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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith
Department of Engineering
University of Cambridge
U.K.

Mathematical Theory of Networks and Systems (MTNS)


17th International Symposium
Kyoto International Conference Hall
Kyoto, Japan, July 24-28, 2006

Semi-Plenary Lecture
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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Outline of Talk
1. Motivating example (vehicle suspension).
2. A new mechanical element.
3. Positive-real functions and Brune synthesis.
4. Bott-Duffin method.
5. Darlington synthesis.
6. Minimum reactance synthesis.
7. Synthesis of resistive n-ports.
8. Vehicle suspension.
9. Synthesis with restricted complexity.
10. Motorcycle steering instabilities.

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Motivating Example Vehicle Suspension

Performance objectives
1. Control vehicle body in the face of variable loads.
2. Insulate effect of road undulations (ride).
3. Minimise roll, pitch under braking, acceleration and
cornering (handling).
MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Quarter-car Vehicle Model (conventional suspension)


load
PSfrag replacements
disturbances
ms

spring

damper

mu

kt

tyre

road
disturbances
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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

The Most General Passive Vehicle Suspension

ms

Z(s)

Replace the spring and damper with a


general positive-real impedance Z(s).

ag replacements
mu

zr

But is Z(s) physically realisable?

kt

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

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Electrical-Mechanical Analogies
1. Force-Voltage Analogy.
voltage
current

force
velocity

Oldest analogy historically, cf. electromotive force.


2. Force-Current Analogy.
current
voltage
electrical ground

force
velocity
mechanical ground

Independently proposed by: Darrieus (1929), Hahnle (1932), Firestone (1933).


Respects circuit topology, e.g. terminals, through- and across-variables.

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

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Standard Element Correspondences (Force-Current Analogy)


v = Ri

resistor

di
v = L dt

inductor

C dv
dt = i

capacitor

damper
spring

kv =

mass

m dv
dt = F

PSfrag replacements

cv = F
dF
dt

v2

v1

Electrical
F

v2 Mechanical

v1

What are the terminals of the mass element?


MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

The Exceptional Nature of the Mass Element


Newtons Second Law gives the following network interpretation of the mass
element:
One terminal is the centre of mass,
Other terminal is a fixed point in the inertial frame.
Hence, the mass element is analogous to a grounded capacitor.

Standard network symbol


PSfrag replacements
for the mass element:

v2
MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

v1 = 0
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Table of usual correspondences

Electrical

Mechanical
F

i
v2

v2

v2

v1

spring

inductor
i

v1 = 0

i
v2

capacitor
i

i
v2

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

v1

v1

mass

F
v2

v1

damper

v1

resistor

Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Consequences for network synthesis

Two major problems with the use of the mass element for synthesis of
black-box mechanical impedances:
An electrical circuit with ungrounded capacitors will not have a direct
mechanical analogue,
Possibility of unreasonably large masses being required.
Question
Is it possible to construct a physical device such that
the relative acceleration between its endpoints is proportional to the applied force?

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One method of realisation


rack

pinions

PSfrag replacements

terminal 2

gear

flywheel

terminal 1

Suppose the flywheel of mass m rotates by radians per meter of relative


displacement between the terminals. Then:
F = (m2 ) (v 2 v 1 )
(Assumes mass of gears, housing etc is negligible.)
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The Ideal Inerter


We define the Ideal Inerter to be a mechanical one-port device such
that the equal and opposite force applied at the nodes is
proportional to the relative acceleration between the nodes, i.e.
F = b(v 2 v 1 ).
We call the constant b the inertance and its units are kilograms.
The ideal inerter can be approximated in the same sense that real springs,
dampers, inductors, etc approximate their mathematical ideals.
We can assume its mass is small.
M.C. Smith, Synthesis of Mechanical Networks: The Inerter,
IEEE Trans. on Automat. Contr., 47 (2002), pp. 16481662.

