You are on page 1of 40

1

PHYSICS

MECHANICS
1.1 UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND VECTORS
(i)

Always provide correct unit with the numerical answer.

(ii)

Check the dimensions of the answer if it happens to be in symbolic form. If dimensions are not
matching, surely the answer is wrong.

(iii)

The angle between two vectors can be found by drawing them in such a way that their tails
coincide and then the smaller of the two is called the angle between the vectors e.g. two vectors A
and B are given Fig.1.1 (a) & (b).
A

A
q
B

(b)
Fig.(1.1)

(a)

(c)

Now, to find the angle between these, we draw them as in fig.1.1 (c) and q is the angle between
the two vectors.
(iv)

The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors A and B having angle q between them is given by
R=

A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos q
and the resultant makes an angle f with the vector A
tanf =
(v)

B sin q
A + B cos q

(1.1)

(1.2)

If two vectors have equal magnitude, then the resultant bisects the angle between them and has a
q
magnitude 2Acos . where A is the magnitude of either vector..
2

(vi)

In order to avoid errors, always draw the given vectors as they are and then perform the operation
(addition or subtraction) required for solving the question. This is specially required for problems
involving change in vector quantities and also relative motion problems.

(vii)

The component of a vector perpendicular to itself is zero. This fact has important consequences
in physics especially in analyzing two or three dimensional motions. To analyze such motions, we
break them into mutually perpendicular components and write the equations for each direction
separately.

(viii)

Scalar or Dot product of two vectors is defined as


A . B = AB cos q
(1.3)
whenever a question talks about angle between the vectors this formula may be of use.

www.thinkiit.in

2
(ix)

PHYSICS
Vector or Cross product of two vectors is defined as
A B = AB sin q n

(1.4)

where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B and its direction is deter-mined by right-hand rule.
(x)

In terms of unit vector notation


A.B = A x B x + A y B y + A z B z
i
A
AB = x
Bx

and

(xi)

j
Ay
By

k
Az
Bz

(1.5)

(1.6)

A vector is said to be constant, if both its magnitude and direction are constant.

1.2 ERRORS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES


Errors
If X is the average value of a number of observations of a physical quantity then
X 1 - X , X 2 - X , X 3 - X , are the errors denoted by d1 , d 2 , d 3 ..

Average Mean Error


The average of the mod of errors is called the average error.
d=

| d1 | + | d 2 | + | d 3 | +..... + + | d n |
n

Mean Square Error


The mean of the squares of errors is called the mean square error.
d2 =

d12 + d 22 + ..... + d 2n
n

Root Mean Square Error


The square root of the mean square error is called root the mean square (rms) error
d rms =

d12 + d 22 + .... + d 2n
n

Standard Error or Deviation


The square root of the mean square error of a large number of observations (infinite number of
observations) is called standard error or standard devation.

www.thinkiit.in

PHYSICS
s=

d12 + d 22 + .... + d 2n
n

where n is large

If n is the number of observations then the standard deviation (s) is


s=

d12 + d 22 + .... + d 2n
n -1

Propagation Rule of Mean or Average Deviation or Errors


Absolute errors are propagated in a sum or difference of two physical quantities.
Percentage errors or deviation are propagated in a product or quotient of two physical quantities.
Propagation Rules of Standard Deviations
If

A = B + C then s 2A = s 2B + s C2

If

s
s
sA
= B + C
A = B C then
B
A
C

If

s
s
sA
B
= B + C
A=
then
C
B
A
C

Significant Figures of a Number


Consider a number 37489210. This is quite a big number. All the figures are not equally
significant here. For example the figure 1 here stands for 10 which is negligible in comparison to
the figure 3 whose place value is 3000000. The figures which are significant in a number are
called significant figures. These are figures occurring in the beginning of a number. The above
number is 37490000, 37500000, 38000000.. up to the 4th, 3rd, 2nd places of significant figures.
The rule for counting the significant figures in the measurement of a physical quantity is to count
from the left up to the first doubtful figure ignoring leading zeros.
Rules for Rounding off Significant Figures
If the succeeding figure is greater than 5, the figure is increased by 1, otherwise it is left
unchanged. If the succeeding figure be 5 itself then the figure is raised by 1 if it is odd, and left
unchanged if it is even.

