
of the cell reference.
Mixed cell reference
Cell reference in which either the column or the row is never adjusted if the formula
containing it is copied to another location.
Cell address
Usually the intersection of a cell's row and column.
Unique location identified by intersecting column and row coordinates. (Spreadsheet
application)
What if analysis
The process of playing with numbers to see how they interact in a spreadsheet.
Freeze panes
Freezing panes prevents the data in the panes from scrolling as you move to different
areas in the worksheet.
Goal seek on the Web:
Goal Seek is a tool that is used to find the value needed in one cell to attain a result
you want in another cell.
Formula
A set of instructions that you enter in a cell to perform numeric calculations
(adding, multiplying, averaging, etc.); for example, +A1+B1. (in spreadsheet
applications)
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Instructs the spreadsheet to perform a calculation using the contents of a

specific cell or range of cells
A program that processes individual, personal preferences in an attempt to deliver

relevant information to a particular end user.
Solver
Solver is a tool used to perform what-if analyses to determine the effect of changing
values in tow or more cells on another cell.
Recalculation
The act of calculating again (usually to eliminate errors or to include additional data);
"recalculation yielded a much larger value"
Excel Terms
A cell address in a formula that does not change when copied to
Absolute cell reference:
another cell. An absolute reference has the form $A$1.
The selected cell in a worksheet. The active cell is surrounded by a
Active cell:
heavy border and is identified by the cell address.
Shows the beginning and ending balances and the amount of
Amortization schedule:
payment that applies to the principal and interest for each year over
the life of the loan.
A function used to perform multiple tests on the content of cells in a
AND function:
spreadsheet and display a value or text based on whether the overall
test is true or false.
The information that a function uses to produce a new value or
perform an action. For example, a new value is displayed when the
Argument:
SUM function adds the argument (A6:A12). An argument consists of
numbers, references, text, operators, or error values.
A method of ordering a group of items from lowest to highest, such
Ascending:
as from A to Z.
Assumptions:
Values in cells you can change to determine new values for formulas.
Auditing:
Refers to the practice of proving the correctness of a worksheet.
AutoFilter:
AutoFormat:
AVERAGE function:
Cell reference:
Cell:
Chart:
Column heading:
Comment:
Comparison criteria:
Condition:
Displays all records that meet the criteria as a subset of the

database.
A feature used to format a range of cells with a predefined set of
attributes.
Sums the numbers in the specified range and then divides the sum by
the number of non-zero cells in the range.
An unique address given to a cell; the coordinates of the intersection
of a column and a row.
Basic unit of a worksheet into which you enter data.
A graphic representation of worksheet data. Values from worksheet
cells are displayed as bars, lines, or other shapes. Common chart
types are pie, bar, line, and area.
The lettered gray area at the top of each column that identifies the
letter of the column, such as column B.
A note that explains, identifies, or comments on the information in a
specific cell or range of cells.
One or more conditions that include the field names and entries in
the corresponding boxes in a data form.
Made up of two values and a relational operator, is true or false for
each cell in the range.
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Conditional formatting:
Consolidation:
Criteria:
Currency style format:
Data table:
Data validation:
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Allows you to apply formatting that appears only when the value in a
cell meets conditions that you specify.
Process of summarizing data found on multiple worksheets on one
worksheet.
The conditions that control which records to display in a query; the
words or values used to determine the data that appears in a data
list.
Displays a dollar sign to the left of the number, inserts a comma
every three positions to the left of the decimal point, and displays
numbers to the nearest cent (hundredths place).
Range of cells that shows the answers generated by formulas in
which different values have been substituted.
Restricts the values that may be entered into a cell by the worksheet
user.
Date stamp:
Shows the system date of which your computer keeps track.
DCOUNT function:
Counts the number of numeric entries in a database field that pass a

test.
Debugging:
Process of finding and correcting errors in the worksheet.
Dependents:
Cell that is referenced in another cell.
Descending:
A method of ordering a group of items from highest to lowest, such

as from Z to A.
Dummy data:
Used in place of actual data to verify formulas in the template.
Embedded chart:
A chart that exists on a worksheet instead of on a separate chart

sheet.
Exploded Pie chart:
A Pie chart with one or more slices offset.
Filter:
A set of criteria you can apply to records to show specific tasks,

records, or resources. The tasks, records, or resources that match
your criteria are listed or highlighted so that you can focus on just
the information you want.
Format code:
A series of format symbols that define how a format displays.
Formula:
Function:
Goal seeking:
A sequence of values, cell references, names, functions, or operators

that produces a new value from existing values. A formula always
begins with an equal sign (=).
A built-in formula; a named and stored procedure that performs a
specific operation and returns a value.
Used if you know the result you want a formula to produce by
determining the value of a cell on which the formula depends.
Gridlines:
The horizontal and vertical lines on the worksheet.
HLOOKUP function:
Used when the table direction is horizontal across the worksheet.
IF function:
A function that tests the content of the cell, performs a calculation,

