Poetry: From Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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PoetryWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Poetry
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Poetryisaformofliteraturethatusesaestheticandrhythmic[1][2][3]qualitiesoflanguagesuchas
phonaesthetics,soundsymbolism,andmetretoevokemeaningsinadditionto,orinplaceof,theprosaic
ostensiblemeaning.
Poetryhasalonghistory,datingbacktotheSumerianEpicofGilgamesh.Earlypoemsevolvedfromfolk
songssuchastheChineseShijing,orfromaneedtoretelloralepics,aswiththeSanskritVedas,
ZoroastrianGathas,andtheHomericepics,theIliadandtheOdyssey.Ancientattemptstodefinepoetry,
suchasAristotle'sPoetics,focusedontheusesofspeechinrhetoric,drama,songandcomedy.Later
attemptsconcentratedonfeaturessuchasrepetition,verseformandrhyme,andemphasizedtheaesthetics
whichdistinguishpoetryfrommoreobjectivelyinformative,prosaicformsofwriting.Fromthemid20th
century,poetryhassometimesbeenmoregenerallyregardedasafundamentalcreativeactemploying
language.
Poetryusesformsandconventionstosuggestdifferentialinterpretationtowords,ortoevokeemotive
responses.Devicessuchasassonance,alliteration,onomatopoeiaandrhythmaresometimesusedto
achievemusicalorincantatoryeffects.Theuseofambiguity,symbolism,ironyandotherstylisticelements
ofpoeticdictionoftenleavesapoemopentomultipleinterpretations.Similarlyfiguresofspeechsuchas
metaphor,simileandmetonymy[4]createaresonancebetweenotherwisedisparateimagesalayeringof
meanings,formingconnectionspreviouslynotperceived.Kindredformsofresonancemayexist,between
individualverses,intheirpatternsofrhymeorrhythm.
Somepoetrytypesarespecifictoparticularculturesandgenresandrespondtocharacteristicsofthe
languageinwhichthepoetwrites.ReadersaccustomedtoidentifyingpoetrywithDante,Goethe,
MickiewiczandRumimaythinkofitaswritteninlinesbasedonrhymeandregularmeterthereare,
however,traditions,suchasBiblicalpoetry,thatuseothermeanstocreaterhythmandeuphony.Much
modernpoetryreflectsacritiqueofpoetictradition,[5]playingwithandtesting,amongotherthings,the
principleofeuphonyitself,sometimesaltogetherforgoingrhymeorsetrhythm.[6][7]Intoday'sincreasingly
globalizedworld,poetsoftenadaptforms,stylesandtechniquesfromdiverseculturesandlanguages.
Contents
1History
1.1Westerntraditions
1.220thcenturydisputes
2Elements
2.1Prosody
2.1.1Rhythm
2.1.2Meter
2.1.3Metricalpatterns
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry
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2.2Rhyme,alliteration,assonance
2.2.1Rhymingschemes
2.3Form
2.3.1Linesandstanzas
2.3.2Visualpresentation
2.4Diction
3Forms
3.1Sonnet
3.2Shi
3.3Villanelle
3.4Tanka
3.5Haiku
3.6Ode
3.7Ghazal
4Genres
4.1Narrativepoetry
4.2Epicpoetry
4.3Dramaticpoetry
4.4Satiricalpoetry
4.5Lightpoetry
4.6Lyricpoetry
4.7Elegy
4.8Versefable
4.9Prosepoetry
4.10Speculativepoetry
5Seealso
6Notes
7Furtherreading
7.1Anthologies
History
Poetryasanartformmaypredateliteracy.[8]Epicpoetry,fromtheIndianVedas(17001200BC)and
Zoroaster'sGathastotheOdyssey(800675BC),appearstohavebeencomposedinpoeticformtoaid
memorizationandoraltransmission,inprehistoricandancientsocieties.[9]Otherformsofpoetrydeveloped
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directlyfromfolksongs.TheearliestentriesintheancientcompilationShijing,wereinitiallylyrics,
precedinglaterentriesintendedtoberead.[10]
TheoldestsurvivingepicpoemistheEpicofGilgamesh,fromthe3rdmillenniumBCinSumer(in
Mesopotamia,nowIraq),whichwaswrittenincuneiformscriptonclaytabletsand,later,papyrus.[11]Other
ancientepicpoetryincludestheGreekepicsIliadandOdyssey,theOld
IranianbookstheGathicAvestaandYasna,theRomannationalepic,
Virgil'sAeneid,andtheIndianepicsRamayanaandMahabharata.
Theeffortsofancientthinkerstodeterminewhatmakespoetrydistinctive
asaform,andwhatdistinguishesgoodpoetryfrombad,resultedin
"poetics"thestudyoftheaestheticsofpoetry.[12]Someancientpoetic
traditionssuchas,contextually,ClassicalChinesepoetryinthecaseofthe
Shijing(ClassicofPoetry),whichrecordsthedevelopmentofpoeticcanons
withritualandaestheticimportance.[13]Morerecently,thinkershave
struggledtofindadefinitionthatcouldencompassformaldifferencesas
greatasthosebetweenChaucer'sCanterburyTalesandMatsuoBash'sOku
noHosomichi,aswellasdifferencesincontextspanningTanakhreligious
poetry,lovepoetry,andrap.[14]
Aristotle
Westerntraditions
Classicalthinkersemployedclassificationasawaytodefineandassessthe
qualityofpoetry.Notably,theexistingfragmentsofAristotle'sPoetics
describethreegenresofpoetrytheepic,thecomic,andthetragicand
developrulestodistinguishthehighestqualitypoetryineachgenre,basedon
theunderlyingpurposesofthegenre.[15]Lateraestheticiansidentifiedthree
majorgenres:epicpoetry,lyricpoetry,anddramaticpoetry,treatingcomedy
andtragedyassubgenresofdramaticpoetry.[16]
Aristotle'sworkwasinfluentialthroughouttheMiddleEastduringtheIslamic
GoldenAge,[17]aswellasinEuropeduringtheRenaissance.[18]Laterpoets
andaestheticiansoftendistinguishedpoetryfrom,anddefineditinopposition
toprose,whichwasgenerallyunderstoodaswritingwithaproclivitytologicalexplicationandalinear
narrativestructure.[19]
JohnKeats
Thisdoesnotimplythatpoetryisillogicalorlacksnarration,butratherthatpoetryisanattempttorender
thebeautifulorsublimewithouttheburdenofengagingthelogicalornarrativethoughtprocess.English
RomanticpoetJohnKeatstermedthisescapefromlogic"NegativeCapability".[20]This"romantic"
approachviewsformasakeyelementofsuccessfulpoetrybecauseformisabstractanddistinctfromthe
underlyingnotionallogic.Thisapproachremainedinfluentialintothe20thcentury.[21]
Duringthisperiod,therewasalsosubstantiallymoreinteractionamongthevariouspoetictraditions,inpart
duetothespreadofEuropeancolonialismandtheattendantriseinglobaltrade.[22]Inadditiontoaboomin
translation,duringtheRomanticperiodnumerousancientworkswererediscovered.[23]
