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PHYSICS
MECHANICS
1.1 UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND VECTORS
(i)
(ii)
Check the dimensions of the answer if it happens to be in symbolic form. If dimensions are not
matching, surely the answer is wrong.
(iii)
The angle between two vectors can be found by drawing them in such a way that their tails
coincide and then the smaller of the two is called the angle between the vectors e.g. two vectors A
and B are given Fig.1.1 (a) & (b).
A
A
q
B
(b)
Fig.(1.1)
(a)
(c)
Now, to find the angle between these, we draw them as in fig.1.1 (c) and q is the angle between
the two vectors.
(iv)
The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors A and B having angle q between them is given by
R=
A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos q
and the resultant makes an angle f with the vector A
tanf =
(v)
B sin q
A + B cos q
(1.1)
(1.2)
If two vectors have equal magnitude, then the resultant bisects the angle between them and has a
q
magnitude 2Acos . where A is the magnitude of either vector..
2
(vi)
In order to avoid errors, always draw the given vectors as they are and then perform the operation
(addition or subtraction) required for solving the question. This is specially required for problems
involving change in vector quantities and also relative motion problems.
(vii)
The component of a vector perpendicular to itself is zero. This fact has important consequences
in physics especially in analyzing two or three dimensional motions. To analyze such motions, we
break them into mutually perpendicular components and write the equations for each direction
separately.
(viii)
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(ix)
PHYSICS
Vector or Cross product of two vectors is defined as
A B = AB sin q n
(1.4)
where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B and its direction is deter-mined by right-hand rule.
(x)
and
(xi)
j
Ay
By
k
Az
Bz
(1.5)
(1.6)
A vector is said to be constant, if both its magnitude and direction are constant.
| d1 | + | d 2 | + | d 3 | +..... + + | d n |
n
d12 + d 22 + ..... + d 2n
n
d12 + d 22 + .... + d 2n
n
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PHYSICS
s=
d12 + d 22 + .... + d 2n
n
where n is large
d12 + d 22 + .... + d 2n
n -1
A = B + C then s 2A = s 2B + s C2
If
s
s
sA
= B + C
A = B C then
B
A
C
If
s
s
sA
B
= B + C
A=
then
C
B
A
C
2.0 KINEMATICS
2.1
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PHYSICS
2.2
Average Velocity
The average velocity between two points in a given time interval can be obtained from a
displacement versus-time graph by computing the slope of the straight line joining the
coordinates of the two points.
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity at time t is the slope of the tangent line drawn to the
position-versus-time graph at that time.
x
Tangent line v =
dx
dt
x
v=0
Chord
Dx
vav =
v>0
Dx
Dt
v<0
v=0
Dt
Fig.(2.1 & 2.2) The x versus t graph of a particle whose velocity is not constant. The slope of the
chord joining two points on the curve is the average velocity for that interval. The instantaneous
velocity is the slope of the tangent at that point.
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PHYSICS
Average Acceleration
The average acceleration between two points in a time interval is equal to the slope of the chord
connecting the points on a velocity -versus-time graph.
Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration at time t is the slope of the tangent drawn to the
velocity-versus-time graph.
v
aav =
Dv
Dt
Dt
Dv
a=0
a=
dv
dt
a<0
a>0
a=0
t
Fig.(2.3) On a v versus-t graph, the slope of the line joining two
points is the average acceleration for that time interval. The
instantaneous acceleration at a given time is the slope of the
tangent at that time.
t
O
Fig.(2.4) The sign of the instantaneous acceleration depends on the
slope of the tangent.
tf
t
Dt
Fig.(2.5) The area under the v versus-t curve is
the displacement Dx = voDt
O
ti
v3
v4
v2
v1
Dt1 Dt2
Dt3 Dt4
ti
tf
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PHYSICS
Velocity from Acceleration Graphs
Given an acceleration-versus-time graph, the change in velocity between t = ti and t = tf is the
area bounded by the acceleration curve and the vertical lines t = ti and t = tf.
a
a
ao
tf
t
Dt
Fig.(2.8 a) The area under the aversus-t curve
is the change in velocity Dv = aoDt.
O
ti
ti
tf
Table 2.1
Variation of Displacement (x), velocity (v) and acceleration (a) with respect to
time for different types of motion.
Displacement
1. At rest
Velocity
x=c
2. Motion with
constant velocity
Acceleration
x = vot + xo
vo
xo
O
3. Motion
with
constant
acceleration
x
x = vot +(1/2)aot
a
v = a ot
ao
4. Motion
with
constant
deceleration.
x
x = vot - (1/2)aot
vo
O
ao
O
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2.3
PHYSICS
1 2
at
2
v2 = v 02 + 2a ( x - x 0 )
(2.6)
(2.7)
1
(v + v)t
(2.8)
2 0
where x0 = Initial position coordinate
x = Final position coordinate
v = Final velocity
a = Acceleration (constant)
t = Elapsed time
x = x0 +
2.4
Free Fall
Motion that occurs solely under the influence of gravity is called free fall.