2.0 KINEMATICS
2.1

Motion in one Dimension


Displacement
The displacement of a particle is defined as the difference between its final position and its
original position. We represent the displacement as Dx.
Dx = xf - xi
The subscripts i and f refer to be initial and final positions.

www.thinkiit.in

PHYSICS

Average Velocity and Average Speed


The average velocity of an object travelling along the x-axis is defined as the ratio of its
displacement to the time taken for that displacement.
x x f - x i
vav = t = t - t
(2.1)
f
i
The average speed of a particle is defined as the ratio of the total distance travelled to the time taken.
Total distance travelled
Average speed =
Dt
Note that velocity and speed have different meanings.
Average Acceleration is defined as the ratio of change in velocity to the time taken.
v f - vi
v
= t -t
aav =
(2.2)
t
f
i
Instantaneous Velocity is defined as the value approached by the average velocity when the time
interval for measurement becomes closer and closer to zero, i.e. Dt 0. Mathematically
x
v av = lim
v(t) = tlim
0
t 0 t
The instantaneous velocity function is the derivative with respect to the time of the displacement
function.
dx(t)
v(t) =
(2.3)
dt
Instantaneous Acceleration is defined analogous to the method for defining instantaneous
velocity. That is, instantaneous acceleration is the value approached by the average acceleration
as the time interval for the measurement becomes closer and closer to zero.
The Instantaneous acceleration function is the derivative with respect to time of the velocity function
dv(t)
a(t) =
(2.4)
dt

2.2

Graphical interpretation of Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

Average Velocity
The average velocity between two points in a given time interval can be obtained from a
displacement versus-time graph by computing the slope of the straight line joining the
coordinates of the two points.
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity at time t is the slope of the tangent line drawn to the
position-versus-time graph at that time.
x

Tangent line v =

dx
dt

x
v=0

Chord

Dx

vav =

v>0

Dx
Dt

v<0

v=0

Dt

Fig.(2.1 & 2.2) The x versus t graph of a particle whose velocity is not constant. The slope of the
chord joining two points on the curve is the average velocity for that interval. The instantaneous
velocity is the slope of the tangent at that point.

www.thinkiit.in

5
PHYSICS
Average Acceleration
The average acceleration between two points in a time interval is equal to the slope of the chord
connecting the points on a velocity -versus-time graph.
Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration at time t is the slope of the tangent drawn to the
velocity-versus-time graph.
v

aav =

Dv
Dt

Dt
Dv

a=0
a=

dv
dt

a<0
a>0
a=0

t
Fig.(2.3) On a v versus-t graph, the slope of the line joining two
points is the average acceleration for that time interval. The
instantaneous acceleration at a given time is the slope of the
tangent at that time.

t
O
Fig.(2.4) The sign of the instantaneous acceleration depends on the
slope of the tangent.

Displacement from Velocity Graphs


Given a velocity-verses-time graph, the displacement during an interval between time ti and tf is
the area bounded by the velocity curve and the two vertical lines t = ti and t = tf, as shown in the
Fig.(6& 7).
v
vo

tf
t
Dt
Fig.(2.5) The area under the v versus-t curve is
the displacement Dx = voDt
O

ti

v3
v4
v2
v1

Dt1 Dt2

Dt3 Dt4

Fig.(2.6) For each segment of motion, the velocity is a


different constant. The displacement Dx1
during the tth interval is the area v1Dt1. So the
total displacement is
Dx = v1Dt1 + v2Dt2 + v3Dt3 + v4Dt4

ti

tf

Fig.(2.7) When v versus-t graph is a smooth


complex curve. the area under the curve
may be obtained by using integration.

www.thinkiit.in

6
PHYSICS
Velocity from Acceleration Graphs
Given an acceleration-versus-time graph, the change in velocity between t = ti and t = tf is the
area bounded by the acceleration curve and the vertical lines t = ti and t = tf.
a

a
ao

tf
t
Dt
Fig.(2.8 a) The area under the aversus-t curve
is the change in velocity Dv = aoDt.
O

ti

ti

tf

Fig.(2.8 b) When a versus-t graph is a smooth


complex curve. the area under the curve
may be obtained using integration.

Table 2.1
Variation of Displacement (x), velocity (v) and acceleration (a) with respect to
time for different types of motion.
Displacement
1. At rest

Velocity

x=c

2. Motion with
constant velocity

Acceleration

x = vot + xo
vo
xo
O

3. Motion
with
constant
acceleration

x
x = vot +(1/2)aot

a
v = a ot
ao

4. Motion
with
constant
deceleration.

x
x = vot - (1/2)aot

vo
O
ao
O

www.thinkiit.in

2.3

PHYSICS

Motion with Constant Acceleration


The equations of kinematics are summarised as
v = v0 + at
(2.5)
x = x0 + v 0 t +

1 2
at
2

v2 = v 02 + 2a ( x - x 0 )

(2.6)
(2.7)

1
(v + v)t
(2.8)
2 0
where x0 = Initial position coordinate
x = Final position coordinate
v = Final velocity
a = Acceleration (constant)
t = Elapsed time

x = x0 +

Problem Solving Strategy


1.
Make a simple sketch of the situation described.
2.
Set up a co-ordinate system and clearly indicate the origin.
3.
(a)
List the given quantities with appropriate sign.
(b)
List the unknown quantities.
4.
Find the equation that has the quantity you need as the only unknown. (This is not always
possible).
5.
It is often helpful to obtain a rough graphical solution.
6.
Solve the equation (s) to find the desired unknown(s).