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20thcenturydisputes
Some20thcenturyliterarytheorists,relyinglessontheoppositionofprose
andpoetry,focusedonthepoetassimplyonewhocreatesusinglanguage,
andpoetryaswhatthepoetcreates.[24]Theunderlyingconceptofthepoet
ascreatorisnotuncommon,andsomemodernistpoetsessentiallydonot
distinguishbetweenthecreationofapoemwithwords,andcreativeactsin
othermedia.Yetothermodernistschallengetheveryattempttodefine
poetryasmisguided.[25]
Therejectionoftraditionalformsandstructuresforpoetrythatbeganinthe
firsthalfofthe20thcenturycoincidedwithaquestioningofthepurpose
andmeaningoftraditionaldefinitionsofpoetryandofdistinctionsbetween
ArchibaldMacLeish
poetryandprose,particularlygivenexamplesofpoeticproseandprosaic
poetry.Numerousmodernistpoetshavewritteninnontraditionalformsor
inwhattraditionallywouldhavebeenconsideredprose,althoughtheirwritingwasgenerallyinfusedwith
poeticdictionandoftenwithrhythmandtoneestablishedbynonmetricalmeans.Whiletherewasa
substantialformalistreactionwithinthemodernistschoolstothebreakdownofstructure,thisreaction
focusedasmuchonthedevelopmentofnewformalstructuresandsynthesesasontherevivalofolder
formsandstructures.[26]
Recently,postmodernismhascometoconveymorecompletelyproseandpoetryasdistinctentities,and
alsoamonggenresofpoetry,ashavingmeaningonlyasculturalartifacts.Postmodernismgoesbeyond
modernism'semphasisonthecreativeroleofthepoet,toemphasizetheroleofthereaderofatext
(Hermeneutics),andtohighlightthecomplexculturalwebwithinwhichapoemisread.[27]Today,
throughouttheworld,poetryoftenincorporatespoeticformanddictionfromotherculturesandfromthe
past,furtherconfoundingattemptsatdefinitionandclassificationthatwereoncesensiblewithinatradition
suchastheWesterncanon.[28]
Elements
Prosody
Prosodyisthestudyofthemeter,rhythm,andintonationofapoem.Rhythmandmeteraredifferent,
althoughcloselyrelated.[29]Meteristhedefinitivepatternestablishedforaverse(suchasiambic
pentameter),whilerhythmistheactualsoundthatresultsfromalineofpoetry.Prosodyalsomaybeused
morespecificallytorefertothescanningofpoeticlinestoshowmeter.[30]
Rhythm
Themethodsforcreatingpoeticrhythmvaryacrosslanguagesandbetweenpoetictraditions.Languagesare
oftendescribedashavingtimingsetprimarilybyaccents,syllables,ormoras,dependingonhowrhythmis
established,thoughalanguagecanbeinfluencedbymultipleapproaches.Japaneseisamoratimed
language.SyllabletimedlanguagesincludeLatin,Catalan,French,Leonese,GalicianandSpanish.English,
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Russianand,generally,Germanarestresstimedlanguages.[31]Varyingintonationalsoaffectshowrhythm
isperceived.Languagescanrelyoneitherpitch,suchasinVedicSanskritorAncientGreek,ortone.Tonal
languagesincludeChinese,Vietnamese,Lithuanian,andmostSubsaharanlanguages.[32]
Metricalrhythmgenerallyinvolvesprecisearrangementsofstressesorsyllablesintorepeatedpatterns
calledfeetwithinaline.InModernEnglishversethepatternofstresses
primarilydifferentiatefeet,sorhythmbasedonmeterinModernEnglishis
mostoftenfoundedonthepatternofstressedandunstressedsyllables(alone
orelided).[33]Intheclassicallanguages,ontheotherhand,whilethe
metricalunitsaresimilar,vowellengthratherthanstressesdefinethe
meter.[34]OldEnglishpoetryusedametricalpatterninvolvingvaried
numbersofsyllablesbutafixednumberofstrongstressesineachline.[35]
ThechiefdeviceofancientHebrewBiblicalpoetry,includingmanyofthe
psalms,wasparallelism,arhetoricalstructureinwhichsuccessivelines
reflectedeachotheringrammaticalstructure,soundstructure,notional
content,orallthree.Parallelismlentitselftoantiphonalorcallandresponse
RobinsonJeffers
performance,whichcouldalsobereinforcedbyintonation.Thus,Biblical
poetryreliesmuchlessonmetricalfeettocreaterhythm,butinsteadcreates
rhythmbasedonmuchlargersoundunitsoflines,phrasesandsentences.[36]
Someclassicalpoetryforms,suchasVenpaoftheTamillanguage,hadrigidgrammars(tothepointthat
theycouldbeexpressedasacontextfreegrammar)whichensuredarhythm.[37]InChinesepoetry,tonesas
wellasstressescreaterhythm.ClassicalChinesepoeticsidentifiesfourtones:theleveltone,risingtone,
departingtone,andenteringtone.[38]
TheformalpatternsofmeterusedinModernEnglishversetocreaterhythmnolongerdominate
contemporaryEnglishpoetry.Inthecaseoffreeverse,rhythmisoftenorganizedbasedonlooserunitsof
cadenceratherthanaregularmeter.RobinsonJeffers,MarianneMoore,andWilliamCarlosWilliamsare
threenotablepoetswhorejecttheideathatregularaccentualmeteriscriticaltoEnglishpoetry.[39]Jeffers
experimentedwithsprungrhythmasanalternativetoaccentualrhythm.[40]
Meter
IntheWesternpoetictradition,metersarecustomarilygroupedaccordingtoacharacteristicmetricalfoot
andthenumberoffeetperline.[41]ThenumberofmetricalfeetinalinearedescribedusingGreek
terminology:tetrameterforfourfeetandhexameterforsixfeet,forexample.[42]Thus,"iambicpentameter"
isametercomprisingfivefeetperline,inwhichthepredominantkindoffootisthe"iamb".Thismetric
systemoriginatedinancientGreekpoetry,andwasusedbypoetssuchasPindarandSappho,andbythe
greattragediansofAthens.Similarly,"dactylichexameter",comprisessixfeetperline,ofwhichthe
dominantkindoffootisthe"dactyl".DactylichexameterwasthetraditionalmeterofGreekepicpoetry,
theearliestextantexamplesofwhicharetheworksofHomerandHesiod.[43]Iambicpentameterand
dactylichexameterwerelaterusedbyanumberofpoets,includingWilliamShakespeareandHenry
WadsworthLongfellow,respectively.[44]ThemostcommonmetricalfeetinEnglishare:[45]
iamboneunstressedsyllablefollowedbyastressedsyllable(e.g.describe,Include,retract)
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trocheeonestressedsyllablefollowedbyanunstressedsyllable(e.g.picture,flower)
dactylonestressedsyllablefollowedbytwounstressedsyllables
(e.g.annotateannotate)
anapesttwounstressedsyllablesfollowedbyonestressedsyllable(e.g.