In the absence of air resistance all falling bodies have the same acceleration due to gravity,
regardless of their sizes or shapes.
The equations of kinematics may be modified as
v = v0 - gt
(2.9)
y = y0 +
1
(v + v) t (2.10)
2 0
1
y = y0 + v0t - gt2
2
(2.11)
v = v - 2g ( y - y 0 ) (2.12)
The signs of v and v0 are determined
by their directions relative to the
chosen +y axis.
Note that t he sign of t he
acceleration does not depend on
whether the body is going up or
coming down.
2
ay = -g
2
0
O
x
Fig.(2.9) If the y axis is chosen to point upward; the
acceleration of a particle in free-fall is ay = -g, where
g = 10m/s2 is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity.
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2.5
PHYSICS
path followed
P2
Dr
r1
or
v=
Dr
=
Dt
(2.13)
v=
Dr
v av
dr
= vxi + vyj
dt
P1
r2
dr
dt
t+Dt
dx
dy
along the tangent to the path, but its
and v y =
where vx =
magnitude is not the slope of that line.
dt
dt
The direction of v is along the tangent to the path.
The instantaneous acceleration is the ratio of change of the velocity with respect to time.
a=
dv
= a xi + a y j
dt
(2.14)
dv y
dv x
;a y =
dt
dt
Note that one cannot determine acceleration directly from the path of the particle. One needs to
know how each component of the velocity varies as function of space and time.
where ax =
path
a
a
O
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PHYSICS
General equations of kinematics for constant acceleration
v = v0 + at
(2.15)
r = r0 + v0t +
1 2
at
2
(2.16)
1
(v + v)t
(2.17)
2 0
For two-dimensional motion in the plane, the x and y components of these equations are:
vx = v0x + axt
vy = v0y + ayt
r = r0 +
x = x0 + v0x +
x = x0 +
1 2
at
2 x
1
(v + vx)t
2 0x
2
v 2x = v ox
+ 2a x (x - x 0 )
2.6
y = y0 + y0yt +
y = y0 +
1
a t2
2 y
1
(v t + vy)t
2 0y
v 2y = v 2oy + 2a y ( y - y o )
Projectile Motion
A projectile motion near the surface of the earth consists of two independent motions. A
horizontal motion at constant speed and a vertical, subject to the acceleration due to gravity.
In order to deal with problem in projectile motion, one has to choose a coordinate system and
clearly specify the origin. If the x axis is horizontal and the y-axis points vertically upward, then
ax = 0 and ay = -g
One can easily assume the origin such that the initial horizontal coordinate is zero.
i.e.
xo = 0
The equations of kinematics for projectile motion are
x = voxt
(2.18)
vy = voy -gt
(2.19)
1 2
gt
2
(2.20)
(2.21)
y = yo + voyt -
Important
1.
2.
2v o sin q
g
(2.22)
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PHYSICS
a a
45o
Fig.(2.13) The horizontal ranges for angle of projection (45o - a)
and (45o + a) are equal.
3.
4.
v o2 sin 2 q
H=
2g
The trajectory of a projectile is a parabola
5.
g
1
x2
2
2 ( v 0 cos q)
In term of range (R), we have
2.7
(2.24)
y = x tanq -
(2.25)
y = x tanq 1 2R
(2.26)
Circular Motion
To summarize, an object moving in uniform circular motion at radius r and constant angular
speed w has
1.
a constant linear speed v = rw tangential to the circle and
2.
a centripetal acceleration ac = w2r = v2/r directed radially inward toward the centre
of the circle
(c)
where r = radius of curvature of the path at that point. For circular motion r = radius of
the circle for straight line motion r = so that ac = 0.
The total acceleration is the vector sum of the tangential and centripetal components.
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PHYSICS
2.8
Relative Velocity
1.
aA / B = aA - a B
(2.28)
The above relations involve three vectors. The question will give information about their magnitude and/or direction. From this information, we must be able to construct the velocity or acceleration triangle and then the unknown may be found.
2.
The equations for uniformly accelerated motion are valid in relative form also, provided relative
acceleration is a constant. i.e. we can write
vrel = urel + arelt
(2.29)
xrel = urelt +
1
a t2
2 rel
(2.30)
(2.31)
Equilibrium
A system is said to be in equilibrium if it does not tend to undergo any further change of its own.
Any further change must be produced by external means (e.g. force).
A body is said to be in translational equilibrium if the sum of the forces acting on the body is
zero.