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A new correspondence for network synthesis

Electrical

Mechanical
F
v2
dF
dt
F

k
s

spring

di
dt

F Y (s) = bs

v2

F =

i
v2

v1

Y (s) =

1
Ls

v1

= k(v2 v1 )

Y (s) =

v1
d(v2 v1 )
b dt

F
v2

inerter
Y (s) = c

v1 ) inductor
i

v2

v1

i = C d(v2dtv1 )
i

i
v1

v2

Y (s) = Cs
capacitor
Y (s) =

1
R

v1

F = c(v2 v1 )

damper

i=

Y (s) = admittance =

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1
L (v2

1
R (v2

v1 )

resistor

1
impedance
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Rack and pinion inerter


made at
Cambridge University
Engineering Department
mass 3.5 kg
inertance 725 kg
stroke 80 mm

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Damper-inerter series arrangement


with centring springs

PSfrag replacements

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

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Alternative Realisation of the Inerter

PSfrag replacements

screw

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nut flywheel

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

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Ballscrew inerter made at Cambridge University Engineering Department


Mass 1 kg, Inertance (adjustable) = 60180 kg
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Electrical equivalent of quarter car model


Fs

g replacements PSfrag replacements


ms
Y (s)

zs
zu

kt1

zr +

mu

Y (s)

mu

ms

Fs

kt
zr

Y (s) = Admittance =

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Force
Velocity

Current
Voltage

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Positive-real functions
Definition. A function Z(s) is defined to be positive-real if one of the
following two equivalent conditions is satisfied:
1. Z(s) is analytic and Z(s) + Z(s) 0 in Re(s) > 0.
2. Z(s) is analytic in Re(s) > 0, Z(j) + Z(j) 0 for all at which
Z(j) is finite, and any poles of Z(s) on the imaginary axis or at infinity
are simple and have a positive residue.

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Passivity Defined
Definition. A network is passive if for all admissible v, i which are square
integrable on (, T ],
Z T
v(t)i(t) dt 0.

Proposition. Consider a one-port electrical network for which the impedance


Z(s) exists and is real-rational. The network is passive if and only if Z(s) is
positive-real.
R.W. Newcomb, Linear Multiport Synthesis, McGraw-Hill, 1966.
B.D.O. Anderson and S. Vongpanitlerd, Network Analysis and Synthesis, Prentice-Hall, 1973.

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O. Brune showed that any (rational) positive-real function could


be realised as the impedance
or admittance of a network
comprising resistors, capacitors,
inductors and transformers.
(1931)

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Minimum functions
A minimum function Z(s) is a positive-real function with no poles or zeros
on jR {} and with the real part of Z(j) equal to 0 at one or more
frequencies.
PSfrag replacements
ReZ(j)

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Foster preamble for a positive-real Z(s)


Removal of poles/zeros on jR {}. e.g.
s2 + s + 1
s+1

s+

1
s+1

lossless
s2 + 1
s2 + 2s + 1

2s
+1
2
s +1

1

Can always reduce a positive-real Z(s) to a minimum function.

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The Brune cycle


Let Z(s) be a minimum function with Z(j1 ) = jX1 (1 > 0).
Write L1 = X1 /1 and Z1 (s) = Z(s) L1 s.
Case 1. (L1 < 0)
L1 < 0

placements
Z(s)

Z1 (s)

(negative inductor!)

Z1 (s) is positive-real. Let Y1 (s) = 1/Z1 (s). Therefore, we can write


2K1 s
Y2 (s) = Y1 (s) 2
s + 12
for some K1 > 0.
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PSfrag
replacements
The Brune
cycle (cont.)
Then:

L1 < 0

L2 > 0

Z(s)

Z2 (s)

C2 > 0

where L2 = 1/2K1 , C2 = 2K1 /12 and Z2 = 1/Y2 .


Straightforward calculation shows that
Z2 (s) = sL3 +

Z3 (s)

proper

where L3 = L1 /(1 + 2K1 L1 ). Since Z2 (s) is positive-real, L3 > 0 and Z3 (s)


is positive-real.
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PSfrag
replacements
Passive Network
Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

The Brune cycle (cont.)


Then:

L1 < 0

L3 > 0
L2 > 0

Z(s)

Z3 (s)

C2 > 0

placements
To remove negative inductor:
L1

M
Lp

Ls

L3
L2

Some algebra shows that: Lp , Ls > 0 and


coefficient).
MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Lp = L 1 + L 2
Ls = L 2 + L 3
M = L2
M2
Lp Ls

= 1 (unity coupling

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PSfrag replacements
The Brune cycle (cont.)
Realisation for completed cycle:
M
Z(s)

Lp

Ls

Z3 (s)

C2

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The Brune cycle (cont.)


Case 2. (L1 > 0). As before Z1 (s) = Z(s) L1 s

g replacements

L1 > 0

Z(s)

Z1 (s)

(no need for


negative inductor!)

Problem: Z1 (s) is not positive-real!