and displays a value or text based on whether the test is true or
false.
Label:
Row title or column title.
Legend:
A box containing the name of each data series in a chart.
MAX function:
Displays the highest value in a range.
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MIN function:
Displays the lowest value in a range.
NOW function:
Used to enter the system date in a cell in the worksheet.
Worksheet:
X-axis:
Y-axis:
A set of rows, columns, and cells in which you store and manipulate
data. Several worksheets can appear in one workbook, and you can
switch among them easily by clicking their tabs with the mouse.
A line, usually horizontal, along the bottom of a chart. The x-axis
shows the labels for the data series. Also called the horizontal axis.
A line, usually vertical, along the left side of a chart. The y-axis
shows the values for the data series.
DATABASE TERMINOLOGY
Database: A collection of related information stored in a structured format. Database
is often used interchangeably with the term table (Lotus Approach, for instance, uses
the term database instead of table). Technically, they?re different: A table is a single
store of related information; a database can consist of one or more tables of
information that are related in some way. For instance, you could track all the
information about the students in a school in a students table. If you then created
separate tables containing details about teachers, classes and classrooms, you could
combine all four tables into a timetabling database. Such a multi-table database is
called a relational database.
Data entry: The process of getting information into a database, usually done by people
typing it in by way of data-entry forms designed to simplify the process.
Dbms: Database management system. A program which lets you manage information in
databases. Lotus Approach, Microsoft Access and FileMaker Pro, for example, are all
DBMSs, although the term is often shortened to ?database?. So, the same term is used
to apply to the program you use to organise your data and the actual data structure
you create with that program.
Field: Fields describe a single aspect of each member of a table. A student record, for
instance, might contain a last name field, a first name field, a date of birth field and
so on. All records have exactly the same structure, so they contain the same fields. The
values in each field vary from record to record, of course. In some database systems,
you?ll find fields referred to as attributes.
Flat file: A database that consists of a single table. Lightweight database programs
such as the database component in Microsoft Works are sometimes called ?flat-file
managers? (or list managers) because they can only handle single-table databases. More
powerful programs, such as FileMaker Pro, Access, Approach and Paradox, can handle
multi-table databases, and are called relational database managers, or RDBMSs.
Foreign key: A key used in one table to represent the value of a primary key in a
related table. While primary keys must contain unique values, foreign keys may have
duplicates. For instance, if we use student ID as the primary key in a Students table
(each student has a unique ID), we could use student ID as a foreign key in a Courses
table: as each student may do more than one course, the student ID field in the
Courses table (often shortened to Courses.student ID) will hold duplicate values.
Index: A summary table which lets you quickly look up the contents of any record in a
table. Think of how you use an index to a book: as a quick jumping off point to finding
full information about a subject. A database index works in a similar way. You can
create an index on any field in a table. Say, for example, you have a customer table
which contains customer numbers, names, addresses and other details. You can make
indexes based on any information, such as the customers? customer number, last name
+ first name (a composite index based on more than one field), or postal code. Then,
when you?re searching for a particular customer or group of customers, you can use the
index to speed up the search. This increase in performance may not be noticeable in a
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table containing a hundred records; in a database of thousands of records it will be a