SFnet = F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
(3.1)
or
SFx = F1x + F2x + F3x = 0
(3.2)
and
SFy = F1y + F2y + F3y = 0
(3.3)
If the particle is at rest, it is in static equilibrium. whereas if it is moving at constant velocity, it is
in dynamic equilibrium. In either case SF = 0.
F3y
F1y
F3
F3x
F2x
F1
F1x
F2
F2y
Fig.(3.1) A particle is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces
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PHYSICS
Problem solving Strategy
1.
Make a simple sketch showing the body under consideration.
2.
Identify the forces acting on the body, Draw arrows on your sketch to show the direction of
each force acting on the body, in otherwords, make the free body diagram.
3.
Choose the coordinate system and resolve the forces into components that are parallel to the
coordinate axes.
4.
Write the equations for equilibrium along each axis of the co-ordinate system.
5.
Solve the equations of the required unknown(s).
3.2
Newtons Laws
Newtons First Law
When there is no net force on an object
-an object at rest remains at rest, and
-an object in motion continues to move with a velocity
that is constant in magnitude and direction.
The direction of motion of a particle does not in general coincide with the direction of
the force acting on it. It is the rate of change of velocity, which is related to the force.
The acceleration must be measured with respect to an inertial reference frame.
3.3
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3.4
PHYSICS
Friction
Whenever the surface of a body slides over that of another, each body exerts a force of friction on
the other, parallel to the surfaces. The force of friction on each body is in a direction opposite to
its motion relative to the other body.
The force of friction comes into action only when there is a relative motion between two contact
surfaces or when an attempt is made to do so.
It is a self adjusting force, it can adjust its magnitude anywhere between zero and the limiting
(maximum) value i.e
0 f fmax
The frictional force acting between two surfaces at rest with respect to each other is called the
force of static friction. And the frictional force acting between the surfaces in relative motion
with respect to each other is called the force of kinetic friction or sliding friction.
Laws of Friction
The limiting (or maximum) force of friction is proportional to the normal force that keeps the two
surfaces in contact with each other, and is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces. Mathematically,
fmax = N
(3.6)
Properties of Friction
1.
If the body does not move then the static frictional force fs and the external force F parallel to the
surface are equal in magnitude; and fs is directed opposite to F. If the external force F increases fs
increases.
f
fs(max)
fk
Stick slip
smooth sliding
Fapp
Fig.(3.2) The variation of the force of friction with the
applied force. When the block is at rest the force of
static friction is fs, balances the applied force Fapp
until it reaches a maximum value. When the block
moves, it is subject to the force of kinetic friction.
2.
3.
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3.5
PHYSICS
Angle of Friction
Suppose a body is placed on an inclined surface whose angle of inclination q varies between 0 to
p/2. The coefficient of friction between the body and the surface is . Let the initial value of q be
zero and if we slowly start increasing the value of q, then at
a particular value of q = f the block just starts to move.
f
N
This value of q =f is called the angle of friction.
Mathematically, if the block is just about to move, then
mg sin q = f
mgcosq
mgsinq
When q = f, mg sin f =fmax
q
or
mg sinf = N = mg cosq
or
tan f =
Fig. (3.3) A block of mass m is placed on an
Thus f = tan-1
incline whose inclination may be
The angle of friction is that minimum angle of
varied between 0 to p/2. When q = f
inclination of the inclined plane at which a body placed
the friction force is maximum and
at rest on the inclined plane is about to slide down.
block just starts sliding
Important
When the angle of inclination is more than the angle of friction (q > f) the block starts sliding
down with acceleration. And, if we wish to keep it in equilibrium an external force has to be
applied.
Work
The work W done by a constant force F when its point of application undergoes a displacement is
defined to be
W = F s cosq
(4.1)
F
F
q
s
Fig.(4.1)The work W done by the force F when its
point of application undergoes a displacement
s is W = F.s = Fs cosq
where q is the angle between F and s as indicated in figure(4.1). Only the component of F along
s, that is , F cosq , contributes to the work done. Strictly speaking, the work is done by the source
or agent that applies the force. Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is the joule (J). From
equation (4.1), we see that
1 J = 1 N.m
Work is also defined as the dot product of force and its displacement as given by equation (4.3)
W = F.s
(4.2)
In terms of rectangular components, the two vectors are
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k and
s = Dx i + Dy j + Dz k;
hence, equation (4.2) may be written as
W = Fx Dx + Fy Dy + Fz Dz
(4.3)
The work done by a given force on a body depends only on the force, the displacement, and the
angle between them. It does not depend on the velocity or the acceleration of the body, or on the
presence of other forces.
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PHYSICS
Since the work is a scalar, its value also does not depend on the orientation of the coordinate axes.
Since the magnitude of a displacement in a given time interval depends on the velocity of the
frame of reference used to measure the displacement, the calculated work also depends on the
reference frame.