comprehendcomprehend)
spondeetwostressedsyllablestogether(e.g.enough)
pyrrhictwounstressedsyllablestogether(rare,usuallyusedtoend
dactylichexameter)
Thereareawiderangeofnamesforothertypesoffeet,rightuptoa
choriamb,afoursyllablemetricfootwithastressedsyllablefollowedby
twounstressedsyllablesandclosingwithastressedsyllable.Thechoriamb
Homer
isderivedfromsomeancientGreekandLatinpoetry.[43]Languageswhich
utilizevowellengthorintonationratherthanorinadditiontosyllabicaccentsindeterminingmeter,suchas
OttomanTurkishorVedic,oftenhaveconceptssimilartotheiambanddactyltodescribecommon
combinationsoflongandshortsounds.[46]
Eachofthesetypesoffeethasacertain"feel,"whetheraloneorincombinationwithotherfeet.Theiamb,
forexample,isthemostnaturalformofrhythmintheEnglishlanguage,andgenerallyproducesasubtle
butstableverse.[47]Scanningmetercanoftenshowthebasicorfundamentalpatternunderlyingaverse,but
doesnotshowthevaryingdegreesofstress,aswellasthedifferingpitchesandlengthsofsyllables.[48]
Thereisdebateoverhowusefulamultiplicityofdifferent"feet"isin
describingmeter.Forexample,RobertPinskyhasarguedthatwhiledactyls
areimportantinclassicalverse,Englishdactylicverseusesdactylsvery
irregularlyandcanbebetterdescribedbasedonpatternsofiambsand
anapests,feetwhichheconsidersnaturaltothelanguage.[49]Actualrhythm
issignificantlymorecomplexthanthebasicscannedmeterdescribedabove,
andmanyscholarshavesoughttodevelopsystemsthatwouldscansuch
complexity.VladimirNabokovnotedthatoverlaidontopoftheregular
patternofstressedandunstressedsyllablesinalineofversewasaseparate
patternofaccentsresultingfromthenaturalpitchofthespokenwords,and
suggestedthattheterm"scud"beusedtodistinguishanunaccentedstress
fromanaccentedstress.[50]
Metricalpatterns
IllustrationbyHenry
HolidaytoLewisCarroll's
"TheHuntingoftheSnark",
whichiswrittenmainlyin
anapestictetrameter.
Differenttraditionsandgenresofpoetrytendtousedifferentmeters,
rangingfromtheShakespeareaniambicpentameterandtheHomeric
dactylichexametertotheanapestictetrameterusedinmanynurseryrhymes.
However,anumberofvariationstotheestablishedmeterarecommon,both
toprovideemphasisorattentiontoagivenfootorlineandtoavoidboring
repetition.Forexample,thestressinafootmaybeinverted,acaesura(orpause)maybeadded(sometimes
inplaceofafootorstress),orthefinalfootinalinemaybegivenafeminineendingtosoftenitorbe
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replacedbyaspondeetoemphasizeitandcreateahardstop.Somepatterns(suchasiambicpentameter)
tendtobefairlyregular,whileotherpatterns,suchasdactylichexameter,tendtobehighlyirregular.[51]
Regularitycanvarybetweenlanguage.Inaddition,differentpatternsoftendevelopdistinctivelyindifferent
languages,sothat,forexample,iambictetrameterinRussianwillgenerallyreflectaregularityintheuseof
accentstoreinforcethemeter,whichdoesnotoccur,oroccurstoamuchlesserextent,inEnglish.[52]
Somecommonmetricalpatterns,withnotableexamplesofpoetsandpoems
whousethem,include:
Iambicpentameter(JohnMiltoninParadiseLost,William
ShakespeareinhisSonnets)[53]
Dactylichexameter(Homer,IliadVirgil,Aeneid)[54]
Iambictetrameter(AndrewMarvell,"ToHisCoyMistress"
AleksandrPushkin,EugeneOnegin,RobertFrost,StoppingbyWoods
onaSnowyEvening)[55]
Trochaicoctameter(EdgarAllanPoe,"TheRaven")[56]
AlexanderPushkin
Alexandrine(JeanRacine,Phdre)[57]
Rhyme,alliteration,assonance
Rhyme,alliteration,assonanceandconsonancearewaysofcreating
repetitivepatternsofsound.Theymaybeusedasanindependentstructural
elementinapoem,toreinforcerhythmicpatterns,orasanornamental
element.[58]Theycanalsocarryameaningseparatefromtherepetitive
soundpatternscreated.Forexample,Chaucerusedheavyalliterationto
mockOldEnglishverseandtopaintacharacterasarchaic.[59]
Rhymeconsistsofidentical("hardrhyme")orsimilar("softrhyme")
soundsplacedattheendsoflinesoratpredictablelocationswithinlines
("internalrhyme").Languagesvaryintherichnessoftheirrhyming
structuresItalian,forexample,hasarichrhymingstructurepermitting
maintenanceofalimitedsetofrhymesthroughoutalengthypoem.The
richnessresultsfromwordendingsthatfollowregularforms.English,with
itsirregularwordendingsadoptedfromotherlanguages,islessrichin
rhyme.[60]Thedegreeofrichnessofalanguage'srhymingstructuresplaysa
substantialroleindeterminingwhatpoeticformsarecommonlyusedinthat
language.[61]
TheOldEnglishepicpoem
Beowulfiswrittenin
alliterativeverse.
Alliterationistherepetitionoflettersorlettersoundsatthebeginningof
twoormorewordsimmediatelysucceedingeachother,oratshortintervalsortherecurrenceofthesame
letterinaccentedpartsofwords.Alliterationandassonanceplayedakeyroleinstructuringearly
Germanic,NorseandOldEnglishformsofpoetry.ThealliterativepatternsofearlyGermanicpoetry
interweavemeterandalliterationasakeypartoftheirstructure,sothatthemetricalpatterndetermines
whenthelistenerexpectsinstancesofalliterationtooccur.Thiscanbecomparedtoanornamentaluseof
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alliterationinmostModernEuropeanpoetry,wherealliterativepatternsarenotformalorcarriedthrough
fullstanzas.Alliterationisparticularlyusefulinlanguageswithlessrichrhymingstructures.Assonance,
wheretheuseofsimilarvowelsoundswithinawordratherthansimilarsoundsatthebeginningorendofa
word,waswidelyusedinskaldicpoetry,butgoesbacktotheHomericepic.[62]Becauseverbscarrymuch
ofthepitchintheEnglishlanguage,assonancecanlooselyevokethetonalelementsofChinesepoetryand
soisusefulintranslatingChinesepoetry.[63]Consonanceoccurswhereaconsonantsoundisrepeated
throughoutasentencewithoutputtingthesoundonlyatthefrontofaword.Consonanceprovokesamore
subtleeffectthanalliterationandsoislessusefulasastructuralelement.[61]
Rhymingschemes
Inmanylanguages,includingmodernEuropeanlanguagesandArabic,
poetsuserhymeinsetpatternsasastructuralelementforspecificpoetic
forms,suchasballads,sonnetsandrhymingcouplets.However,theuseof
structuralrhymeisnotuniversalevenwithintheEuropeantradition.Much
modernpoetryavoidstraditionalrhymeschemes.ClassicalGreekandLatin
poetrydidnotuserhyme.[64]RhymeenteredEuropeanpoetryintheHigh
MiddleAges,inpartundertheinfluenceoftheArabiclanguageinAl
Andalus(modernSpain).[65]Arabiclanguagepoetsusedrhymeextensively
fromthefirstdevelopmentofliteraryArabicinthesixthcentury,asintheir
long,rhymingqasidas.[66]Somerhymingschemeshavebecomeassociated
withaspecificlanguage,cultureorperiod,whileotherrhymingschemes
haveachieveduseacrosslanguages,culturesortimeperiods.Someforms
ofpoetrycarryaconsistentandwelldefinedrhymingscheme,suchasthe
chantroyalortherubaiyat,whileotherpoeticformshavevariablerhyme
schemes.[67]
DanteandBeatriceseeGod
asapointoflight
surroundedbyangels.A
Dorillustrationtothe
DivineComedy,Paradiso,
Canto28.