blessing.
Key field: You can sort and quickly retrieve information from a database by choosing
one or more fields to act as keys. For instance, in a students table you could use a
combination of the last name and first name fields (or perhaps last name, first name
and birth dates to ensure you identify each student uniquely) as a key field. The
database program will create an index containing just the key field contents. Using the
index, you can quickly find any record by typing in the student?s name. The database
will locate the correct entry in the index and then display the full record.
Key fields are also used in relational databases to maintain the structural integrity of
your tables, helping you to avoid problems such as duplicate records and conflicting
values in fields (see primary key and foreign key).
Rdbms: Relational database management system. A program which lets you manage
structured information stored in tables and which can handle databases consisting of
multiple tables.
Record: A record contains all the information about a single ?member? of a table. In a
students table, each student?s details (name, date of birth, contact details, and so on)
will be contained in its own record. Records are also known as tuples in technical
relational database parlance.
Relational database: A database consisting of more than one table. In a multi-table
database, you not only need to define the structure of each table, you also need to
define the relationships between each table in order to link those tables correctly.
Report: A form designed to print information from a database (either on the screen, to
a file or directly to the printer).
SQL: Structured Query Language (pronounced sequel in the US; ess-queue-ell
elsewhere). A computer language designed to organise and simplify the process of
getting information out of a database in a usable form, and also used to reorganise
data within databases. SQL is most often used on larger databases on minicomputers,
mainframes and corporate servers.
Table: A single store of related information. A table consists of records, and each
record is made up of a number of fields. Just to totally confuse things, tables are
sometimes called relations. You can think of the phone book as a table: It contains a
record for each telephone subscriber, and each subscriber?s details are contained in
three fields ? name, address and telephone.
Query language
A high-level, humanlike language provided by a database management system that
enables users to easily extract data and information from a database.
Data Types
A field's data type specifies and limits what kind of data may be entered into that field.
Data Labels
Data labels provide additional information about the data in your chart.
Database
A database is a collection of records pertaining to a specific topic. Examples of databases
include: customer lists, order records, telephone books, product listings, and Rolodex files.
Database Wizards
A Database Wizard creates a database for you, automatically setting up appropriate tables,
forms, and queries. Access provides more than 20 Database Wizards, each devoted to a specific
use, such as household inventory, ledgers, or inventory control.
Datasheet View
Use a table's Datasheet view to view, edit, or add data.@10
Datasheet View
A table's Datasheet view allows you to view, edit, or add data to the table.
Description
Use the description column in the Table Design view to describe each field in the table.
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Design View
A table's Design view allows you to add fields or make changes to the overall formatting and
properties of a table.
Embedded Object
An embedded object is linked to the original data and is updated when the original data is
updated or changed.
Field
A field is a category of information, such as a phone number, product name, or unit cost. If a
table contains customer information, its fields might be first name, last name, address, city,
state, zip code, and phone number.
Field List
The field list appears at the top of the Query design window when you have added a table to
the query. It lists all of the fields in the table, and you can use it to add fields to the query
design grid.
File Type
File type refers to the format the file was saved in and often refers to the application that
created the file.
Files
A file is a collection of data referred to by a given name.
Normalization
Normalization is the process of splitting a table into related tables, in order to eliminate
wasted space, redundancy, and keying errors.
Primary Key
The primary key is the unique identifier for each record, such as an employee number, a
product number, or a customer number. Access will not allow duplicate entries in a field that is
set up as a primary key.
Primary Key Fields
The primary key is the unique identifier for each record, such as an employee number, a
product number, or a customer number.
Query
A query is a question that you ask about the data in your table(s). For example, you may want
to know which of your customers bought pinto beans in March. Access searches designated
tables or queries and provides you with an answer.
Query Design View
Query Design view lets you build or edit a query using the design grid.
Record
A record is all of the information collected about a specific event, thing, product, or person,
such as a customer record. A record can consist of many fields. For instance, a customer record
could consist of the customer's first name, last name, address, city, state, zip code, and phone
number.
Relational Database
A relational database management system is an application that allows you to organize,
manipulate, query, and view your data, while building links between related topics. Access is a
relational database management system.
Relationships
Relationships are ties that are created between tables in the database so that Access can
combine data from more than one table to create reports. It is how tables determine how they
correspond to each other.
Report Wizard
Report Wizard helps you create a report by giving you a variety of choices in a series of dialog
boxes.
Report Sections
In Design view, a report is divided into different sections, which vary depending on the
individual report. Some common sections include the Report Header, Detail, and Page Footer
sections. When printed, some sections, such as Report Header, appear only once on the report.
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Other sections, such as the Detail section, are repeated over and over until all the records are
shown.
Report Design View
Report Design view lets you create a report from scratch or modify the way a report appears.
Fields, lines, labels, color, and graphics can be added to a report in Design view.
Table Wizard
The Table Wizard provides step-by-step help in creating a table, selecting the fields,
designating a primary key, and naming the table.
Wizards
Wizards guide you through difficult tasks using step-by-step dialog boxes.
Attribute the name of a column of a table, indicating the meaning of the data in that column. A logical
data value of an object.
Database Administrator Responsible for the design, control and administration of a DB.
Database Metadata a class in java.sql that contains information about the database server.
Data Definition Language used to define the logical, external and physical schemas and access rights.
Data dictionary a collection of information stored in the DBMS about what objects exist.
DBMS a software system able to manage large, shared, persistent collections of data while ensuring
reliability and privacy.
Form a page of a Graphical User Interface used to display the results of a query.
Metadata data about the structure of data
Normalization the process of changing a database design to comply with the various normal forms.
Primary Key a key (in the second sense) that is constrained to not contain null values. An arbitrarily
selected Candidate Key used for identification of tuples in a relation.
Foreign key SQL keyword. Used to define a referential constraint in SQL. See also references.
Query a function mapping instances of a given database schema into relations on a given set of
attributes.
Query Language a language in which queries may be expressed.
Record an ordered sequence of values of possibly different types.
Schema the characteristics of the data (not the data itself) within the database.
Schema (of a relation or table) its heading (or name), followed by (in brackets) the names of its
attributes. E.g. TEACHING (Course, Tutor)
Spurious Tuple a tuple in a join between two (badly designed) relations that contains wrong
information, even though the original relations contained correct information.
Secondary Key a Candidate Key which was not selected to be the Primary Key.
SQL a standard language, the structured query language, incorporating DDL and DML features, used to
manipulate databases.
Top-down design a design methodology that begins by creating a conceptual model (a domain model),
and translates this into a collection of tables.
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Tuple a function from a set of attributes to a collection of elements from the domains of the attributes.
Conceptually similar to an ordered pair or triple etc.
DUPLEX
1.
2.
3.
4.
Indicates a communications channel capable of carrying signals in both directions.

In asynchronous communication, a channel that can simultaneously send and receive data.
Duplex printing is a print job that prints on both sides of the paper; so when bound, the corresponding pages
face each other in a book/magazine.
Duplex system is a preventive measure operated by two computers; one computer doing the processing and
the other standing by waiting for the execution
SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION
In a simplex transmission, only one device transmits at a time-all other devices

receive.
Simplex transmission is like a one-way road. Travel is only allowed in one direction.
Data in a Simplex transmission is always one way. Simplex transmission are not often
used because it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
It's like a one-way street. An example of simplex is television, or Radio.
FULL-DUPLEX
Full-duplex transmission uses two communication channels so that devices (usually two) on
each end of a transmission can transmit and receive data at the same time.
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Full-duplex transmission is like a two-lane road. Travel is permitted in both directions,