2.4

Free Fall
Motion that occurs solely under the influence of gravity is called free fall.
In the absence of air resistance all falling bodies have the same acceleration due to gravity,
regardless of their sizes or shapes.
The equations of kinematics may be modified as
v = v0 - gt
(2.9)
y = y0 +

1
(v + v) t (2.10)
2 0

1
y = y0 + v0t - gt2
2

(2.11)

v = v - 2g ( y - y 0 ) (2.12)
The signs of v and v0 are determined
by their directions relative to the
chosen +y axis.
Note that t he sign of t he
acceleration does not depend on
whether the body is going up or
coming down.
2

ay = -g

2
0

O
x
Fig.(2.9) If the y axis is chosen to point upward; the
acceleration of a particle in free-fall is ay = -g, where
g = 10m/s2 is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity.

www.thinkiit.in

2.5

PHYSICS

Motion in Two Dimensions


Whatever we have studied in the kinematics of one
dimensional motion the same is applicable for two
and three dimensions.
In two dimensions the position vector r of a particle
whose coordinates are (x,y) is
r = x i + y j

path followed

P2
Dr

r1

If the particle moves from P1 at position r1 to P2 at


position r2, as shown in figure its displacement is
given by
Dr = r2 - r1 = Dxi + Dyj

Fig.(2.10) Displacement of a particle

The student must carefully note the correct direction of Dr.


Dr is the vector that must be added to the initial
y
position r1 to give the final position r2,
i.e. r2 = r1 + Dr
The average velocity is defined as the ratio of the
displacement over the time interval
Dr
vav =
Dt

or

v=

Dr
=
Dt

(2.13)

v=
Dr

v av

dr
= vxi + vyj
dt

P1

r2

dr
dt

t+Dt

Fig.(2.11) The instantaneous velocity v is directed

dx
dy
along the tangent to the path, but its
and v y =
where vx =
magnitude is not the slope of that line.
dt
dt
The direction of v is along the tangent to the path.
The instantaneous acceleration is the ratio of change of the velocity with respect to time.

a=

dv
= a xi + a y j
dt

(2.14)

dv y
dv x
;a y =
dt
dt
Note that one cannot determine acceleration directly from the path of the particle. One needs to
know how each component of the velocity varies as function of space and time.

where ax =

path
a
a
O

Fig.(2.12) Possible directions of acceleration of a particle


traveling along a curved path.

www.thinkiit.in

PHYSICS
General equations of kinematics for constant acceleration
v = v0 + at
(2.15)
r = r0 + v0t +

1 2
at
2

(2.16)

1
(v + v)t
(2.17)
2 0
For two-dimensional motion in the plane, the x and y components of these equations are:
vx = v0x + axt
vy = v0y + ayt

r = r0 +

x = x0 + v0x +
x = x0 +

1 2
at
2 x

1
(v + vx)t
2 0x

2
v 2x = v ox
+ 2a x (x - x 0 )

2.6

y = y0 + y0yt +
y = y0 +

1
a t2
2 y

1
(v t + vy)t
2 0y

v 2y = v 2oy + 2a y ( y - y o )

Projectile Motion
A projectile motion near the surface of the earth consists of two independent motions. A
horizontal motion at constant speed and a vertical, subject to the acceleration due to gravity.
In order to deal with problem in projectile motion, one has to choose a coordinate system and
clearly specify the origin. If the x axis is horizontal and the y-axis points vertically upward, then
ax = 0 and ay = -g
One can easily assume the origin such that the initial horizontal coordinate is zero.
i.e.
xo = 0
The equations of kinematics for projectile motion are
x = voxt
(2.18)
vy = voy -gt
(2.19)
1 2
gt
2

(2.20)

v y2 = v oy2 -2g (y - yo)

(2.21)

y = yo + voyt -

Important
1.

The time of flight is given by


T=

2.

2v o sin q
g

(2.22)

The horizontal range is given by


v o2 sin 2q
R=
(2.23)
g
Equations (2.22) and (2.23) are valid only when the projectile returns to the initial vertical
level.
For a given initial speed vo, the range is a maximum when sin2q =1, that is when q = 45.
For a given velocity vo same range R occurs at two angles of projection, viz.
q = 45 a

www.thinkiit.in

10

PHYSICS

a a
45o
Fig.(2.13) The horizontal ranges for angle of projection (45o - a)
and (45o + a) are equal.

3.