Mostrhymeschemesaredescribedusinglettersthatcorrespondtosetsof
rhymes,soifthefirst,secondandfourthlinesofaquatrainrhymewitheach
otherandthethirdlinedoesnotrhyme,thequatrainissaidtohavean"aaba"rhymescheme.Thisrhyme
schemeistheoneused,forexample,intherubaiyatform.[68]Similarly,an"abba"quatrain(whatis
knownas"enclosedrhyme")isusedinsuchformsasthePetrarchansonnet.[69]Sometypesofmore
complicatedrhymingschemeshavedevelopednamesoftheirown,separatefromthe"abc"convention,
suchastheottavarimaandterzarima.[70]Thetypesanduseofdifferingrhymingschemesisdiscussed
furtherinthemainarticle.
Form
Poeticformismoreflexibleinmodernistandpostmodernistpoetry,andcontinuestobelessstructured
thaninpreviousliteraryeras.Manymodernpoetseschewrecognisablestructuresorforms,andwritein
freeverse.Butpoetryremainsdistinguishedfromprosebyitsformsomeregardforbasicformalstructures
ofpoetrywillbefoundineventhebestfreeverse,howevermuchsuchstructuresmayappeartohavebeen
ignored.[71]Similarly,inthebestpoetrywritteninclassicstylestherewillbedeparturesfromstrictformfor
emphasisoreffect.[72]
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Amongmajorstructuralelementsusedinpoetryaretheline,thestanzaorverseparagraph,andlarger
combinationsofstanzasorlinessuchascantos.Alsosometimesusedarebroadervisualpresentationsof
wordsandcalligraphy.Thesebasicunitsofpoeticformareoftencombinedintolargerstructures,called
poeticformsorpoeticmodes(seefollowingsection),asinthesonnetorhaiku.
Linesandstanzas
Poetryisoftenseparatedintolinesonapage.Theselinesmaybebasedonthenumberofmetricalfeet,or
mayemphasizearhymingpatternattheendsoflines.Linesmayserveotherfunctions,particularlywhere
thepoemisnotwritteninaformalmetricalpattern.Linescanseparate,compareorcontrastthoughts
expressedindifferentunits,orcanhighlightachangeintone.[73]Seethearticleonlinebreaksfor
informationaboutthedivisionbetweenlines.
Linesofpoemsareoftenorganizedintostanzas,whicharedenominatedbythenumberoflinesincluded.
Thusacollectionoftwolinesisacouplet(ordistich),threelinesatriplet(ortercet),fourlinesaquatrain,
andsoon.Theselinesmayormaynotrelatetoeachotherbyrhymeorrhythm.Forexample,acoupletmay
betwolineswithidenticalmeterswhichrhymeortwolinesheldtogetherbyacommonmeteralone.[74]
Otherpoemsmaybeorganizedintoverseparagraphs,inwhich
regularrhymeswithestablishedrhythmsarenotused,butthepoetic
toneisinsteadestablishedbyacollectionofrhythms,alliterations,
andrhymesestablishedinparagraphform.[75]Manymedieval
poemswerewritteninverseparagraphs,evenwhereregularrhymes
andrhythmswereused.[76]
Inmanyformsofpoetry,stanzasareinterlocking,sothatthe
rhymingschemeorotherstructuralelementsofonestanza
determinethoseofsucceedingstanzas.Examplesofsuch
AlexanderBlok'spoem,"Noch,
interlockingstanzasinclude,forexample,theghazalandthe
ulitsa,fonar,apteka"("Night,street,
villanelle,wherearefrain(or,inthecaseofthevillanelle,refrains)
lamp,drugstore"),onawallin
isestablishedinthefirststanzawhichthenrepeatsinsubsequent
Leiden
stanzas.Relatedtotheuseofinterlockingstanzasistheiruseto
separatethematicpartsofapoem.Forexample,thestrophe,
antistropheandepodeoftheodeformareoftenseparatedintooneormorestanzas.[77]
Insomecases,particularlylengthierformalpoetrysuchassomeformsofepicpoetry,stanzasthemselves
areconstructedaccordingtostrictrulesandthencombined.Inskaldicpoetry,thedrttkvttstanzahad
eightlines,eachhavingthree"lifts"producedwithalliterationorassonance.Inadditiontotwoorthree
alliterations,theoddnumberedlineshadpartialrhymeofconsonantswithdissimilarvowels,not
necessarilyatthebeginningofthewordtheevenlinescontainedinternalrhymeinsetsyllables(not
necessarilyattheendoftheword).Eachhalflinehadexactlysixsyllables,andeachlineendedina
trochee.Thearrangementofdrttkvttsfollowedfarlessrigidrulesthantheconstructionoftheindividual
drttkvtts.[78]
Visualpresentation
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Evenbeforetheadventofprinting,thevisualappearanceofpoetry
oftenaddedmeaningordepth.Acrosticpoemsconveyedmeanings
intheinitiallettersoflinesorinlettersatotherspecificplacesina
poem.[79]InArabic,HebrewandChinesepoetry,thevisual
presentationoffinelycalligraphedpoemshasplayedanimportant
partintheoveralleffectofmanypoems.[80]
Withtheadventofprinting,poetsgainedgreatercontroloverthe
massproducedvisualpresentationsoftheirwork.Visualelements
havebecomeanimportantpartofthepoet'stoolbox,andmany
poetshavesoughttousevisualpresentationforawiderangeof
purposes.SomeModernistpoetshavemadetheplacementof
individuallinesorgroupsoflinesonthepageanintegralpartofthe
poem'scomposition.Attimes,thiscomplementsthepoem'srhythm
throughvisualcaesurasofvariouslengths,orcreatesjuxtapositions
soastoaccentuatemeaning,ambiguityorirony,orsimplytocreate
anaestheticallypleasingform.Initsmostextremeform,thiscan
leadtoconcretepoetryorasemicwriting.[81][82]
Visualpoetry
Diction
Poeticdictiontreatsthemannerinwhichlanguageisused,andrefersnotonlytothesoundbutalsotothe
underlyingmeaninganditsinteractionwithsoundandform.[83]Manylanguagesandpoeticformshave
veryspecificpoeticdictions,tothepointwheredistinctgrammarsanddialectsareusedspecificallyfor
poetry.[84][85]Registersinpoetrycanrangefromstrictemploymentofordinaryspeechpatterns,asfavoured
inmuchlate20thcenturyprosody,[86]throughtohighlyornateusesoflanguage,asinmedievaland
Renaissancepoetry.[87]
Poeticdictioncanincluderhetoricaldevicessuchassimileandmetaphor,aswellastonesofvoice,suchas
irony.AristotlewroteinthePoeticsthat"thegreatestthingbyfaristobeamasterofmetaphor."[88]Since
theriseofModernism,somepoetshaveoptedforapoeticdictionthatdeemphasizesrhetoricaldevices,
attemptinginsteadthedirectpresentationofthingsandexperiencesandtheexplorationoftone.[89]Onthe
otherhand,Surrealistshavepushedrhetoricaldevicestotheirlimits,makingfrequentuseofcatachresis.[90]
Allegoricalstoriesarecentraltothepoeticdictionofmanycultures,andwereprominentintheWestduring
classicaltimes,thelateMiddleAgesandtheRenaissance.Aesop'sFables,repeatedlyrenderedinboth
verseandprosesincefirstbeingrecordedabout500B.C.,areperhapstherichestsinglesourceof
allegoricalpoetrythroughtheages.[91]OthernotablesexamplesincludetheRomandelaRose,a13th
centuryFrenchpoem,WilliamLangland'sPiersPloughmaninthe14thcentury,andJeandelaFontaine's
Fables(influencedbyAesop's)inthe17thcentury.Ratherthanbeingfullyallegorical,however,apoem
maycontainsymbolsorallusionsthatdeepenthemeaningoreffectofitswordswithoutconstructingafull
allegory.[92]
Anotherelementofpoeticdictioncanbetheuseofvividimageryforeffect.Thejuxtapositionof
unexpectedorimpossibleimagesis,forexample,aparticularlystrongelementinsurrealistpoetryand
haiku.[93]Vividimagesareoftenendowedwithsymbolismormetaphor.Manypoeticdictionsuserepetitive
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phrasesforeffect,eitherashortphrase(suchasHomer's"rosyfingereddawn"or"thewinedarksea")ora
longerrefrain.Suchrepetitioncanaddasombretonetoapoem,orcanbelacedwithironyasthecontextof
thewordschanges.[94]
Forms
Specificpoeticformshavebeendevelopedbymanycultures.Inmoredeveloped,closedor"received"
poeticforms,therhymingscheme,meterandotherelementsofapoemarebasedonsetsofrules,ranging
fromtherelativelylooserulesthatgoverntheconstructionofanelegytothehighlyformalizedstructureof
theghazalorvillanelle.[95]Describedbelowaresomecommonformsofpoetrywidelyusedacrossa
numberoflanguages.Additionalformsofpoetrymaybefoundinthediscussionsofpoetryofparticular
culturesorperiodsandintheglossary.