each direction of travel in a designated lane.
The transmission of data in two directions simultaneously. Telephones are full-duplex
devices, unlike most speakerphones, which are half-duplex. Half-duplex devices only
allow one person to talk at a time.
Signal that flows in both directions at the same time over one line. Full duplex is
commonly used in voice chat over the internet and allows both users to talk instead of
only one at a time.
HALF-DUPLEX
Half-duplex transmission is a compromise between simplex and full-duplex. In half-duplex mode, there is
only one channel. However, both devices can transmit and receive by sharing the channel. When one device
transmits data, the other device receives. Citizen's band radio and most LAN data transmission use this
mode.
Half-duplex transmission is similar to a one-lane bridge on a two-lane road. Travel over the bridge is
permitted in both directions, but not at once. You must wait until traffic traveling in the opposite direction
clears the bridge before you can pass over the bridge.
SUMMARY
Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a
signal carrier, but not at the same time. For example, on a local area network using a
technology that has half-duplex transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and
then immediately receive data on the line from the same direction in which data was just
transmitted. On the other hand, full-duplex transmission implies that data are transmitted in
both directions simultaneously.
For example, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a
time. In contrast, a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk
simultaneously. When two computers communicate over a LAN, data typically travels in only
one direction at a time, because the base band network used for most LANs supports only a
single signal. In other words, it is transmitted in half-duplex fashion.
With the right equipment, full-duplex communication is possible on certain types of LANs.
The first requirement is a separate channel for traffic running in each direction. Whether this
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is possible depends on the network medium. Coaxial cable, for example, contains a single
conductor and a ground, so there is no physical way that traffic could run in both directions,
unless you were to install two cable runs for each connection. Twisted pair cable, on the other
hand, contains four separate wire pairs within a single sheath, one of which is dedicated to
incoming traffic and one to outgoing. Networks that use this type of cable can therefore
theoretically operate in full-duplex mode, and some manufacturers are making Ethernet
equipment that makes this possible. Full-duplex Ethernet essentially doubles the throughput
of the existing network.
Revision
Q* Give and explain the broad categories of Computer Applications
Scientific applications
Simulating the path of a satellite in orbit

Automatic control of chemical processing plants
Commercial applications
Payroll systems
Invoicing systems
MIS
Q* Input technologies that provide a more natural user interface for computer users
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Touch sensitive screen

Light sensitive pen
A graphic
Tablet
I. Allow you to make a selection by touching the surface of in display screen
II. Used to write directly on to the screen/ video screen using photoelectric
circuitry
III. Enables the computer to calculate the co ordinates of the points on the screen
touched by the light pen
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IV. Allows users to write or draw on the surface of a tablet the handwriting is
digitized by the computers and accepted or input display on the screen
Q* What is an electronic office
Is a collection of various technologies that are intended to improve the efficiency of office
work in a digitized manner i.e. Email, Desktop Publisher and so on.
Q*give and explain any six areas of office Automation
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
Word processing
Desktop publishing
Email
Facsimile (Fax)
Voice Mail
Video Text Teletext - View data
Sending documents images relay
Telescoping device that electronically transmits written or graphical material over
telephone lines to produce hardcopy @ a remote location.
Storing and forwarding of digitized speed
Teletext information transmitted on TV, which is text, based
View data- use telephone lines, the computer output is displayed on an adapted TV set
or VDU
Q* what is a set of interrelated component that collect (or retrieve), process, store and
distribute information to support decision making and control in organization
Q* Information systems can be used for competitive advantage
Give and explain 4 basic strategies a business organization can use to deal with competitive
forces
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Product differentiation
Focused differentiation
Developing tight linkages to customers and suppliers
Overall cost leader Becoming a low cost producer
I. Creating brand loyalty by developing new and unique products and services that are
not easily duplicated by competitors
II. Developing new market niches for specialized products or services where a business
can compete in the target area better that its competitors
III. Reduces customers, bargaining and power and the bargaining power of suppliers
IV. Raise switching costs
V. Produce goods and serves at a lower price that competitors without sacrificing quality
and level of services
Q*A firm faces a number of threats and opportunities
List Them
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Threats of new market entrants

Pressure from substitute products and services
Bargaining powers of customers
Bargaining power of suppliers
Q*What is outsourcing
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Is the contracting of outside providers to deliver certain information system needs?

Advantages
I. Company s management can concentrate on core business competencies
II. Economies of scale because they serve a number of clients
Disadvantages
I. May not understand the company business and therefore make inappropriate decisions
in IS design or operation
II. Security risks control of info is put in the hands of outsiders
III. Lead to the destruction of the internal is Dept which result in key staff
INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
SDLC STEPS
1) Project identification and initiation includes project
specific planning.
2) Analysis- Identification of system requirements
3) Logical design of the business process
4) Physical design of the technical specification
5) Implementation of the working system
6) Maintenance and operation
1) Preliminary investigation
2) Analysis
3) Design
4) Development
5) Implementation
6) Maintenance
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION AND INITIATION(preliminary investigation)