4.2
WA B = F .ds = (F cos q ) ds
B
4.3
zA
yA
xA
ds
zB
yB
xB
(4.5)
v 2f = v i2 + 2ax
Thus, W =
m v 2f - v i2
2
] = 1 mv
2
2
f
1
mv i2
2
(4.6)
The quantity
1
mv 2
2
is a scalar and is called the kinetic energy of the particle.
Kinetic energy is the energy that a particle posses by virtue of its motion.
Thus, the equation (4.6) takes the form
W = Kf - Ki = DK
(4.7)
The work done by a force changes the kinetic energy of the particle. This is called the
Work-Energy Theorem.
In general
The net work done by the resultant of all the forces acting on the particle is equal to the change in
kinetic energy of a particle.
Wnet = DK
(4.8)
K=
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PHYSICS
Important
(i)
The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the amount of work needed to increase its
speed from zero to a given value.
(ii)
The kinetic energy of a particle is the work it can do on its surroundings in coming to rest.
(iii)
Since the velocity and displacement of a particle depend on the frame of reference, the
numerical values of the work and the kinetic energy also depend on the frame, but the
work-energy theorem is true for all inertial reference frames.
4.4
Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy associated with the relative positions of two or more interacting
particles.
The forces, such as gravity and spring force, which do work in a reversible manner are called
conservative forces. In contrast, the force, such a frictional force, which does work in an irreversible manner is called a non - conservative force.
Important
B
1.
The work done by a conservative force is
independent of path. It depends only on the initial
1
and final positions. In contrast, the work done by a
non-conservative force depends on the path.
2
2.
The work done by a conservative force around any
closed path is zero.
The potential energy is defined only for
A
conservative forces.
The change in potential energy as a particle moves Fig.(4.3) The work done by a conservative force
from point A to point B is the same for
from point A to point B is equal to the negative of
any two paths such has 1 and 2.
the work done by the associated conservative force
DU = UB - UA = -WC
Using definition of work
B
UB UA = - FC .ds
(4.9)
According to equation (4.9), when only conservative forces act, the change in total mechanical
energy of a system is zero, in otherwords,
If only conservative forces perform work on and within a system of masses, the total mechanical
energy of the system is conserved.
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy Functions
Thus, Fx = -
4.5
dU
dx
(4.10)
Power
dW
dt
P = F. v
P=
(4.11)
(4.12)
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PHYSICS
Impulse
In the previous chapter, we have learnt the concept of work which was an integral of force with
respect to displacement. Now we are going to learn another concept, called impulse.
Impulse is defined as the integral of force with respect to time.
r
tf
tf
r
dv
F
dt
m
I=
= dt = p
(5.1)
ti
ti
Since force is a vector and time is a scalar, the
result of the integral in equation (5.1) is a vector. If the
force is constant (both in magnitude and F
direction), it may be removed from the integral so that
the integral is reduced to
tf
(5.2)
ti
5.2
5.3
Collision
Types of Collision
Collisions may be either elastic or inelastic. Linear momentum is conserved in both cases. A
perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which the total kinetic energy of the particles is also
conserved.
Coefficient of Restitution (e)
The elasticity of collision may be measured in terms of a dimensionless parameter called the
coefficient of restitution (e).
It is defined as the ratio of velocity of separation to the velocity of approach of the two colliding
bodies
e=
velcity of separation
velocity of appraoch
(5.3)
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PHYSICS
u1
u2
u1
Before
Before
v1
v2
v1
v2
After
After
Velocity of separation = v2 v1
Velocity of approach = u1 u2
\
e=
u2
Velocity of separation = v1 + v2
Velocity of approach = u1 + u2
v 2 - v1
u1 - u 2
e=
v1 + v 2
u1 + u 2
(m1 - m 2 )u 1
(5.4)
m1 + m 2
2m1 u 1
m1 + m 2
(5.5)
(a)
When m1 >> m2, we may ignore the mass of m2 in comparison with m1. This leads to
v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1, which means that m1 maintains its initial velocity u1 but it imparts double this
value to m2.
(b)
When m1 << m2 we may ignore m1 in compression with m2. We then find that v1 = -u1 and
v2 = 0. Thus, m1 reverses its velocity, leaving m2 essentially unmoved as in figure(11.6).
5.4
rcm =
or
rcm
m 1 r1 + m 2 r2 + ........ + m n rn
m 1 + m 2 + ........... + m n
m r
=
i i
m3
r3
(5.6)
M
where M = Smi is the total mass of the system.
m2
r2
r1
m1
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PHYSICS
The components of equation (5.6) are defined as
xcm =
m x
i
; ycm =
m y
i
; zcm =
m z
i
(5.7)
xcm =
y
dm
1
x dm ;
M
1
y dm ;
ycm =
M
zcm =
5.5
1
z dm
M
(5.9)
drcm
dt
Using equation (5.6), we get
v cm =
dr
1
mi i
M
dt
m v
m a
(5.10)
M
The total momentum of a system of particles is equivalent to that of a single (imaginary) particle
of mass M = Smi moving at the velocity of the center of mass vcm.