Sonnet
Amongthemostcommonformsofpoetrythroughtheagesisthesonnet,
whichbythe13thcenturywasapoemoffourteenlinesfollowingaset
rhymeschemeandlogicalstructure.Bythe14thcentury,theformfurther
crystallizedunderthepenofPetrarch,whosesonnetswerelatertranslatedin
the16thcenturybySirThomasWyatt,whoiscreditedwithintroducingthe
sonnetformintoEnglishliterature.[96]Asonnet'sfirstfourlinestypically
introducethetopic,thesecondelaboratesandthethirdpositsaproblem
thecoupletusually,butnotalways,includesatwist,oranafterthought.A
sonnetusuallyfollowsanababcdcdefefggrhymepattern.The
sonnet'sconventionshavechangedoveritshistory,andsothereareseveral
differentsonnetforms.Traditionally,insonnetsEnglishpoetsuseiambic
pentameter,theSpenserianandShakespeareansonnetsbeingespecially
notable.[97]IntheRomancelanguages,thehendecasyllableandAlexandrine
arethemostwidelyusedmeters,thoughthePetrarchansonnethasbeen
usedinItalysincethe14thcentury.[98]
Shakespeare
Sonnetsareparticularlyassociatedwithlovepoetry,andoftenuseapoeticdictionheavilybasedonvivid
imagery,butthetwistsandturnsassociatedwiththemovefromoctavetosestetandtofinalcoupletmake
themausefulanddynamicformformanysubjects.[99]Shakespeare'ssonnetsareamongthemostfamousin
Englishpoetry,with20beingincludedintheOxfordBookofEnglishVerse.[100]
Shi
Shi(simplifiedChinese:traditionalChinese:pinyin:shWadeGiles:shih)Isthemaintypeof
ClassicalChinesepoetry.[101]Withinthisformofpoetrythemostimportantvariationsare"folksong"
styledverse(yuefu),"oldstyle"verse(gushi),"modernstyle"verse(jintishi).Inallcases,rhymingis
obligatory.TheYuefuisafolkballadorapoemwritteninthefolkballadstyle,andthenumberoflinesand
thelengthofthelinescouldbeirregular.Fortheothervariationsofshipoetry,generallyeitherafourline
(quatrain,orjueju)orelseaneightlinepoemisnormaleitherwaywiththeevennumberedlinesrhyming.
Thelinelengthisscannedbyaccordingnumberofcharacters(accordingtotheconventionthatone
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characterequalsonesyllable),andarepredominantlyeitherfiveorsevencharacterslong,withacaesura
beforethefinalthreesyllables.Thelinesaregenerallyendstopped,consideredasaseriesofcouplets,and
exhibitverbalparallelismasakeypoeticdevice.[102]The"oldstyle"verse(gushi)islessformallystrict
thanthejintishi,orregulatedverse,which,despitethename"newstyle"verseactuallyhaditstheoretical
basislaidasfarbacktoShenYue,inthe5thor6thcentury,althoughnotconsideredtohavereacheditsfull
developmentuntilthetimeofChenZi'ang(661702)[103]Agoodexampleofapoetknownforhisgushi
poemsisLiBai.Amongitsotherrules,thejintishirulesregulatethetonalvariationswithinapoem,
includingtheuseofsetpatternsofthefourtonesofMiddleChineseThebasicformofjintishi(lushi)has
eightlinesinfourcouplets,withparallelismbetweenthelinesinthesecondandthirdcouplets.The
coupletswithparallellinescontaincontrastingcontentbutanidenticalgrammaticalrelationshipbetween
words.Jintishioftenhavearichpoeticdiction,fullofallusion,andcanhaveawiderangeofsubject,
includinghistoryandpolitics.[104][105]OneofthemastersoftheformwasDuFu,whowroteduringthe
TangDynasty(8thcentury).[106]
Villanelle
Thevillanelleisanineteenlinepoemmadeupoffivetripletswithaclosing
quatrainthepoemischaracterizedbyhavingtworefrains,initiallyusedinthe
firstandthirdlinesofthefirststanza,andthenalternatelyusedatthecloseof
eachsubsequentstanzauntilthefinalquatrain,whichisconcludedbythetwo
refrains.Theremaininglinesofthepoemhaveanabalternatingrhyme.[107]
ThevillanellehasbeenusedregularlyintheEnglishlanguagesincethelate
19thcenturybysuchpoetsasDylanThomas,[108]W.H.Auden,[109]and
ElizabethBishop.[110]
Tanka
W.H.Auden
TankaisaformofunrhymedJapanesepoetry,withfivesectionstotalling31
onji(phonologicalunitsidenticaltomorae),structuredina57577pattern.[111]Thereisgenerallyashift
intoneandsubjectmatterbetweentheupper575phraseandthelower77phrase.Tankawerewrittenas
earlyastheAsukaperiodbysuchpoetsasKakinomotonoHitomaro,atatimewhenJapanwasemerging
fromaperiodwheremuchofitspoetryfollowedChineseform.[112]Tankawasoriginallytheshorterform
ofJapaneseformalpoetry(whichwasgenerallyreferredtoas"waka"),andwasusedmoreheavilyto
explorepersonalratherthanpublicthemes.Bythetenthcentury,tankahadbecomethedominantformof
Japanesepoetry,tothepointwheretheoriginallygeneraltermwaka("Japanesepoetry")cametobeused
exclusivelyfortanka.Tankaarestillwidelywrittentoday.[113]
Haiku
HaikuisapopularformofunrhymedJapanesepoetry,whichevolvedinthe17thcenturyfromthehokku,
oropeningverseofarenku.[114]Generallywritteninasingleverticalline,thehaikucontainsthreesections
totalling17onji,structuredina575pattern.Traditionally,haikucontainakireji,orcuttingword,usually
placedattheendofoneofthepoem'sthreesections,andakigo,orseasonword.[115]Themostfamous
exponentofthehaikuwasMatsuoBash(16441694).Anexampleofhiswriting:[116]
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fujinokazeyaoogininoseteEdomiyage
thewindofMt.Fuji
I'vebroughtonmyfan!