Monitoring the work environment
Screening, selecting and the preliminary study of a proposed information
system solution to a business problem
Gathering of information or facts to determine system development
Feasibility study- is a measure of how beneficial or practical the development
of an IS will be to the organization. It should be measured throughout the
lifecycle.
Feasibility check points can be installed into the SDLC
i) Operational feasibility
iv)
Schedule feasibility
ii) Technical feasibility
v)
Organizational feasibility
iii) Economic feasibility
vi)
Social feasibility
Operational The measure of accessing the degree to which a proposed
system solves business problems or takes business opportunities.
Technical a measure of the practicality of a specific technical solution
and the availability of technical resources and expertise. Availability of
technology about application decision to buy new technology or use
existing technology.
Economic feasibilityA measure of cost effectiveness of a project or
solution often called a Cost Benefit Analysis.
Identifying the financial benefits and costs associated with a developing
a project.
Whether the possible benefits of solving the problem are worth while.
Costs are practically impossible to measure at this stage.
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ORGANISATIONAL AND SOCIAL FEASIBILITIES

Cooperation of management from various functional areas
Employee and union resistance to the project.
Activity which could place the organization at legal risk
How the system is going to affect workers /users.
SCHEDULE FEASIBILITY
Measure of risk associated with the capability of completing the project
within its required time frame.
IS require time and cannot be hastened without increasing risk
Hurried projects often encounter delays and are subject to serious
problems or failure after they are installed.
2) SYSTEMS ANALYSIS STAGE
Identification of system requirements
Analyzing the current system
What is wrong and what to do in order to sort it out
Interviewing Existing documentation are used
Evaluating alternative solutions
Selecting hardware and software required for the new system- acquisition
stage.
3) SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE
o Logical design of the business processes
o Creating structure charts and diagrams of the new system that will help
the systems analyst
o Specifying the underlying mechanics of the old system together with
any changes or extension requested.
o Design to improve the old system
4. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT STAGE
-
Physical design of the technical specifications

Constructing the new system-the hardware and software are put in place.
Conceiving, designing and implementing a system
Testing staples are implemented here such as
i)
Unit /module testing
ii)
Integration/ program testing
iii)
Regression testing
iv)
System testing
v)
User acceptance testing
vi)
Volume testing
5. IMPLEMENTATION STAGE
-Implementing the working system
- Delivering the new system The new system is delivered to the users, sometimes small
groups are selected to try the new system.
- People are trained to operate and use the system and the orgn converts to the use of a
new developed system.
- Getting the people involved working with it.
- Various implementation methods.
i)
Phased changeover
ii)
Direct/complete overhaul changeover
iii)
Parallel changeover
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Pilot changeover
6. MAINTENANCE OF THE SYSTEM

- The monitoring, evaluation, and modifying of a system to make desirable or necessary
improvements.
- This is the feedback stage.
- Complete all documentation
- Let the system run and review it to ensure that it does what is required.
- The system Analyst has to listen to user demand/ needs to improve the current- system
and make charges to operational, needs of the new system that is implemented.
- Does or is the system meeting its objectives.
RAD- (Rapid Application Development)
- Relies upon automated development tools and a restructuring in the way projects are
planned and managed.
- Uses CASE Tools Used for constructing systems
- Used for the entire development of small, simple systems or for photocopying parts
that will be in cooperated into larger systems developed using the traditional life cycle
approach.
- User can react quickly to the system before all of the requirements are fully
understood.
- Allows users to take a try before you buy attitude.
- Direct user involvement is essential from beginning to end.
- Dependent on training and skill of the developed in apply the methodology
- If undertaken without sufficient training of the developers there is danger the
approach will not be applied correctly.
- It results in a poorly managed project with high costs and risks.
4 Phases of RAD
a)
b)
c)
d)
Requirements planning
User design
Construction
Installation (cut over)
a) Requirement planning
End users and developers participate in workshops where they review the RAD
methodology and prepare for the next phase.
Users work with developers in determining the general parameters of the
problem the system is trying to resolve and user needs it will attempt to fulfill.
A JAD (Joint application development) team is formed to focus on to business
aspects of the system.
This leads to a problem identification and allow the JAD team classify the
problem in general business terms.
b)
User design phase

Users and developers work as JADE team to design the logical requirements of
the system.
Developers who are expert in using the automated developments tool produce
prototypes of user interface, reports and any other important elements of the
system.
Users on the JAD team interact closely with the developers in building and
evaluating these prototypes until everyone is in agreement that the prototypes
fulfill the system
c)
Construction phase
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Final prototypes are reworked into a finished product

In many cases such reworking is not needed or minor
It is important that interfaces be designed that allow the new systems to exchange
data with other external systems that the company require.
Final system documentation needed to operate and maintain the systems must be
prepared, as well as user training material.
Cut-over
Installation of the new system
It is easier and less disruptive because of the prior user involvement and continual
testing of the system prototypes during the earlier phases.
Prototyping
Leads to more accurate requirements, in a shorter time period, than
Conventional development methods.
Obtain user buy-in to the new system through involvement in the system design.
Reduces initial training costs, as the user learns more about the system.
Manages expectations, as they understand the system look, feel, and functionality.
Criticisms of SDLC Approach
1. Failure to meet the needs of management
2. Unambitious system design
3. Instability
4. Inflexible
5. User dissatisfaction
6. Problems without documentation
7. Incomplete system
8. Application backlog
9. Maintenance workload
Weakness of Prototype
1.
Inefficiency
2.
Incomplete, performing only some of the tasks
3.
Poorly documented
4.
Unsuitable for integration with other operation system
5.
Incomplete, e.g. lacking security features
6.
Incapable of holding the Number of records necessary
7.
Inadequate, being designed for one type of user only
DOCUMENTING THE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
1.
2.
3.
4.
4FRONT-covers all aspects of the System Implementation.