That is,
P = p1 + p2 + . + pn
or
P = m1v1 + m2v2 + + mnvn
or
P = Mvcm
(5.11)
Using the concept of center of mass, we may deal with the translational motion of extended
objects or systems of particles, as if they were point particle with all the mass concentrated at the
center of mass.
Differentiating equation (5.10), with respect to time, we get
or
vcm =
acm =
= Fext
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5.6
PHYSICS
where Kcm =
5.7
Fext is the net external force on the whole system (of constant mass M + DM), and
dM
vrel
is the rate at which momentum is being transferred into, or out, the principal
dt
part. It is also called the thrust force
dM
Fthrust = vrel
dt
M
Rocket Propulsion
Mi
vf vi = vex ln M
(5.16)
where vex is the exhaust speed of the gases w.r.t. the rocket.
ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS
Consider a body of arbitrary shape rotating about a fixed axis O as shown in figure(6.1). In a given
interval all the particles lying on the line OA move to their corresponding positions lying on OB.
Although the particles of the body have different linear displacements, they all have the same
angular displacement q, which is given by
s
(6.1)
r
The average angular velocity of the body for
a finite time interval is given by
q=
f - i
wav = t = t - t
f
i
s
q r
(6.2)
w = Lim
Dt 0
d
=
t dt
(6.3)
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PHYSICS
It is the rate of change of the angular position q with respect to time. It is a vector quantity.
The direction of angular velocity is given by the right-hand rule. We hold the right hand such that
when the fingers of the right hand curve in the sense of rotation, the thumb points in the direction
of w.
w
z
y
f=
2p
= 2p f
(6.5)
T
The relation between linear speed and angular speed is obtained by differentiating equation
(6.1) with respect to time.
w=
d 1 ds
v
=
or
w=
dt r dt
r
or
v = wr
(6.6)
The average angular acceleration is defined as
f - i
aav = t = t - t
f
i
(6.7)
a = Lim
Dt 0
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PHYSICS
(6.9)
1 2
t
2
(6.10)
2 = o2 + 2 ( - o )
(6.11)
A particle moving in a circular path with speed v has a centripetal (or radial) acceleration
v2
= 2r
(6.12)
r
If there is angular acceleration, the speed of the particle changes and thus we can find the tangential acceleration
ar =
at
dv d
= r = r
dt dt
The net linear acceleration is
r r
r
a = ar + at
The magnitude of acceleration is given by
at =
a=
a r2 + a t2
(6.13)
(6.14)
ar
1.
2.
3.
Quan tity
Position
Displacement
Velocity
4.
Acceleration
5.
Equations
of
Kinematics
Linear
x
Dx
dx
v=
dt
dv
a=
dt
v = adt + c
Rotational
q
Dq
dq
w=
dt
dw
a=
dt
w = a dt + c
x = vdt + c'
q = w dt + c'
v = v o + at
1
x = xo + vot + at 2
2
2
2
v - vo = 2ax
w = wo + at
1
q = qo + wot + at2
2
2
2
w - wo = 2aq
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6.2
PHYSICS
Moment of Inertia
For a discrete system of particles the moment of inertia is defined as
I = Smiri2
(6.15)
where mi is the mass of the ith particle
and
ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith particle from the axis of rotation.
Axis of rotation
r1
m2
r2
r3
m4
m1
m3
r4
For a continuous system, the mass element should be chosen such that all the particles on it are at the
same perpendicular distance from the axis. The moment of inertia of the whole body is given by
I = r 2 dm
(6.16)
dm
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24
PHYSICS
through the bodys center of mass. Let the moment of inertia of the body about that axis be I z. Let
the x and y axes lie in the plane of the body with the origin at the center of mass as shown in
figure. Let the moment of inertia about the x and y axes to be Ix and Iy. The perpendicular axes
theorem state that
Iz = I x + I y
(6.18)
MR 2
(a)
A thin loop ab out an axis through its
center and perpendicular to the plane of
the loop
MR 2
(b)
thin w alled cylin der abo ut its ax is .
1
MR 2
2
( c)
solid disk about a perpendicular
axis thr ough the center .
1
M R2
2
(d)
solid cylinder about an a xis.