Lets press on and hope for the best!!
As before let Y1 = 1/Z1 and write
Y2 (s) = Y1 (s)

2K1 s
.
2
2
s + 1

Despite the fact that Y1 is not positive-real we can show that K1 > 0.
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PSfrag
replacements
The Brune
cycle (cont.)
Hence:

L1 > 0

L2 > 0

Z(s)

Z2 (s)

C2 > 0

But still Z2 (s) is not positive-real. Again we can check that


Z2 (s) = sL3 +

Z3 (s)

proper

where L3 = L1 /(1 + 2K1 L1 ).


This time L3 < 0 and Z3 (s) is positive-real.
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PSfrag
replacements
Passive Network
Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

The Brune cycle (cont.)


So:

L1 > 0

L3 < 0
L2 > 0

Z(s)

Z3 (s)

C2 > 0

PSfrag replacements
As before we can transform to:
M
Lp

Z(s)

Ls

Z3 (s)

C2

where Lp , Ls > 0 and

M2
Lp Ls

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

= 1 (unity coupling coefficient).


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R. Bott and R.J. Duffin showed


that transformers were unnecessary in the synthesis of
positive-real functions. (1949)

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Richardss transformation
Theorem. If Z(s) is positive-real then
kZ(s) sZ(k)
R(s) =
kZ(k) sZ(s)
is positive-real for any k > 0.
Proof.
Z(s) Z(k)
is b.r. and Y (k) = 0
Z(s) is p.r. Y (s) =
Z(s) + Z(k)
k+s
0
Y (s) is b.r.
Y (s) =
ks
0
1
+
Y
(s)
0
is p.r.
Z (s) =
1 Y 0 (s)
R(s) = Z 0 (s) after simplification.

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Bott-Duffin construction (cont.)


Idea: use Richardss transformation to eliminate transformers from Brune
cycle.
As before, let Z(s) be a minimum function with Z(j1 ) = jX1 (1 > 0).
Write L1 = X1 /1 .
Case 1. (L1 > 0)
Since Z(s) is a minimum function we can always find a k s.t. L1 = Z(k)/k.
Therefore:

has a zero at s = j1 .

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

kZ(s) sZ(k)
R(s) =
kZ(k) sZ(s)

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Bott-Duffin construction (cont.)


We now write:
Z(s) =
=
=

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

kZ(k)R(s) + Z(k)s
k + sR(s)
Z(k)s
kZ(k)R(s)
+
k + sR(s)
k + sR(s)
1
1
+
1
s
k
Z(k)R(s) + kZ(k)
Z(k)s +

R(s)
Z(k)

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

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Bott-Duffin construction (cont.)


Z(s) =

1
1
Z(k)R(s) +

kZ(k)

s
kZ(k)

1
k
Z(k)s

R(s)
Z(k)

Z(k)R(s)

PSfrag replacements
Z(s)
Z(k)
k

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Z(k)
R(s)

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Bott-Duffin construction (cont.)


We can write:

1
Z(k)R(s)

= const

s2 +12

1
R1 (s)

etc.

R1

Z(s)

PSfrag replacements
R2

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Example restricted degree


Proposition. Consider the real-rational function
a0 s2 + a 1 s + 1
Yb (s) = k
s(d0 s2 + d1 s + 1)
where d0 , d1 0 and k > 0. Then Yb (s) is positive real if only if the following
three inequalities hold:
1
2
3

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

:= a0 d1 a1 d0 0,
:= a0 d0 0,
:= a1 d1 0.

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Brune Realisation Procedure for Yb (s)


Foster preamble always sufficient to complete the realisation if 1 , 2 > 0.
(No Brune or Bott-Duffin cycle is required).

A continued fraction expansion is obtained:


a0 s2 + a 1 s + 1
Yb (s) = k
s(d0 s2 + d1 s + 1)
1
k
+
=
1
s
s
k
+
PSfrag
replacements
1
kb
c3 +
1
1
+
c4
b2 s
k2
k4
k4
, c3 = k3 , c4 =
, b2 =
and
d0
1
2
2
4 := 2 1 3 .
where kb =

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

kb

c4
c3
b2

38

PSfrag replacements

Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Darlington Synthesis
I1
Realisation in Darlington form:
a lossless two-port terminated
in a single resistor.

Z1 (s) V1

For a lossless two-port with impedance:

Z11
Z=
Z12

we find

I2

Z12
Z22

Lossless
network

V2

2
R1 (Z11 Z22 Z12
)/Z11 + 1
.
Z1 (s) = Z11
R1 Z22 + 1

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Writing
m 1 + n1
n1 m1 /n1 + 1
=
,
Z1 =
m 2 + n2
m2 n2 /m2 + 1
where m1 , m2 are polynomials of even powers of s and n1 , n2 are polynomials
of odd powers of s, suggests the identification:

n1
n2
n 1 n2 m 1 m 2
, Z22 = R
, Z12 = R
.
Z11 =
m2
m2
m2
Augmentation factors are necessary to ensure a rational square root.