Documentation is designed to support every function, which is associated with the new
application system.
4FRONT develops these four groupings of documentation.
Manual procedure documentation
User documentation
Operations documentation
Technical documentation
1. Manual Procedure (documentation)

- Describes in detail how the system users will perform the non-automated activities
associated with the new application system.
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2. User (documentation)
- Describes the user responsibilities directly associated with the information system.
- Describes how to prepare, control, distribute computer input and output, and how to
perform all on-line terminal procedures for data entry, processing control and output
generation.
3. Operations (documentation)
-Describes all normal and exception processing for computer operations personnel.
- Includes info needed to learn and operate the entire new application system.
4. Technical (documentation)
- Provides the material needed for effective and efficient maintenance of the
application system programming.
- Include all documentation and design data generated prior to programming, with all
updates and modifications clearly identified.
TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEM
- Supports the organizations daily activities.
- Maintains the majority of the organizations internal data.
- Employ simple but highly repetitive process.
- Require capability to deal with high volumes of transactions with great accuracy and
high security.
- Provide operational details, summary reports, and exception reports, which help
supervise and control routine operations.
- Transaction processing system can be divided into Accounting, marketing,
manufacturing.
Management Reporting Systems
- Not concerned with the daily operations on a nitty gritty level.
- Utilize data from Transaction processing systems to help mid management to control the
acquisition and allocation of resources which support those operations.
Decision Support System
Connected to a set of tools that provide statistical modeling, graphic presentation,

spreadsheets and other useful functions that support managerial decision.
Support a variety of analytical techniques such as what if analysis, optimization

modeling.
Use internal and external data.

Executive
-
Info-System
Info derived from external sources.
Provide info required in maintaining a strategic vision.
Provide management with the ability to quickly obtain status info and portray it in
graphical or tabular formats.
Analyse the situation and determine course of action.
Expert system
Programs written to stimulate or mimic human expertise or intelligence in some
field of knowledge.
Composed of a knowledge base and an inference engine
CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering)
Support tool for software engineer
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Case Workbenches
- Designed to support the analysis and design stages of the software process.- Oriented towards the support of graphical notations such as used in the various
methods.
Components of a Case Workbench are:
1 A diagram editing system that is used to create dataflow diagrams, structure charts,
ERDs.
- The editor is aware of the types of entities in the diagram.
- It captures information about theses entities and saves this information.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Design analysis and Checking facilities that process the design and report on errors
and anomalies.
Are integrated within the editing system so that the user may be informed of errors
during diagram creation.
Query language facilities that allow the user to browse the store information and
examine completed design.
Data dictionary facilities that maintain information from the central store and
automatically generate system documentation.
Report generation tools, that allows screen and document formats to be specified.
Forms generation tools, that allows screen and document formats to be specified.
Import/export facilities that allow the interchange of information from the central
repository with other development tools.
Some systems support skeleton code generators, which generate code or code
segments automatically from the design captured in the central store.
Weaknesses of Case Workbench products

1. Not integrated with other document preparation tools such word processors and
desktop publishing systems.
- Import/export facilities confined to ASCII text.
2. Lack of standardization which makes information interchange across different
workbenches difficult or impossible.
3. Lack facilities which allow a method to be tailored to a particular application or class
of applications e.g. you cannot override a built in rule with your own.
4. The quality of the hard copy documentation which is produced is often low.
The diagramming facilities are slow to sue so that even a moderately complex diagram
can take several hours to output and arrange.
Questions
(a) Discuss any 4 possible uses of spreadsheets in a business organization. [8 marks]
(b) Explain the following terms as used in spreadsheets
I. Cell
o
The intersection of a row and a column on a spreadsheet in which data can

be entered.
II. Range.
o
(c)
Series of two or more adjacent cells in a column or row or a rectangular

group of cells.
III. [2 marks each]

Explain the following terms as used in a word processing
I. Soft return
o
A soft return is entered automatically by a word processor's word wrap
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feature when the text reaches the end of the line. It is contrasted with a
hard return which is used primarily to begin a new paragraph. A little
known feature of Microsoft Word and OpenOffice. ...
II. Hard return

o
Made by pressing the return or enter key on the keyboard. A hard return, or
carriage return, creates a line break and identifies the end of a paragraph.
III. Thesaurus
o
o
Provides a listing of words and their synonym/related words.