agiftfromEdo
Ode
OdeswerefirstdevelopedbypoetswritinginancientGreek,suchasPindar,
andLatin,suchasHorace.Formsofodesappearinmanyofthecultures
thatwereinfluencedbytheGreeksandLatins.[117]Theodegenerallyhas
threeparts:astrophe,anantistrophe,andanepode.Theantistrophesofthe
odepossesssimilarmetricalstructuresand,dependingonthetradition,
similarrhymestructures.Incontrast,theepodeiswrittenwithadifferent
schemeandstructure.Odeshaveaformalpoeticdiction,andgenerallydeal
withaserioussubject.Thestropheandantistrophelookatthesubjectfrom
different,oftenconflicting,perspectives,withtheepodemovingtoahigher
leveltoeithervieworresolvetheunderlyingissues.Odesareoftenintended
toberecitedorsungbytwochoruses(orindividuals),withthefirstreciting
thestrophe,thesecondtheantistrophe,andbothtogethertheepode.[118]
Overtime,differingformsforodeshavedevelopedwithconsiderable
variationsinformandstructure,butgenerallyshowingtheoriginal
influenceofthePindaricorHoratianode.OnenonWesternformwhich
resemblestheodeistheqasidainPersianpoetry.[119]
Ghazal
Horace
Theghazal(alsoghazel,gazel,gazal,orgozol)isaformofpoetry
commoninArabic,Persian,Turkish,Azerbaijani,UrduandBengali
poetry.Inclassicform,theghazalhasfromfivetofifteenrhyming
coupletsthatsharearefrainattheendofthesecondline.This
refrainmaybeofoneorseveralsyllables,andisprecededbya
rhyme.Eachlinehasanidenticalmeter.Theghazaloftenreflectson
athemeofunattainableloveordivinity.[120]
Aswithotherformswithalonghistoryinmanylanguages,many
variationshavebeendeveloped,includingformswithaquasi
musicalpoeticdictioninUrdu.[121]Ghazalshaveaclassicalaffinity
withSufism,andanumberofmajorSufireligiousworksarewritten
inghazalform.Therelativelysteadymeterandtheuseoftherefrain
Rumi
produceanincantatoryeffect,whichcomplementsSufimystical
themeswell.[122]AmongthemastersoftheformisRumi,a13th
centuryPersianpoet.[123]OneofthemostfamouspoetinthistypeofpoetryisHafez.ThemesofhisGhazal
isexposinghypocrisy.Hislifeandpoemshavebeenthesubjectofmuchanalysis,commentaryand
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interpretation,influencingpostfourteenthcenturyPersianwritingmorethananyotherauthor.[124][125]
WeststlicherDiwanofJohannWolfgangvonGoethethatisacollectionoflyricalpoems,hasbeen
inspiredbythePersianpoetHafez.[126][127][128]
Genres
Inadditiontospecificformsofpoems,poetryisoftenthoughtofintermsofdifferentgenresandsubgenres.
Apoeticgenreisgenerallyatraditionorclassificationofpoetrybasedonthesubjectmatter,style,orother
broaderliterarycharacteristics.[129]Somecommentatorsviewgenresasnaturalformsofliterature.Others
viewthestudyofgenresasthestudyofhowdifferentworksrelateandrefertootherworks.[130]
Narrativepoetry
Narrativepoetryisagenreofpoetrythattellsastory.Broadlyitsubsumes
epicpoetry,buttheterm"narrativepoetry"isoftenreservedforsmaller
works,generallywithmoreappealtohumaninterest.Narrativepoetrymay
betheoldesttypeofpoetry.ManyscholarsofHomerhaveconcludedthat
hisIliadandOdysseywerecomposedfromcompilationsofshorternarrative
poemsthatrelatedindividualepisodes.Muchnarrativepoetrysuchas
ScottishandEnglishballads,andBalticandSlavicheroicpoemsis
performancepoetrywithrootsinapreliterateoraltradition.Ithasbeen
speculatedthatsomefeaturesthatdistinguishpoetryfromprose,suchas
meter,alliterationandkennings,onceservedasmemoryaidsforbardswho
recitedtraditionaltales.[131]
GeoffreyChaucer
NotablenarrativepoetshaveincludedOvid,Dante,JuanRuiz,Chaucer,WilliamLangland,Lusde
Cames,Shakespeare,AlexanderPope,RobertBurns,FernandodeRojas,AdamMickiewicz,Alexander
Pushkin,EdgarAllanPoeandAlfredTennyson.
Epicpoetry
Epicpoetryisagenreofpoetry,andamajorformofnarrativeliterature.Thisgenreisoftendefinedas
lengthypoemsconcerningeventsofaheroicorimportantnaturetothecultureofthetime.Itrecounts,ina
continuousnarrative,thelifeandworksofaheroicormythologicalpersonorgroupofpersons.[132]
ExamplesofepicpoemsareHomer'sIliadandOdyssey,Virgil'sAeneid,theNibelungenlied,Lusde
Cames'OsLusadas,theCantardeMioCid,theEpicofGilgamesh,theMahabharata,Valmiki's
Ramayana,Ferdowsi'sShahnama,Nizami(orNezami)'sKhamse(FiveBooks),andtheEpicofKing
Gesar.Whilethecompositionofepicpoetry,andoflongpoemsgenerally,becamelesscommoninthe
westaftertheearly20thcentury,somenotableepicshavecontinuedtobewritten.DerekWalcottwona
Nobelprizetoagreatextentonthebasisofhisepic,Omeros.[133]
Dramaticpoetry
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Dramaticpoetryisdramawritteninversetobespokenorsung,andappearsinvarying,sometimesrelated
formsinmanycultures.Greektragedyinversedatestothe6thcenturyB.C.,andmayhavebeenan
influenceonthedevelopmentofSanskritdrama,[134]justasIndiandramain
turnappearstohaveinfluencedthedevelopmentofthebianwenverse
dramasinChina,forerunnersofChineseOpera.[135]EastAsianverse
dramasalsoincludeJapaneseNoh.ExamplesofdramaticpoetryinPersian
literatureincludeNizami'stwofamousdramaticworks,LaylaandMajnun
andKhosrowandShirin,Ferdowsi'stragediessuchasRostamandSohrab,
Rumi'sMasnavi,Gorgani'stragedyofVisandRamin,andVahshi'stragedy
ofFarhad.