Once Z(s) has been found, we then write:


s
C2 +
Z(s) = sC1 + 2
s + 2
where C1 and C2 are non-negative definite constant matrices.

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Darlington Synthesis (cont.)


Each term in the sum is realised in the form of a T-circuit and a series
connection of all the elementary two-ports is then made:

lacements

PSfrag replacements
X1 (s)

X2 (s)

1: n

I=0

Ideal

etwork 1
etwork 2

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Network 1

1: n

X3 (s)

I=0

X1 (s)
X2 (s)
X3 (s)

Network 2
Ideal

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ag replacements

Malcolm C. Smith

PSfrag replacements

k2
k3
Electrical
and mechanical realisations of the admittance Yb (s)
1
2
k21 H
1:
k1
b

k31c

k11 H

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

k3

k2

bF

k21 H
1
k
R1 3 H
1:
k11 Hk1

1
b

bF
R1

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Minimum reactance synthesis

sL1

eplacements
Z(s)

Nondynamic
Network
X

1
sC1

Let L1 = = C1 = = 1. If

M11 M12

M=
M21 M22

is the hybrid matrix of X, i.e.

i
v
1 = M 1 ,
i2
v2
then

Z(s) = M11 M12 (sI+M22 )1 M21 .

D.C. Youla and P. Tissi, N-Port Synthesis via Reactance Extraction, Part I, IEEE
International Convention Record, 183205, 1966.

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Minimum reactance synthesis


Conversely, if we can find a state-space realisation Z(s) = C(sI A)1 B + D
such that the constant matrix

D C

M=
B A
has the properties

M + M0
diag{I, }M

0,

= M diag{I, }

where is a diagonal matrix with diagonal entries +1 or 1. Then M is the


hybrid matrix of the nondynamic network terminated with inductors or
capacitors, which realises Z(s).
A construction is possible using the positive-real lemma and matrix
factorisations.
B.D.O. Anderson and S. Vongpanitlerd, Network Analysis and Synthesis, Prentice-Hall, 1973.
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Synthesis of resistive n-ports


Let R be a symmetric n n matrix.
A necessary and sufficient condition for R to be realisable as the driving-point
impedance of a network comprising resistors and transformers only is that it
is non-negative definite.
No necessary and sufficient condition is known in the case that transformers
are not available.
A general necessary condition is known: that the matrix is paramount.1
A matrix is defined to be the paramount if each principal minor of the matrix
is not less than the absolute value of any minor built from the same rows.
It is also known that paramountcy is sufficient for the case of n 3.2
1

I. Cederbaum, Conditions for the Impedance and Admittance Matrices of n-ports without
Ideal Transformers, IEE Monograph No. 276R, 245251, 1958.
2
P. Slepian and L. Weinberg, Synthesis applications of paramount and dominant matrices,
Proc. National Electron. Conf., vol. 14, Chicago, Illinois, Oct. 611-630, 1958.

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Simple Suspension Struts

cementsPSfrag replacements
b
kb

PSfrag replacements
PSfrag replacements
c

kb
k

kb k

k1

kb k
b
k2

k1
k2

k1
k2
Layout S1

k1
k2
Layout S2
parallel

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

Layout S3

Layout S4

series

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Performance Measures
Assume:
Road Profile Spectrum = |n|2

(m3 /cycle)

where = 5 107 m3 cycle1 = road roughness parameter. Define:


J1

 2 
= E zs (t)

ride comfort

= r.m.s. body vertical acceleration

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Optimisation of J1 (ride comfort)


2.6

18

2.4

16

2.2

14

12

replacements

% J1

J1

1.8
1.6

PSfrag replacements

1.4

J1

0.8
0.6

1.2

% J1

10

static stiffness
(a) Optimal J1

10

11

12

10

11

12

static stiffness
(b) Percentage improvement in J1

Key: layout S1 (bold), layout S2 (dashed), layout S3 (dot-dashed), and


layout S4 (solid).
M.C. Smith and F-C. Wang, 2004, Performance Benefits in Passive Vehicle Suspensions Employing Inerters, Vehicle System Dynamics, 42, 235257.