Guide to use of terms, showing relationships between them, for the
purpose of providing standardized, controlled vocabulary for information
storage and retrieval
IV. Widow
o
o
In typesetting, a widow occurs when the majority of a paragraph appears

on one page with the last line of that paragraph flowing to the top of the
following page. ...
The last line of a paragraph at the top of a page of text.
V. Orphan.
o
In typesetting, an orphan is the first line of a paragraph appearing on its

own at the bottom of a page with the remaining portion of the paragraph
appearing on the following page. The first line of the paragraph was "left
behind" by the remaining portion of text. ...
Line of type on its own at the top or bottom of a page.
[2 marks each]
Question 24
(a) Define an electronic spreadsheet. [3 marks]
(b) List 5 facilities provided by a spreadsheet. [5 marks]
(c) What is word processing? [2 marks]
(d) Explain the following word processing terms
I. Justification
II.
III.
a. In typesetting, justification (can also be referred to as 'full justification') is the

typographic alignment setting of text or images within a column or "measure"
to align along both the left and right margin. Text set this way is said to be
"justified".
b. The alignment of text in a paragraph so that the margins are all straight on the
right side, or the left side, or both. E.g. this text is left justified.
Hard return
Soft return
IV. Header
o
Text that appears at the top of every page of a document when it is

printed.
V. Orientation.
o
o
Whether page is vertically or horizontally aligned. For example we have portrait and
landscape orientation.
Portrait orientation. The mode in which content is viewed where the width is shorter
than the height. Portrait orientation mimics the way most reading material is printed,
eg, letters, newspapers, books. ...
Landscape orientation. The mode in which content is viewed where the width is
longer than the height. Landscape is the traditional orientation for computer viewing
and is appropriate when viewing spreadsheets, video games, and movies.
[2 marks each]
Question 15
Briefly explain the following terms as used in a spreadsheet
(a) Active cell
(b) Cell
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(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
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FUNCTION
GRAPH
Formula
Cell address
Worksheet
Cell reference
Relative cell reference
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(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(v)
Cell pointer
Absolute cell reference
Mixed cell reference
Work book
Goal seek
Range
Protected cells
Freeze panes
Embedded chart
Row & column
Question 16
Briefly explain the following terms as used in a Word processing
(a) Orphan
(o) Hard return
(b) Header
(p) STATUS BAR
(c) Footer
(q) Indentation
(d) TEMPLATE
(r) Soft return
(e) Spellchecker
(s) Widow/Orphan Control
(f) FONT
(t) Widow
(g) TAB STOPS
(u) Thesaurus
(h) Mail merge
(v) Format bar
(i) Font type
(w) Standard bar
(j) Justification
(x) Center alignment
(k) Word wrap
(y) Hyphenation is used to eliminate gaps in
(l) Bold
justified text or to maintain even line lengths in
(m) Borders
narrow columns. You can hyphenate manually or
(n) Bullets
automatically.
[1 mark each]
Question
(a)
(b)
(c)
6
Define a word processor & give an example [2 marks]
List down at least 5 facilities provided by a word processor [5 marks]
Give a suitable term/ phrase that best describes the following statements in word processing.
i)
The automatic movement of typed text to the new line, without pressing the enter key.
ii)
Different handwritings in a computer.
iii)
Line spacing.
[1 mark each]
(d) Define a spreadsheet and give an example [2 marks]
(e) Give the difference between a spreadsheet & a worksheet [2 marks]
(f) Give a suitable word/ phrase that best describes the following spreadsheet terms
I. Cell
[2 marks]
II. Hard copy [2 marks]
III. Creating a permanent copy of a worksheet on a computer. [2 marks]
QUESTION 31
(a) Define the term Operating System. [3 marks]
(b) State any 4 functions of an operating system. [4 marks]
(c) State any 3 examples of an Operating system (exclude the Windows family).
[3 marks]
(d) Define the following Windows Operating Systems based terms:
I. Desktop
o
II. Icon
o
The main workspace in a graphical user interface such as Windows or

Macintosh Systems. Users open and work with files and programs on the
desktop, and can store files and shortcuts there as well. The user can also
customize the look of the desktop with images or wallpaper and custom
icons.
Is the background screen on the computer? It consists of pictures, called
icons that show cabinets, files, folders, and various types of documents.
A picture or graphical representation of an object on a display screen to
which a user can point to with a device, such as a mouse, to select a
particular operation or perform a certain action.
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III. Taskbar
o
o
The bar usually found at the bottom of a Windows screen. The taskbar
shows which software programs are open. It also contains the Start button.
A windows 95/98 screen elements, displayed on the desktops which
includes the start button and lists the programs currently running on the
computer.
IV. Window
o
In computing, a window is a visual area, usually rectangular in shape,

containing some kind of user interface, displaying the output of and
allowing input for one of a number of simultaneously running computer
processes. ...
V. Cascade window
o
o
An arrangement of Windows so each window is neatly stacked with only the

title bar of each window is showing.
Arrange (open windows) on a computer desktop so that they overlap each
other, with the title bars visible
[2marks each]
Question 6
Expand the following abbreviations.
a) GIGO
b) WYSIWYG
c) LED
d) LCD
e) MS DOS
f)
OCR
g) MICR
h) CD ROM
i)
ASCII
j)
COM
k) WIMP
l)
GUI
m) WIMP
n) CRT
o) DBMS
p) POP 3
q) HTML
r)
s)
t)
u)
v)
w)
x)
y)
z)
aa)
bb)
cc)
dd)
ee)
ff)
gg)
hh)
URL
TCP
HTTP
CPU
DBA
EPROM
VDU
ALU
DOS
FORTRAN
COBOL
ISP
VOIP
CPU
WWW
DVD
PROM. [20 marks]
Question 7
Explain the following terms in detail, giving examples where applicable.
a) Computer peripherals
b) Program
c) BLUETOOTH
a. Bluetooth is the codename for a
technology specification for lowd)
cost, short-range radio links
e)
between mobile PCs, mobile
f)
phones and other portable
g)
devices, and connectivity to the
h)
i)
Internet. ...
j)
b. Bluetooth is the name given to a
k)
radio technology making
transmission of signals over short
Question 8
distances between telephones,