Satiricalpoetry
Poetrycanbeapowerfulvehicleforsatire.TheRomanshadastrong
traditionofsatiricalpoetry,oftenwrittenforpoliticalpurposes.Anotable
exampleistheRomanpoetJuvenal'ssatires.[136]
ThesameistrueoftheEnglishsatiricaltradition.JohnDryden(aTory),the
firstPoetLaureate,producedin1682MacFlecknoe,subtitled"ASatireon
theTrueBlueProtestantPoet,T.S."(areferencetoThomasShadwell).[137]
Anothermasterof17thcenturyEnglishsatiricalpoetrywasJohnWilmot,
2ndEarlofRochester.[138]SatiricalpoetsoutsideEnglandincludePoland's
IgnacyKrasicki,Azerbaijan'sSabirandPortugal'sManuelMariaBarbosa
duBocage.
Goethe
Lightpoetry
Lightpoetry,orlightverse,ispoetrythatattemptstobehumorous.Poems
considered"light"areusuallybrief,andcanbeonafrivolousorserious
JohnWilmot
subject,andoftenfeaturewordplay,includingpuns,adventurousrhyme
andheavyalliteration.Althoughafewfreeversepoetshaveexcelledat
lightverseoutsidetheformalversetradition,lightverseinEnglishisusuallyformal.Commonforms
includethelimerick,theclerihew,andthedoubledactyl.
Whilelightpoetryissometimescondemnedasdoggerel,orthoughtofaspoetrycomposedcasually,humor
oftenmakesaseriouspointinasubtleorsubversiveway.Manyofthemostrenowned"serious"poetshave
alsoexcelledatlightverse.NotablewritersoflightpoetryincludeLewisCarroll,OgdenNash,X.J.
Kennedy,WillardR.Espy,andWendyCope.
Lyricpoetry
Lyricpoetryisagenrethat,unlikeepicanddramaticpoetry,doesnotattempttotellastorybutinsteadisof
amorepersonalnature.Poemsinthisgenretendtobeshorter,melodic,andcontemplative.Ratherthan
depictingcharactersandactions,itportraysthepoet'sownfeelings,statesofmind,andperceptions.[139]
NotablepoetsinthisgenreincludeJohnDonne,GerardManleyHopkins,andAntonioMachado.
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Elegy
Anelegyisamournful,melancholyorplaintivepoem,especiallyalament
forthedeadorafuneralsong.Theterm"elegy,"whichoriginallydenoteda
typeofpoeticmeter(elegiacmeter),commonlydescribesapoemof
mourning.Anelegymayalsoreflectsomethingthatseemstotheauthorto
bestrangeormysterious.Theelegy,asareflectiononadeath,onasorrow
moregenerally,oronsomethingmysterious,maybeclassifiedasaformof
lyricpoetry.[140][141]
NotablepractitionersofelegiacpoetryhaveincludedPropertius,Jorge
Manrique,JanKochanowski,ChidiockTichborne,EdmundSpenser,Ben
Jonson,JohnMilton,ThomasGray,CharlotteTurnerSmith,WilliamCullen
Bryant,PercyByssheShelley,JohannWolfgangvonGoethe,Evgeny
Baratynsky,AlfredTennyson,WaltWhitman,LouisGallet,Antonio
Machado,JuanRamnJimnez,WilliamButlerYeats,RainerMariaRilke,
andVirginiaWoolf.
LewisCarroll
Versefable
Thefableisanancientliterarygenre,often(thoughnotinvariably)setin
verse.Itisasuccinctstorythatfeaturesanthropomorphizedanimals,plants,
inanimateobjects,orforcesofnaturethatillustrateamorallesson(a
"moral").Versefableshaveusedavarietyofmeterandrhymepatterns.[142]
NotableversefabulistshaveincludedAesop,VishnuSarma,Phaedrus,
MariedeFrance,RobertHenryson,BiernatofLublin,JeandeLaFontaine,
IgnacyKrasicki,FlixMaradeSamaniego,TomsdeIriarte,IvanKrylov
andAmbroseBierce.
Prosepoetry
ChristinedePizan
Prosepoetryisahybridgenrethatshowsattributesofbothproseand
poetry.Itmaybeindistinguishablefromthemicrostory(a.k.a.the"short
shortstory","flashfiction").Whilesomeexamplesofearlierprosestrike
modernreadersaspoetic,prosepoetryiscommonlyregardedashaving
originatedin19thcenturyFrance,whereitspractitionersincludedAloysius
Bertrand,CharlesBaudelaire,ArthurRimbaudandStphaneMallarm.[143]
Sincethelate1980sespecially,prosepoetryhasgainedincreasing
popularity,withentirejournals,suchasTheProsePoem:AnInternational
Journal,[144]ContemporaryHaibunOnline[145]devotedtothatgenre.
Speculativepoetry
Speculativepoetry,alsoknownasfantasticpoetry,(ofwhichweirdor
macabrepoetryisamajorsubclassification),isapoeticgenrewhichdeals
thematicallywithsubjectswhichare'beyondreality',whethervia
IgnacyKrasicki
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extrapolationasinsciencefictionorviaweirdandhorrificthemes
asinhorrorfiction.Suchpoetryappearsregularlyinmodernscience
fictionandhorrorfictionmagazines.EdgarAllanPoeissometimes
seenasthe"fatherofspeculativepoetry".[146]
Seealso
Glossaryofpoetryterms
Listofpoetrygroupsandmovements
Outlineofpoetry
Poetryreading
CharlesBaudelaire,byGustave
Courbet
Rhapsode
Notes
1. ^"Poetry"(http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/poetry?q=poetry).OxfordDictionaries.Oxford
UniversityPress.2013.
2. ^"Poetry"(http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/poetry).MerriamWebster.MerriamWebster,Inc.
2013.
3. ^"Poetry"(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/poetry?s=t).Dictionary.com.Dictionary.com,LLC.2013
BasedontheRandomHouseDictionary
4. ^Strachan,JohnRTerry,Richard,G(2000).Poetry:anintroduction.EdinburghUniversityPress.p.119.
ISBN9780814797976.
5. Êliot,TS(1999)."TheFunctionofCriticism".SelectedEssays.Faber&Faber.pp.1334.ISBN978015
1803873.
6. ^Longenbach,James(1997).ModernPoetryAfterModernism.OxfordUniversityPress.pp.9,103.ISBN019
5101782.
7. ^Schmidt,Michael,ed.(1999).TheHarvillBookofTwentiethCenturyPoetryinEnglish.HarvillPress.
pp.xxviixxxiii.ISBN1860467350.
8. ^Hoivik,SLuger,K(3June2009)."FolkMediaforBiodiversityConservation:APilotProjectfromthe
HimalayaHinduKush".InternationalCommunicationGazette71(4):321346.doi:10.1177/1748048509102184
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1748048509102184).
9. Âhl,FrederickRoisman,HannahM(1996).TheOdysseyReFormed.CornellUniversityPress.pp.126.
ISBN0801483352..Otherssuggestthatpoetrydidnotnecessarilypredatewriting.Goody,Jack(1987).The
InterfaceBetweentheWrittenandtheOral.CambridgeUniversityPress.p.98.ISBN0521337941.
10. Êbrey,Patricia(1993).ChineseCivilisation:ASourcebook(2nded.).TheFreePress.pp.1113.ISBN9780
029087527.
11. ^Sanders,NK(trans.)(1972).TheEpicofGilgamesh(Reviseded.).PenguinBooks.pp.78.
12. Âbondolo,Daniel(2001).Apoeticshandbook:verbalartintheEuropeantradition.Curzon.pp.5253.
ISBN9780700712236.