The maximum height of the projectile is

4.

v o2 sin 2 q
H=
2g
The trajectory of a projectile is a parabola

5.

g
1
x2
2
2 ( v 0 cos q)
In term of range (R), we have

2.7

(2.24)

y = x tanq -

(2.25)

y = x tanq 1 2R

(2.26)

Circular Motion
To summarize, an object moving in uniform circular motion at radius r and constant angular
speed w has
1.
a constant linear speed v = rw tangential to the circle and
2.
a centripetal acceleration ac = w2r = v2/r directed radially inward toward the centre
of the circle

Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration in Two Dimensions


1.
The velocity vector is always tangential to the path
2.
The acceleration vector may have two components: one tangential to the path and other
perpendicular to the path.
(a)
The component of the acceleration parallel to the path is due to the change in speed. When the
speed is increasing, the tangential component at points in the same direction as the velocity;
when the speed is decreasing, the tangential component points opposite the velocity.
(b)
When the path of an object is a curve, there is a component of the acceleration
perpendicular to the velocity. This component of the acceleration ac points toward the
v2
inside of the curve. Its magnitude is given by ac =

(c)

where r = radius of curvature of the path at that point. For circular motion r = radius of
the circle for straight line motion r = so that ac = 0.
The total acceleration is the vector sum of the tangential and centripetal components.

www.thinkiit.in

11

PHYSICS

2.8

Relative Velocity

1.

The relative velocity of object A with respect to object B is defined as


(2.27)
v AB = v A - v B
Similarly,

aA / B = aA - a B

(2.28)

The above relations involve three vectors. The question will give information about their magnitude and/or direction. From this information, we must be able to construct the velocity or acceleration triangle and then the unknown may be found.
2.

The equations for uniformly accelerated motion are valid in relative form also, provided relative
acceleration is a constant. i.e. we can write
vrel = urel + arelt
(2.29)
xrel = urelt +

1
a t2
2 rel

(2.30)

v 2rel - u 2rel = 2a rel x rel

(2.31)

3.0 LAWS OF MOTION


3.1

Equilibrium
A system is said to be in equilibrium if it does not tend to undergo any further change of its own.
Any further change must be produced by external means (e.g. force).
A body is said to be in translational equilibrium if the sum of the forces acting on the body is
zero.
SFnet = F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
(3.1)
or
SFx = F1x + F2x + F3x = 0
(3.2)
and
SFy = F1y + F2y + F3y = 0
(3.3)
If the particle is at rest, it is in static equilibrium. whereas if it is moving at constant velocity, it is
in dynamic equilibrium. In either case SF = 0.
F3y
F1y

F3

F3x

F2x

F1

F1x

F2
F2y
Fig.(3.1) A particle is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces

www.thinkiit.in

12
PHYSICS
Problem solving Strategy
1.
Make a simple sketch showing the body under consideration.
2.
Identify the forces acting on the body, Draw arrows on your sketch to show the direction of
each force acting on the body, in otherwords, make the free body diagram.
3.
Choose the coordinate system and resolve the forces into components that are parallel to the
coordinate axes.
4.
Write the equations for equilibrium along each axis of the co-ordinate system.
5.
Solve the equations of the required unknown(s).

3.2

Newtons Laws
Newtons First Law
When there is no net force on an object
-an object at rest remains at rest, and
-an object in motion continues to move with a velocity
that is constant in magnitude and direction.

Newtons Second Law


We know from the first law, what happens when there is no unbalanced force on an object: its
velocity remains constant. Now let us see What happens when there is an unbalanced force on
an object ? The Newtons second Law gives answer to this question, that is, net force acting on a
body will produce an acceleration.
When there is a constant unbalanced force on an object, the object moves with constant
acceleration. Furthermore, if the force varies, the acceleration varies in direct proportion with
larger forces producing larger accelerations. Twice the force produces twice the acceleration.
The magnitude of the acceleration produced depends on the quanity of matter being pushed. The
quantity of matter is referred to as the intertial mass.
Newtons second law states the relation between the net force and the inertial mass.
SF = ma
(3.4)
Note that the direction of acceleration is in the direction of the net force.
In terms of components
SFx = max
SFy = may
SFz = maz
(3.5)
Important

The direction of motion of a particle does not in general coincide with the direction of
the force acting on it. It is the rate of change of velocity, which is related to the force.
The acceleration must be measured with respect to an inertial reference frame.

Newtons Third Law


If the object exerts a force F on a second, then the second object exerts an equal but opposite force
- F on the first.