R1
R2
2 R52 - R15
M
5 R23 - R13
1
2
2
M (R 2 + R 1 )
2
(f)
a thick w alled hollo w sphere about a
diameter
(e)
a thick-walled cylinder about its axis
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25
PHYSICS
L
1
2
ML
3
1
ML2
3
(g )
(h)
a rectangle ab out on e edge
1
ML 2
12
1
1
MR 2 +
M L2
4
12
(i)
(i)
b
1
MR 2
2
( k)
1
M(l 2 + b 2 )
12
(j)
a rectangle abo ut a per pendicular axis
through its center.
R
2
MR
5
(m )
2
MR 2
3
(l)
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26
6.3
PHYSICS
Torque
Torque is the rotational analog of force.
Force causes linear acceleration; torque causes angular acceleration.
In order to lift a stone by using a lever, a force is required (see figure 6.6). The effectiveness of the
force depends both on its direction and where it is applied relative to the pivot point.
F
M
Fig.(6.6) A stone of mass M is lifted by using
a lever.
The turning ability of a force about an axis or pivot is called its torque.
The torque of a force F that acts at a distance r from the origin is defined as
t = rF sinq
(6.19)
Where q is the angle between the vector r and F, as shown in the figure (6.7).
y
F^= Fsinq
q
q
r
r
O
Fcosq
r^
t = r (F sinq) = rF^
(b)
t = (r sinq)F = r^F
(a)
6.4
tnet = Ia
(6.20)
Note that the above equation (6.20) is not a vector equation.
It is valid in two situations:
(i)
The axis is fixed in position and direction.
(ii)
The axis passes through the center of mass and is fixed in direction only.
(6.21)
The equation tcm = Icmacm
is valid even if the center of mass is accelerating.
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27
6.5
PHYSICS
(6.22)
Where t is the torque produced by the force, and dq is the infinitesimally small angular
displacement about the axis.
The rotational kinetic energy of a body about a fixed rotational axis is defined as
1 2
Iw
2
where I is the moment of inertia about the axis.
Krot =
(6.23)
dWrot
dt
= .
(6.25)
In a pure rolling motion a wheel rotates about its center of mass and the center of mass moves
linearly so that it covers a distance equal to its circumference.
That is,
s = 2p R
If T be the time period of one revolution, then dividing both the sides by T, we get
s 2
= R
T T
or
vc = wR
(6.26)
where w is the angular velocity of the wheel about its centerof mass, and vc is the linear velocity
of the center of mass.
vc
va
2pR
Fig.(6.8)When a wheel of radius R rolls without
slipping at angular velocity w, the
speed of its center is vc = wR.
Since rolling is a combination of translation of the center and rotation about the center, therefore,
velocity of any point on the rim is the vector sum
v = vc + v'
(6.27)
where v c is the velocity of the center of mass, and v is the velocity of the particle with respect to
center of mass.
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PHYSICS
wR
2
wR
wR
wR
wR
A1
wR
c
vc
v1 = vc 2
vc
vc
v3
wR
wR
vc
vo = 0
v2 = 2vc
0
vo = 0
Fig.(6.9)Rolling is a combination of translation of the center and rotation about the center. Velocity of any point is v = v c + v '
1
1
mv c2 + I c 2
2
2
(6.28)
1
mv c2 is the translational kinetic energy and
2
1
I c 2 is the rotational kinetic energy about the center of mass
2
In pure rolling motion,
vc = wR
K=
1
1
2
m(R ) + I c 2
2
2
1
(I + mR2) w2
2 c
Using parallel axes theorem, the term Ic + mR2 gives the moment of inertia about the point of
contact, therefore,
Io = Ic + mR2
or
K=
1
I w2
(6.29)
2 o
Note that equation (6.29) gives the rotational kinetic energy of the wheel about the point of
contact.
and
K=
Write F net = M a cm for the object as if it were a point-mass, that is, ignoring rotation.
2.
Write = I cm a as if the object were only rotating about the centre of mass, that is
ignoring translation.
Use of no-slip condition
Solve the resulting equations simultaneously for any unknown.
Caution:
In general, it is not the case that f = N
Be certain that the sign convention for forces and torques are consistent.
3.
4.
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6.6
PHYSICS
Angular Momentum
r
Consider a particle that has linear momentum p and is located at position rr relative to an origin
O, as shown in the figure (6.10). Its angular momentum about the origin is defined as
r r r
(6.30)
y
L= rp
The magnitude of angular momentum is given by
r
L = rp sin q
p
q
or
L=r^p
(6.31)
where r^ = r sinq is called the moment arm.
r^
r
The direction of angular momentum is given by
r
the right hand rule.
x
O
The SI unit of angular momentum is kg m2/s.
momentum of a particle
Fig.(6.10)Angular
about O. L = r^p = rp sinq
r
The total angular momentum L of a system of particles relative to a given origin is the sum of the
angular momentum of the particles.
