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Anatomy and Physiology

Respiration is the process by which living organisms take in oxygen and


release carbon dioxide. The human respiratory system, working
inconjunction with the circulatory system, supplies oxygen to the body'scells,
removing carbon dioxide in the process. The exchange of thesegases occurs
across cell membranes both in the lungs (externalrespiration) and in the
body tissues (internal respiration). Breathing, orpulmonary ventilation,
describes the process of inhaling and exhaling air. The human respiratory
system consists of the respiratory tract and thelungs.
Respiratory tract
The respiratory tract cleans, warms, and moistens air during its trip tothe
lungs. The tract can be divided into an upper and a lower part. Theupper
part consists of the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx (throat), and larynx(voice
box). The lower part consists of the trachea (windpipe), bronchi,and
bronchial tree. The nose has openings to the outside that allow air to enter.
Hairs insidethe nose trap dirt and keep it out of the respiratory tract. The
externalnose leads to a large cavity within the skull, the nasal cavity. This
cavityis lined with mucous membrane and fine hairs called cilia.
Mucusmoistens the incoming air and traps dust. The cilia move pieces of
themucus with its trapped particles to the throat, where it is spit out or
swallowed. Stomach acids destroy bacteria in swallowedmucus. Blood
vessels in the nose and nasal cavity release heat and warm the entering
air.Air leaves the nasal cavity and enters the pharynx. From there it passes
into the larynx, which is supported by a framework of cartilage (tough, white
connective tissue). The larynx is covered by the epiglottis, a flap of elastic
cartilage that moves up anddown like a trap door. The epiglottis stays open
during breathing, but closes during swallowing. This valve mechanism
keepssolid particles (food) and liquids out of the trachea. If something other
than air enters the trachea, it is expelled throughautomatic coughing.

Alveoli:
Tiny air-filled sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide occurs between the lungs and thebloodstream.
Bronchi:
Two main branches of the trachea leading into the lungs.
Bronchial tree:
Branching, air-conducting subdivisions of the bronchi in the lungs.
Epiglottis:
Flap of elastic cartilage covering the larynx that allows air to pass
through the trachea while keeping solid particlesand liquids out.
Pleura:
Membranous sac that envelops each lung and lines the thoracic cavity.Air
enters the trachea in the neck. Mucous membrane lines the trachea and Cshaped cartilage rings reinforce its walls. Elasticfibers in the trachea walls
allow the airways to expand and contract during breathing, while the
cartilage rings prevent themfrom collapsing. The trachea divides behind the
sternum (breastbone) to form a left and right branch, called
bronchi(pronounced BRONG-key), each entering a lung.
The lungs
The lungs are two cone-shaped organs located in the chest or thoracic
cavity. The heart separates them. The right lung issomewhat larger than the
left. A sac, called the pleura, surrounds and protects the lungs. One layer of
the pleura attaches to thewall of the thoracic cavity and the other layer
encloses the lungs. A fluid between the two membrane layers reduces
friction andallows smooth movement of the lungs during breathing. The
lungs are divided into lobes, each one of which receives its own bronchial
branch. Inside the lungs, the bronchi subdividerepeatedly into smaller
airways. Eventually they form tiny branches called terminal bronchioles.
Terminal bronchioles have adiameter of about 0.02 inch (0.5 millimeter).

This branching network within the lungs is called the bronchial tree. The
terminal bronchioles enter cup-shaped air sacs called alveoli (pronounced alVEE-o-leye). The average person has a total of about 700 million gas-filled
alveoli in the lungs. These provide an enormous surface area for gas
exchange. A network of capillaries (tiny blood vessels) surrounds each
alveoli. As blood passes through these vessels and air fills the alveoli,
theexchange of gases takes place: oxygen passes from the alveoli into the
capillaries while carbon dioxide passes from thecapillaries into the
alveoli. This processexternal respirationcauses the blood to leave the
lungs laden with oxygen and cleared of carbon dioxide. Whenthis blood
reaches the cells of the body, internal respiration takes place. The oxygen
diffuses or passes into the tissue fluid, andthen into the cells. At the same
time, carbon dioxide in the cells diffuses into the tissue fluid and then into
the capillaries. Thecarbon dioxide-filled blood then returns to the lungs for
another cycle.
Breathing
Breathing exchanges gases between theoutside air and the alveoli of the
lungs. Lungexpansion is brought about by two importantmuscles, the
diaphragm (pronounced DIE-a-fram)and the intercostal muscles. The
diaphragm is adome-shaped sheet of muscle located below thelungs that
separates the thoracic and abdominalcavities. The intercostal muscles are
locatedbetween the ribs.Nerves from the brain send impulses tothe
diaphragm and intercostal muscles,stimulating them to contract or relax.
When thediaphragm contracts, it moves down. The dome isflattened, and
the size of the chest cavity isincreased. When the intercostal muscles
contract,the ribs move up and outward, which alsoincreases the size of the
chest cavity. Bycontracting, the diaphragm and intercostalmuscles reduce
the pressure inside the lungsrelative to the pressure of the outside air. As
aconsequence, air rushes into the lungs duringinhalation. During exhalation,

the reverse occurs. The diaphragm relaxes and its dome curves upinto the
chest cavity, while the intercostalmuscles relax and bring the ribs down
andinward. The diminished size of the chest cavityincreases the pressure in
the lungs, therebyforcing air out.A healthy adult breathes in and out about12
times per minute, but this rate changes withexercise and other factors. Total
lung capacity isabout 12.5 pints (6 liters). Under normalcircumstances,
humans inhale and exhale aboutone pint (475 milliliters) of air in each cycle.
Onlyabout three-quarters of this air reaches thealveoli. The rest of the air
remains in therespiratory tract. Regardless of the volume of air

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