3.3

Reference Frames : Inertial and Non - Inertial


A reference frame in which Newtons first law is valid is called an intertial reference frame. In an inertial
reference frame, body subject to no net force will either stay at rest or move at constant velocity.
Any frame moving with constant velocity relative to a known inertial frame is also an inertial
frame. If the acceleration of a particle is zero in one inertial frame, it is zero in all inertial frames.
An accelerated frame of reference is called a non- inertial frame. Objects in non-inertial
reference frames do not obey Newtons first law.

www.thinkiit.in

13

3.4

PHYSICS

Friction
Whenever the surface of a body slides over that of another, each body exerts a force of friction on
the other, parallel to the surfaces. The force of friction on each body is in a direction opposite to
its motion relative to the other body.
The force of friction comes into action only when there is a relative motion between two contact
surfaces or when an attempt is made to do so.
It is a self adjusting force, it can adjust its magnitude anywhere between zero and the limiting
(maximum) value i.e
0 f fmax
The frictional force acting between two surfaces at rest with respect to each other is called the
force of static friction. And the frictional force acting between the surfaces in relative motion
with respect to each other is called the force of kinetic friction or sliding friction.
Laws of Friction
The limiting (or maximum) force of friction is proportional to the normal force that keeps the two
surfaces in contact with each other, and is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces. Mathematically,
fmax = N
(3.6)

Properties of Friction
1.

If the body does not move then the static frictional force fs and the external force F parallel to the
surface are equal in magnitude; and fs is directed opposite to F. If the external force F increases fs
increases.
f

fs(max)
fk

Stick slip
smooth sliding

Fapp
Fig.(3.2) The variation of the force of friction with the
applied force. When the block is at rest the force of
static friction is fs, balances the applied force Fapp
until it reaches a maximum value. When the block
moves, it is subject to the force of kinetic friction.

2.

3.

The maximum value of static friction is given by


fs max = sN
(3.7)
where s = static coefficient of friction and N is the magnitude of the normal reaction. If the
external force F exceeds fs max then the body slides on the surface.
If the body begins to slide along the surface, the magnitude of the frictional force rapidly
decreases to a constant value of fk given by
f k = kN
(3.8)
where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

www.thinkiit.in

14

3.5

PHYSICS

Angle of Friction
Suppose a body is placed on an inclined surface whose angle of inclination q varies between 0 to
p/2. The coefficient of friction between the body and the surface is . Let the initial value of q be
zero and if we slowly start increasing the value of q, then at
a particular value of q = f the block just starts to move.
f
N
This value of q =f is called the angle of friction.
Mathematically, if the block is just about to move, then
mg sin q = f
mgcosq
mgsinq
When q = f, mg sin f =fmax
q
or
mg sinf = N = mg cosq
or
tan f =
Fig. (3.3) A block of mass m is placed on an
Thus f = tan-1
incline whose inclination may be
The angle of friction is that minimum angle of
varied between 0 to p/2. When q = f
inclination of the inclined plane at which a body placed
the friction force is maximum and
at rest on the inclined plane is about to slide down.
block just starts sliding

Important

When q f (or tan-1) the body is in equilibrium.

When the angle of inclination is more than the angle of friction (q > f) the block starts sliding
down with acceleration. And, if we wish to keep it in equilibrium an external force has to be
applied.

4.0 WORK AND ENERGY


4.1

Work
The work W done by a constant force F when its point of application undergoes a displacement is
defined to be
W = F s cosq
(4.1)
F

F
q

s
Fig.(4.1)The work W done by the force F when its
point of application undergoes a displacement
s is W = F.s = Fs cosq

where q is the angle between F and s as indicated in figure(4.1). Only the component of F along
s, that is , F cosq , contributes to the work done. Strictly speaking, the work is done by the source
or agent that applies the force. Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is the joule (J). From
equation (4.1), we see that
1 J = 1 N.m
Work is also defined as the dot product of force and its displacement as given by equation (4.3)
W = F.s
(4.2)
In terms of rectangular components, the two vectors are
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k and
s = Dx i + Dy j + Dz k;
hence, equation (4.2) may be written as
W = Fx Dx + Fy Dy + Fz Dz
(4.3)
The work done by a given force on a body depends only on the force, the displacement, and the
angle between them. It does not depend on the velocity or the acceleration of the body, or on the
presence of other forces.

www.thinkiit.in

15

PHYSICS
Since the work is a scalar, its value also does not depend on the orientation of the coordinate axes.
Since the magnitude of a displacement in a given time interval depends on the velocity of the
frame of reference used to measure the displacement, the calculated work also depends on the
reference frame.

4.2

Work Done by a Variable Force


When the magnitude and direction of a force vary in three dimensions, it can be expressed
as a function of the position vector F(r), or in terms of the coordinates F(x, y, z). The work done
by such a force in an infinitesimal displacement ds is
dW = F.ds
(4.4)
The total work done in going from point A to point B as shown in the figure.
B

WA B = F .ds = (F cos q ) ds
B

In terms of rectangular components,


F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
and
ds = dx i + dy j + dz k
therefore ,
WA B = Fx dx + F y dy + Fz dz

4.3

zA

yA

xA

ds

zB

yB

xB

(4.5)

Fig.(4.2)A particle moves along a curved path


subject to a nonconstant force F. The
work done by the force in a displacement
ds is dW = F.ds.