w
L = ri p i
r
r
Since ri and p i are perpendicular,,
therefore,
L = Sripi
ri
Also pi = mivi = miriw
mi
2
or
L = Smiri w
or
L = Iw
(6.32)
2
where I = Smiri
r
r dL
=
dt
(6.33)
r
r dP
The above equation is the rotational analog of equation F =
dt
dL
=0
dt
Thus, L = constant
For rigid body rotating about a fixed axis,
Lf = Li
or
Ifwf = Iiwi
(6.34)
Angular Impulse
In complete analogy with the linear momentum, angular impulse is defined as
= ext dt
(6.35)
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30
PHYSICS
ext =
dL
dt
\
(6.36)
= DL = Lf - L
The net angular impulse acting on a rigid body is equal to the change in angular momentum of the
body. This is called the impulse momentum theorem for rotational dynamics.
Table 5.3 Analogy between Rotational Dynamics and Linear Dynamics.
Qu antity
1.
Linear
m
Inertia
Rotational
m i ri 2
r dm
2
or
2.
3.
Work
4.
Kinetic Energy
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Momentum
Impulse Momentum Theorem
Power
Fext = ma
r
r
dp
Fext =
dt
Wlin = Fd .s
1
mv 2
2
Wlin = DKlin
K lin =
text = Iar
r
dL
t ext =
dt
W rot = .d
1 2
Iw
2
W rot = DKrot
K rot =
I = Fext .dt
= Le xt .dt
p = mv
I = Dp
P = F .v
L = Iw
I = DL
P =.
7.0 GRAVITATION
7.1
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31
7.2
PHYSICS
7.3
GM
F
= - 2 r
m
r
(7.2)
GMm
r
(7.3)
r
GMm
F = - 2 r
r
R
M
Fig.(7.1)
7.4
E=
GMm
mv02
=
r2
r
GM
(7.4)
r
The kinetic energy is, therefore, given by
or
v0 =
1
Mm
mv 02 = +G
(7.5)
2
2r
Note that the kinetic energy is half of the magnitude of potential energy.
The total mechanical energy is
K=
- GMm
(7.6)
2r
The negative sign of the energy means that the satellite is in a bound state. The quantity |E| is the
binding energy of the particle, which is the minimum energy that must be supplied by an external
agent to make it an unbound particle - whose mechanical energy is greater than zero.
E=K+U=
7.5
Escape Velocity
It is the minimum velocity required to escape from the gravitational field of earth.
When a rocket is fired with the minimum escape speed vesc it will reach r = with zero speed;
that is, Ef = K + U = 0. Its initial energy at the earths surface is
1
GMm
2
mv esc
2
R
Using energy conservation
Ef = Ei
Ei =
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32
PHYSICS
O=
or
1
GMm
2
mv esc
2
R
vesc =
2GM
R
(7.7)
2GM
= 11.2 km/s
r
vo =
GM
= 8 km/s
r
(a)
When v < vo, the orbit is elliptical, with the peak as the apogee (the farthest point from
earth). If v is too small, the projectile will strike the earth.
When v = vo, the orbit is circular.
When vesc > v > vo, the orbit is again an ellipse, but now the peak is the perigee (the closest
point to earth).
(b)
When v = vesc =
bound.
(c)
When v > vesc, the path is hyperbola and not closed. The object is not bound.
2 vo, the path is parabolic and is not a closed orbit. The object is not
v > vesc
v = vesc
v < vesc
v = vo
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33
PHYSICS
Fluid Statics
(i)
p = Lim
Ds 0
760
kg
m
m 13.6 10 3 3 9.8 2 = 1.01 105 N/m2 (Pa)
1000
m
s
3
4
10 m of water = 10 1 10 9.8 = 9.8 10 Pa
=
(ii)
(iii)
h
A
Fig.(8.1)
p = po exp RT
M : Molecular weight of air = 29 10-3 kg/mol
g : Acceleration due to gravity
h : height above the surface of earth
R : Gas constant = 8.314 J/mol/K
T : Absolute temperature
po : Pressure at the surface of the earth
(iv)
dp
= - g
dy
y
q
Fig.(8.2)
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ax
34
(v)
(vi)
PHYSICS
If the container is placed on a lift which moves upward with an acceleration a
p = r(g + a)h
If it moves downward with an acceleration a
p = r(g a)h
In particular if a = g
p=0
Note that during the free fall, pressure does not vary in such a situation
Hydrostatic Paradox
Fig.(8.3)
Three vessels of equal base area but containing different amounts of liquid upto the same height
will have same force at their bottom.
(vii)
Archimedes Principle
When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a fluid, there acts an upward force on it
called the buoyancy and its magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The point of
the application of buoyancy is at the centre of mass of the displaced fluid and is called the centre
of buoyancy. Buoyancy exists because of pressure gradient. Thus in case of a free fall situation
buoyancy is zero.