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Fs
Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

K(s)

Control synthesis formulation zr


zs
zu
Fs
PSfrag replacements
mu
kt
ms
zs m s
F
ks w
K(s)
ks

z
G(s)

mu

zu

zs zu

F
K(s)

kt
zr
Ride comfort: w = zr , z = zs
Performance measure: J1 = const. kTzr szs k2
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Bilinear Matrix Inequality (BMI) formulation


Let K(s) = Ck (sI Ak )1 Bk + Dk and Tzr szs = Ccl (sI Acl )1 Bcl .
Theorem. There exists a positive real controller K(s) such that
kTzr szs k2 < and Acl is stable, if and only if the following problem is
feasible for some Xcl > 0, Xk > 0, Q, 2 and Ak , Bk , Ck , Dk of compatible
dimensions:

T
ATcl Xcl + Xcl Acl Xcl Bcl
Xcl Ccl
< 0,
> 0, tr(Q) < 2 ,

T
Bcl
Xcl
I
Ccl Q

ATk Xk + Xk Ak Xk Bk CkT
< 0.

BkT Xk Ck
DkT Dk
C. Papageorgiou and M.C. Smith, 2006, Positive real synthesis using matrix inequalities for mechanical
networks: application to vehicle suspension, IEEE Trans. on Contr. Syst. Tech., 14, 423435.

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A special problem
What class of positive-real functions Z(s) can be realised using one damper,
one inerter, any number of springs and no transformers?
PSfrag replacements
c

Z(s)

Leads to the question: when can X be realised as a network of springs?


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Theorem. Let
(R2 R3 R62 ) s3 + R3 s2 + R2 s + 1
,
Y (s) =
s(det R s3 + (R1 R3 R52 ) s2 + (R1 R2 R42 ) s + R1 )

R1 R4 R5

where R := R4 R2 R6
is non-negative definite.
R5 R6 R3

(1)

A positive-real function Y (s) can be realised as the driving-point admittance


of a network comprising one damper, one inerter, any number of springs and
no transformers if and only if Y (s) can be written in the form of (1) and there
exists an invertible diagonal matrix D = diag{1, x, y} such that DRD is
paramount.
An explicit set of inequalities can be found which are necessary and sufficient
for the existence of x and y.
M.Z.Q. Chen and M.C. Smith, Mechanical networks comprising one damper and one inerter, in preparation.

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Collaboration with Imperial College


Application to motorcycle stability.

At high speed motorcycles can experience significant steering instabilities.


Observe: Paul Orritt at the 1999 Manx Grand Prix
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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Weave and Wobble oscillations


Steering dampers improve wobble (69 Hz) and worsen weave (24 Hz).
Simulations show that steering inerters have, roughly, the opposite effect to
the damper. Root-loci (with speed the varied parameter):
Steering damper root-locus
60

Steering inerter root-locus


60

6
wobble

50

50

40

40

Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

wobble

30

weave

20

0
18

weave

20

10

PSfrag replacements

30

10

PSfrag replacements
16

14

12

10

Real Axis

15

10

Real Axis

Can the advantages be combined?


S. Evangelou, D.J.N. Limebeer, R.S. Sharp and M.C. Smith, 2006, Steering compensation for highperformance motorcycles, Transactions of ASME, J. of Applied Mechanics, 73, to appear.

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Solution a steering compensator


... consisting of a network of dampers, inerters and springs.
Needs to behave like an inerter at weave frequencies and like a damper at
wobble frequencies.

PSfrag replacements

PSfrag replacements
damper

damper

real
imaginary

inerter
real
inerter imaginary

forbidden

forbidden

Prototype designed by N.E. Houghton and manufactured in the Cambridge University


Engineering Department.
MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Conclusion
A new mechanical element called the inerter was introduced which is
the true network dual of the spring.
The inerter allows classical electrical network synthesis to be mapped
exactly onto mechanical networks.
Applications of the inerter: vehicle suspension, motorcycle steering and
vibration absorption.
Economy of realisation is an important problem for mechanical network
synthesis.
The problem of minimal realisation of positive-real functions remains
unsolved.

MTNS 2006, Kyoto, 24 July, 2006

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Passive Network Synthesis Revisited

Malcolm C. Smith

Acknowledgements
Research students

Michael Chen, Frank Scheibe

Design Engineer

Neil Houghton

Technicians

Alistair Ross, Barry Puddifoot, John Beavis

Collaborations

Fu-Cheng Wang (National Taiwan University)


Christos Papageorgiou (University of Cyprus)
David Limebeer, Simos Evangelou, Robin Sharp
(Imperial College)

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