Work Energy Theorem


Let us study what physical quantity changes when work is done on a particle. If a constant force
F acts through a displacement x, it does work W = Fx = (ma) x on the particle.
Since the acceleration is constant, we can use the equation of kinematics

v 2f = v i2 + 2ax
Thus, W =

m v 2f - v i2
2

] = 1 mv
2

2
f

1
mv i2
2

(4.6)

The quantity
1
mv 2
2
is a scalar and is called the kinetic energy of the particle.
Kinetic energy is the energy that a particle posses by virtue of its motion.
Thus, the equation (4.6) takes the form
W = Kf - Ki = DK
(4.7)
The work done by a force changes the kinetic energy of the particle. This is called the
Work-Energy Theorem.
In general
The net work done by the resultant of all the forces acting on the particle is equal to the change in
kinetic energy of a particle.
Wnet = DK
(4.8)

K=

www.thinkiit.in

16

PHYSICS

Important
(i)
The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the amount of work needed to increase its
speed from zero to a given value.
(ii)
The kinetic energy of a particle is the work it can do on its surroundings in coming to rest.
(iii)
Since the velocity and displacement of a particle depend on the frame of reference, the
numerical values of the work and the kinetic energy also depend on the frame, but the
work-energy theorem is true for all inertial reference frames.

4.4

Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy associated with the relative positions of two or more interacting
particles.
The forces, such as gravity and spring force, which do work in a reversible manner are called
conservative forces. In contrast, the force, such a frictional force, which does work in an irreversible manner is called a non - conservative force.

Important
B
1.
The work done by a conservative force is
independent of path. It depends only on the initial
1
and final positions. In contrast, the work done by a
non-conservative force depends on the path.
2
2.
The work done by a conservative force around any
closed path is zero.
The potential energy is defined only for
A
conservative forces.
The change in potential energy as a particle moves Fig.(4.3) The work done by a conservative force
from point A to point B is the same for
from point A to point B is equal to the negative of
any two paths such has 1 and 2.
the work done by the associated conservative force
DU = UB - UA = -WC
Using definition of work
B

UB UA = - FC .ds

(4.9)

According to equation (4.9), when only conservative forces act, the change in total mechanical
energy of a system is zero, in otherwords,
If only conservative forces perform work on and within a system of masses, the total mechanical
energy of the system is conserved.
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy Functions
Thus, Fx = -

4.5

dU
dx

(4.10)

Power
dW
dt
P = F. v

P=

(4.11)
(4.12)

www.thinkiit.in

17

PHYSICS

5.0 IMPULSE & MOMENTUM


5.1

Impulse
In the previous chapter, we have learnt the concept of work which was an integral of force with
respect to displacement. Now we are going to learn another concept, called impulse.
Impulse is defined as the integral of force with respect to time.
r
tf
tf
r
dv
F
dt
m
I=
= dt = p
(5.1)
ti
ti
Since force is a vector and time is a scalar, the
result of the integral in equation (5.1) is a vector. If the
force is constant (both in magnitude and F
direction), it may be removed from the integral so that
the integral is reduced to
tf

I = F dt = F(tf - ti) = FDt

(5.2)

ti

Graphically, the impulse is the area between the force


curve and the F = 0 axis, as shown in figure. (5.1).
The SI unit of impulse is Ns.

5.2

Fig.(5.1) Graphical interpretation of Impulse as


area under the curve.

Conservation of Linear Momentum


When the net force on a particle is zero, its momentum is constant.

5.3

Collision
Types of Collision
Collisions may be either elastic or inelastic. Linear momentum is conserved in both cases. A
perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which the total kinetic energy of the particles is also
conserved.
Coefficient of Restitution (e)
The elasticity of collision may be measured in terms of a dimensionless parameter called the
coefficient of restitution (e).
It is defined as the ratio of velocity of separation to the velocity of approach of the two colliding
bodies
e=

velcity of separation
velocity of appraoch

(5.3)

www.thinkiit.in

18

PHYSICS
u1

u2

u1

Before

Before

v1

v2

v1

v2
After

After

Velocity of separation = v2 v1
Velocity of approach = u1 u2
\

e=

u2

Velocity of separation = v1 + v2
Velocity of approach = u1 + u2

v 2 - v1
u1 - u 2

e=

v1 + v 2
u1 + u 2

For an elastic collision e = 1


For an inelastic collision 0 < e < 1
For completely inelastic collision: e = 0
First, when the particles have equal mass, and second when one of them, say m2, is initially at
rest.
(i)
Equal masses:
m1 = m2 = m
Equation (5.3) takes the form u1 + u2 = v1 + v2,
Solving equations (11.14) and ( 11.15), we get
v1 = u2
and
v2 = u1
(ii)
Unequal masses
m1 m2. Target at Rest: u2 = 0
m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2
u1 = -v1 + v2
After solving, we get
v1 =
v2 =

(m1 - m 2 )u 1

(5.4)

m1 + m 2
2m1 u 1
m1 + m 2

(5.5)

(a)
When m1 >> m2, we may ignore the mass of m2 in comparison with m1. This leads to
v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1, which means that m1 maintains its initial velocity u1 but it imparts double this
value to m2.
(b)
When m1 << m2 we may ignore m1 in compression with m2. We then find that v1 = -u1 and
v2 = 0. Thus, m1 reverses its velocity, leaving m2 essentially unmoved as in figure(11.6).