(viii)
Principle of floatation
Weight of the object = Buoyancy
rsVg = rlVsg
V : total volume of the object
Vs : submerged volume of the object
rs : density of object
rl : density of liquid
(ix)
F=
2h
from the top
3
Therefore, the moment of this force about O is
1
M = rgWh3
3
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(2/3)h
F
Fig.(8.4)
35
PHYSICS
8.2
Fluid Dynamics
(i)
Principle of Continuity
A1v1 = A2v2
(ii)
p1 +
1
1
rv12 = p2 + rv22
2
2
i.e. Pressure is more if velocity is small and vice versa
p1 +
(iii)
The force of reaction felt by the vessel when a fluid comes out of it with a velocity v is given by
F = rav2
where r is the density of the fluid and a is the cross-sectional area of the hole.
h
v=
2g h
Fig.(8.5)
Surface Energy
Change in free energy of a surface layer
DU = T DA
where DA is the change in area of surface layer.
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36
PHYSICS
Note that the pressure on the concave side is greater than the pressure on the convex side.
P1
P2
P2
Then P2 - P1 = 4T/R
Capillarity
When a glass capillary tube open at both ends is dipped vertically in water, the water rises up in
the tube to a certain height above the water level outside the tube.
Water
(a)
Mercury
(b)
If r be the radius of the capillary tube and q the angle of contact of water-glass,
then height h to which water rises in the tube is given by
2T cos q
h=
rrg , r is the density of water..
r
q
R
q
It is clear that liquid cannot emerge in the form of a fountain from the upper end of a short
capillary tube.
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37
PHYSICS
8.4 VISCOSITY
According to Newton, the viscous force F acting between two layers of a liquid flowing in
stream-lined motion is given by
Dv x
Dz
where h is a constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid and Dvx/Dz is velocity-gradient.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with rise in temperature. On the other hand, the viscosity of
gases increases with rise in temperature.
F = hA
ppa 4
q=
8hkl
Where h is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. This is known as Poiseuilles formula.
2 r 2 (r - s )g
v=
9
h
9.0
9.1
Equation of SHM
(i)
The necessary and sufficient condition for the motion to be simple harmonic (linear) is that the
force should be directly proportional to the displacement
F = -kxor
or
d2x
= -kx
dt 2
k
d2x
+ 2 x = 0 with w2 =
2
m
dt
x = A sin (wt + f)
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38
(ii)
(iii)
PHYSICS
where A is the amplitude of the motion
w is the angular (circular) frequency = 2p/T (T = time period)
f is phase constant
For rotational SHM the analogues equation is q = qo sin (wt + f)
where qo is the angular displacement and q is the maximum angular displacement
If time is considered from equilibrium position then f = 0 and
therefore x = A sin wt.
If time is considered from the extreme position then f = p/2
and
y = a cos wt
Velocity in SHM is given by
v=
or
dy
= A cos(t + )
dt
v = A 1 - sin 2 (t + )
x2
2
2
or
v = Aw 1 - 2 = A - x
A
The maximum and minimum velocity of the particle are
vmax = Aw
and
vmin = 0
(iv)
(v)
d2y
= - 2 y
The acceleration in SHM is a =
2
dt
2
Thus |amax| = w A
and
|amin| = 0
Energy in SHM
Kinetic Energy
=
1
1
mv 2 = m 2 A 2 - x 2
2
2
Potential Energy = - dW =
1
m 2 x 2
2
1
m 2 A 2 = constant
2
Note that the kinetic and potential energies vary periodically
with double the frequency of motion.
9.2
K, U or E
Total energy =
E
U
K
-A -A/2
A/2 A
Fig.(9.1)
Simple Pendulum
Time period T = 2p
L
g
If the point of suspension itself moves with an acceleration a then g eff = g - a should replace
r
g. Also, if any other force field (such as electric field) is present, find a due to that field and then
find g eff as before.
If length of the pendulum is large, then
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39
PHYSICS
1
T = 2p
1 1
g +
L R
R
84.6 minutes.
g
so if L , T = 2p
9.3
Spring Pendulum
m
k
If mass of the spring is also taken into
account, then
T = 2p
T = 2p
9.4
m+
ms
3
k
m
or
m
Composite-spring Pendulum
k1
k1
k2
k1
k2
m
k2
Fig.9.3
keff =
9.5
k1k 2
k1 + k 2
keff = k1 + k2
keff = k1 + k2
m
Arg (sin1 + sin 2 )
T = 2p
h
g
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q2
q1
Fig.(9.4)
40
9.6
PHYSICS
m
A
9.7
m
k + A
Physical Pendulum
T = 2p
I
Mdg
c.m.
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