computers and other devices, like
household appliances, without the
use of wires.
Computer
Hardware
Software
Operating system
Application software
Utility software
Machine language.
Random access memory. [20 marks]
Explain the following terms as used in word processing or spreadsheet
a) Menu
a.
A list of options, each of which

performs a desired action such as
choosing a command or applying a
particular format to a part of a
document. Menus are commonly
used in graphical interfaces.
b)
c)
Footer
Soft return
d) Edit
To review a piece of writing, marking

and correcting grammatical, spelling,
and factual errors. The editing process
also often includes shortening or
page
124
[A
A.C.A.
dvanced
omputer
lengthening articles to fit available

space, writing headlines and subheads.
e)
f)
Cell
Label
pplications
g)
h)
i)
j)
Chart
Mail merge
Print preview
Work sheet. [2 marks each]
Definitions of shortcut menu on the Web:

A menu for a specific object, that pops up when right-clicking on the object's name or icon. Also
called a context menu.
Definitions of menu item on the Web:
A choice in a menu. Menu items (text or graphics) are typically commands or other options that a
user can select. ...
Definitions of start menu on the Web:
The best way to start Windows 95 applications. Items in the Start Menu are stored in the
directory C:\Windows\Start Menu (unless Profiles are ...
The Start Menu and Start Button is user interface elements in the Microsoft Windows product
line, which serve as the central launching point for applications.
Definitions of pop-up menu on the Web:
A menu that appears as the result of some user action (usually clicking the right mouse button)
and that contains choices appropriate for the ...
A menu that remains unseen until activated by clicking on an icon or text.
After you click a button in Keep In Touch, a pop-up menu may appear. Simply choose the desired
item to continue.
Definitions of cascading menu on the Web:
A submenu of related choices that is invoked when the parent item, is selected. Usually, a choice
that offers a cascading menu is designated by an ...
A menu structure where submenus open when the user selects a choice from a menu. Cascading
menus are particularly useful in hierarchically-complex websites.
A submenu that provides selections that amplify the parent selection on a Pull down or Popup
Menu.
Definitions of context menu on the Web:
A menu for a specific object, that pops up when right-clicking on the object's name or icon. Also
called a short-cut menu.
a menu that appears when right-clicking on a folder, file, or other object
Displays a list of functions that can be performed on the selected item. In windows on a desktop
PC it has become second nature to right click on an object to bring up a context menu, for the
PocketPC, a Tap and Hold gesture is required.
Definitions of pull-down menu on the Web:
A menu that is identified by a menu title (a word or an icon) in the menu bar.
A menu that is activated by clicking on a menu title. The menu remains as long as the mouse
button is held, is clicked in a region outside of the pull-down menu, or after a specified time
interval.
Definitions of drop-down menu on the Web:
A menu that is displayed when a user chooses a menu title in the menu bar. Drop-down menus
are created using the Menu component. ...
In an online form, a drop-down menu (also known as a pull-down menu) allows you to select from
a given list of items. Drop-down menus are commonly used for web site navigation.
Definitions of menu bar on the Web:
The area near the top of a window, below the title bar and above the rest of the window that
contains choices that provide access to other menus. ...
The horizontal strip at the top of the screen that contains menu titles.
A strip across the top of the screen containing a number of menus in a row. You can choose the
menus by using the mouse or the keyboard.
page
125

Introduction To Computers

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Introduction To Computers

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A.C.A.

ADVANCED COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

STATE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Central processing unit [ALU & CU]

A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.

Control unit- issues

Main MemoryHolds data & instructions &

The CPU consists of the ALU & CU

DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT?

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

TYPE OF COMPUTERS/COMPUTER CATEGORIES

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

Users of mini-computers would be smaller banks & financial institutions, supermarket

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.

DATA SECURITY /PROTECTION

MEASURES TO ENSURE DATA SECURITY

1. Data Encryption/Decryption- Data is coded before transmission over a WAN &

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

2. Firewall- a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC

Summary - Keeping data secure

Measures that can be taken to keep data safe include:

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

To create a copy of a disks contents on another location for safe keeping.

A disaster recovery service/program provides for example

Definitions of disaster plan on the Web:

MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS

Key threats to data security

You are grounded

Have spares in the warehouse.

Have standby generators

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

Natural disasters/ physical

Hackers, Computer crime

Operations are grounded

Deletion & corruption of files

War and Terrorist activity

Definitions of computer abuse on the Web:

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another

controlling it are violated.

MEASURES TO COUNTER OR COMBAT COMPUTER CRIME [COMPUTER SECURITY]

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

Reduced memory or disk space

Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,

rmakaha/Advanced Computer Applications/

Characteristics of computer viruses

Attributes of a computer virus

o Auto replicating [self replicating].

How computers are infected with Viruses?

Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers.

Floppy disks or other

media that users can exchange.

Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.

Booting a PC from an infected medium.

Dr Solomons Antiviral Package

16) Code(Red) Hunter v1.5 ver

The fight against computer viruses involves five kinds of counter-measure:

Precautions/Safety guides against viruses