5.4

Definition of Centre of Mass


For a system of n particles whose position vectors are r1 , r2 ,.........., rn as shown in figure, the
position vector for the center of mass rcm is defined as

rcm =

or

rcm

m 1 r1 + m 2 r2 + ........ + m n rn
m 1 + m 2 + ........... + m n

m r
=

i i

m3
r3

(5.6)

M
where M = Smi is the total mass of the system.

m2

r2
r1

m1

Fig.(5.2) A discrete system of particles

www.thinkiit.in

19

PHYSICS
The components of equation (5.6) are defined as
xcm =

m x
i

; ycm =

m y
i

; zcm =

m z
i

(5.7)

The center of mass of a continuous body is defined as


1
r dm
(5.8)
M
The components of this equation are
rcm =

xcm =

y
dm

1
x dm ;
M

1
y dm ;
ycm =
M

zcm =

5.5

1
z dm
M

(5.9)

Fig.(5.3) A continuous system of mass

Motion of the Center of Mass


The instantaneous velocity of the center of mass is given by
v cm =

drcm

dt
Using equation (5.6), we get
v cm =

dr
1
mi i

M
dt

m v

m a

(5.10)
M
The total momentum of a system of particles is equivalent to that of a single (imaginary) particle
of mass M = Smi moving at the velocity of the center of mass vcm.
That is,
P = p1 + p2 + . + pn
or
P = m1v1 + m2v2 + + mnvn
or
P = Mvcm
(5.11)
Using the concept of center of mass, we may deal with the translational motion of extended
objects or systems of particles, as if they were point particle with all the mass concentrated at the
center of mass.
Differentiating equation (5.10), with respect to time, we get
or

vcm =

acm =

Since the internal forces cancel in pairs, therefore,

= Fext

Thus, Fext = Macm


(5.12)
The center of mass accelerates as if it were a point particle of mass M = Smi and the net external
force were applied at this point.
If
Fext = 0,
then vcm = constant
(5.13)
If the net external force on a system of particles is zero, the velocity of the center of mass remains
constant.

www.thinkiit.in

20

5.6

PHYSICS

Kinetic Energy of a System


The kinetic energy of a system of particles is given by
K = Kcm + K
(5.14)
1
2
Mv cm
, kinetic energy of the c.m. relative to the fixed origin O.
2
1
2
and
K = mi v ' i , kinetic energy of the particles relative to the c.m.
2
The term K may involve translation, rotation or vibration relative to the center of mass.

where Kcm =

5.7

System of Variable Mass


dM
dv
(5.15)
= Fext + vrel
dt
dt
dv
The acceleration
of the principal part, whose instantaneous mass is M, is determined.
dt

Fext is the net external force on the whole system (of constant mass M + DM), and
dM

vrel
is the rate at which momentum is being transferred into, or out, the principal
dt
part. It is also called the thrust force
dM
Fthrust = vrel
dt
M

Rocket Propulsion

Mi
vf vi = vex ln M

(5.16)

where vex is the exhaust speed of the gases w.r.t. the rocket.

6.0 ROTATIONAL MOTION


6.1

ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS
Consider a body of arbitrary shape rotating about a fixed axis O as shown in figure(6.1). In a given
interval all the particles lying on the line OA move to their corresponding positions lying on OB.
Although the particles of the body have different linear displacements, they all have the same
angular displacement q, which is given by
s
(6.1)
r
The average angular velocity of the body for
a finite time interval is given by

q=

f - i
wav = t = t - t
f
i

s
q r

(6.2)

The unit of angular velocity is radian per second (rad/s).


The instantaneous angular velocity is defined as

w = Lim
Dt 0

d
=
t dt

(6.3)

Fig.(6.1)When a body rotates about a fixed


axis O, each particle travels in a
circular path about O.

www.thinkiit.in

21

PHYSICS
It is the rate of change of the angular position q with respect to time. It is a vector quantity.
The direction of angular velocity is given by the right-hand rule. We hold the right hand such that
when the fingers of the right hand curve in the sense of rotation, the thumb points in the direction
of w.
w
z
y

Fig.(6.2) The direction of w is


given by right-hand rule.