13. ^Gentz,Joachim(2008)."RitualMeaningofTextualForm:EvidencefromEarlyCommentariesofthe
HistoriographicandRitualTraditions".InKern,Martin.TextandRitualinEarlyChina.Universityof
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HistoriographicandRitualTraditions".InKern,Martin.TextandRitualinEarlyChina.Universityof
WashingtonPress.pp.124148.ISBN9780295987873.
14. ^Habib,Rafey(2005).Ahistoryofliterarycriticism.JohnWiley&Sons.pp.607609,620.ISBN9780631
232001.
15. ^Heath,Malcolm,ed.(1997).Aristotle'sPoetics.PenguinBooks.ISBN0140446362.
16. ^Frow,John(2007).Genre(Reprinted.).Routledge.pp.5759.ISBN9780415280631.
17. ^Bogges,WF(1968)." 'HermannusAlemannus'LatinAnthologyofArabicPoetry".JournaloftheAmerican
OrientalSociety88(4):65770.doi:10.2307/598112(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F598112).JSTOR598112
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/598112).Burnett,Charles(2001)."LearnedKnowledgeofArabicPoetry,Rhymed
Prose,andDidacticVersefromPetrusAlfonsitoPetrarch".PoetryandPhilosophyintheMiddleAges:A
FestschriftforPeterDronke.BrillAcademicPublishers.pp.2962.ISBN9004119647.
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ISBN0801880556.
19. ^Kant,ImmanuelBernard,JH(trans.)(1914).CritiqueofJudgment.Macmillan.p.131.Kantarguesthatthe
natureofpoetryasaselfconsciouslyabstractandbeautifulformraisesittothehighestlevelamongtheverbal
arts,withtoneormusicfollowingit,andonlyafterthatthemorelogicalandnarrativeprose.
20. Ôu,Li(2009).Keatsandnegativecapability.Continuum.pp.13.ISBN9781441147240.
21. ^Watten,Barrett(2003).Theconstructivistmoment:frommaterialtexttoculturalpoetics.WesleyanUniversity
Press.pp.1719.ISBN9780819566102.
22. ÂbuMahfouz,Ahmad(2008)."TranslationasaBlendingofCultures"
(http://pnglanguages.org/siljot/2008/1/51140/siljot2008101.pdf).JournalofTranslation4(1).
23. ^Highet,Gilbert(1985).Theclassicaltradition:GreekandRomaninfluencesonwesternliterature(Reissued
ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.pp.355,360,479.ISBN9780195002065.
24. ^Wimsatt,WilliamK,JrBrooks,Cleanth(1957).LiteraryCriticism:AShortHistory.VintageBooks.p.374.
25. ^Johnson,Jeannine(2007).Whywritepoetry?:modernpoetsdefendingtheirart.FairleighDickinson
UniversityPress.p.148.ISBN9780838641057.
26. ^Jenkins,LeeMDavis,Alex,ed.(2007).TheCambridgecompaniontomodernistpoetry.Cambridge
UniversityPress.pp.17,38,156.ISBN9780521618151.
27. ^Barthes,Roland(1978)."DeathoftheAuthor".ImageMusicText.Farrar,Straus&Giroux.pp.142148.
28. ^Connor,Steven(1997).Postmodernistculture:anintroductiontotheoriesofthecontemporary(2nded.).
Blackwell.pp.123128.ISBN9780631200529.
29. ^Pinsky1998,p.52
30. ^Fussell1965,pp.2021
31. ^Schlter,Julia(2005).RhythmicGrammar.WalterdeGruyter.pp.24,304,332.
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ISBN0521773148.
33. ^Fussell1965,p.12
34. ^Jorgens,EliseBickford(1982).Thewelltun'dword:musicalinterpretationsofEnglishpoetry,15971651.
UniversityofMinnesotaPress.p.23.ISBN9780816610297.
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ISBN9781589830868.
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37. ^BalaSundaraRaman,LIshwar,SKumarRavindranath,Sanjeeth(2003)."ContextFreeGrammarforNatural
LanguageConstructs:AnimplementationforVenpaClassofTamilPoetry"
(http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.3.7738).TamilInternet:128136.
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ISBN9780691001685.
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40. ^Hollander1981,p.22
41. ^Corn1997,p.24
42. ^Corn1997,pp.25,34
43. âbAnnis,WilliamS(January2006)."IntroductiontoGreekMeter"(http://aoidoi.org/articles/meter/intro.pdf).
Aoidoi.pp.115.
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(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F412889).JSTOR412889(https://www.jstor.org/stable/412889).
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48. ^Pinsky1998,pp.1124
49. ^Pinsky1998,p.66
50. ^Nabokov,Vladimir(1964).NotesonProsody.BollingenFoundation.pp.913.ISBN0691017603.
51. ^Fussell1965,pp.3671
52. ^Nabokov,Vladimir(1964).NotesonProsody.BollingenFoundation.pp.4647.ISBN0691017603.
53. Âdams1997,p.206
54. Âdams1997,p.63
55. ^"WhatisTetrameter?"(http://www.tetrameter.com).tetrameter.com.Retrieved10December2011.
56. Âdams1997,p.60
57. ^James,EDJondorf,G(1994).Racine:Phdre.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.3234.ISBN9780521
397216.
58. ^Corn1997,p.65
59. Ôsberg,RichardH(2001)." 'Ikannatgeeste':Chaucer'sArtfulAlliteration".InGaylord,AlanT.Essayson
theartofChaucer'sverse.Routledge.pp.195228.ISBN9780815329510.
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Translation.Farrar,Straus&Giroux.ISBN0374176744.
61. âbKiparsky,Paul(Summer1973)."TheRoleofLinguisticsinaTheoryofPoetry".Daedalus102(3):231
244.
62. ^Russom,Geoffrey(1998).BeowulfandoldGermanicmetre.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.6486.
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Furtherreading
Brooks,Cleanth(1947).TheWellWroughtUrn:Studiesin
theStructureofPoetry.HarcourtBrace&Company.
Finch,Annie(2011).APoet'sEar:AHandbookofMeterand
Form.UniversityofMichiganPress.ISBN978047205066
Wikiquotehasquotations
relatedto:Poetry
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worksonthetopic:Poetry
6.
Fry,Stephen(2007).TheOdeLessTravelled:Unlockingthe
PoetWithin.ArrowBooks.ISBN9780099509349.
Lookuppoetryin
Wiktionary,thefree
dictionary.
23/24
2/22/2015
Pound,Ezra(1951).ABCofReading.Faber.
Preminger,AlexBrogan,TerryVFWarnke,FrankJ(ed.).
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoPoetry.
TheNewPrincetonEncyclopediaofPoetryandPoetics(3rd
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Iturat,Isidro(2010).Poetics(http://www.indrisos.com/ensayosyarticulos/poeticsisidroiturat.htm).
Indrisos.com.
Anthologies
Ferguson,MargaretSalter,MaryJoStallworthy,Jon,ed.(1996).TheNortonAnthologyofPoetry
(4thed.).W.W.Norton&Co.ISBN0393968200.
Gardner,Helen,ed.(1972).NewOxfordBookofEnglishVerse12501950.OxfordUniversityPress.
ISBN0198121369.
Larkin,Philip,ed.(1973).TheOxfordBookofTwentiethCenturyEnglishVerse.OxfordUniversity
Press.
Yeats,WB,ed.(1936).OxfordBookofModernVerse18921935.OxfordUniversityPress.
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