Period and Frequency of Revolution


The period T is the time for one revolution and the frequency f is the number of revolutions per
second (rev/s). The period and frequency are related as
1
(6.4)
T
If the angular velocity is constant, the instantaneous and average velocities are equal.
In terms period T and frequency f the angular velocity is given by

f=

2p
= 2p f
(6.5)
T
The relation between linear speed and angular speed is obtained by differentiating equation
(6.1) with respect to time.

w=

d 1 ds
v
=
or
w=
dt r dt
r
or
v = wr
(6.6)
The average angular acceleration is defined as

f - i
aav = t = t - t
f
i

(6.7)

and the instantaneous angular acceleration is defined as


d
=
(6.8)
t
dt
Angular acceleration is a vector quantity measured in rad/s2.

a = Lim
Dt 0

www.thinkiit.in

22

PHYSICS

The Constant Angular Acceleration Model


= o + t
= o + o t +

(6.9)
1 2
t
2

(6.10)

2 = o2 + 2 ( - o )

(6.11)

A particle moving in a circular path with speed v has a centripetal (or radial) acceleration

v2
= 2r
(6.12)
r
If there is angular acceleration, the speed of the particle changes and thus we can find the tangential acceleration
ar =

at

dv d
= r = r
dt dt
The net linear acceleration is
r r
r
a = ar + at
The magnitude of acceleration is given by
at =

a=

a r2 + a t2

(6.13)

(6.14)

ar

Fig.(6.3)When a body undergoes angular


acceleration, the linear acceleration
of each particle has radial and
tangential components.

Table 6.1 Analogy Between Rotational Kinematics and Linear Kinematics

1.
2.
3.

Quan tity
Position
Displacement
Velocity

4.

Acceleration

5.

Equations
of
Kinematics

Linear
x
Dx
dx
v=
dt
dv
a=
dt
v = adt + c

Rotational
q
Dq
dq
w=
dt
dw
a=
dt
w = a dt + c

x = vdt + c'

q = w dt + c'

v = v o + at
1
x = xo + vot + at 2
2
2
2
v - vo = 2ax

w = wo + at
1
q = qo + wot + at2
2
2
2
w - wo = 2aq

www.thinkiit.in

23

6.2

PHYSICS

Moment of Inertia
For a discrete system of particles the moment of inertia is defined as
I = Smiri2
(6.15)
where mi is the mass of the ith particle
and
ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith particle from the axis of rotation.
Axis of rotation
r1
m2

r2
r3

m4

m1
m3

r4

Fig.(6.4)A discrete system of particles

For a continuous system, the mass element should be chosen such that all the particles on it are at the
same perpendicular distance from the axis. The moment of inertia of the whole body is given by
I = r 2 dm

(6.16)

where r is the perpendicular distance of the element dm from the axis.

dm

Fig.(6.5) The mass element dm contributes


dI = r2dm to the moment of inertia.

The Parallel Axis Theorem


Let the moment of inertia of an object through its center of mass be Icm. The moment of inertia of
the mass through any other axis parallel to the first is given by
Iparallel = Icm + Mh2
(6.17)
where M is the total mass of the object and h is the perpendicular distance between the two
parallel axes.

Perpendicular Axis Theorem


By a laminar body we mean an object that can be treated as two dimensional, such as a large
figure cut from a thin sheet of plywood. Let the z axis be perpendicular to a laminar body and run

www.thinkiit.in

24

PHYSICS
through the bodys center of mass. Let the moment of inertia of the body about that axis be I z. Let
the x and y axes lie in the plane of the body with the origin at the center of mass as shown in
figure. Let the moment of inertia about the x and y axes to be Ix and Iy. The perpendicular axes
theorem state that
Iz = I x + I y
(6.18)

Table 6.2 Moment of Inertia of some common shaped Bodies


R

MR 2
(a)
A thin loop ab out an axis through its
center and perpendicular to the plane of
the loop

MR 2
(b)
thin w alled cylin der abo ut its ax is .

1
MR 2
2
( c)
solid disk about a perpendicular
axis thr ough the center .

1
M R2
2
(d)
solid cylinder about an a xis.

R1
R2

2 R52 - R15
M
5 R23 - R13

1
2
2
M (R 2 + R 1 )
2

(f)
a thick w alled hollo w sphere about a
diameter

(e)
a thick-walled cylinder about its axis

www.thinkiit.in

25

PHYSICS
L

1
2
ML
3

1
ML2
3

(g )

a thin rod about a perp en dicu lar axis


throug h its end

(h)
a rectangle ab out on e edge

1
ML 2
12

1
1
MR 2 +
M L2
4
12

(i)

(i)

a thin r od abou t a p er pendicular ax is


thro ugh its center.

a solid c ylinder ab out a perp endicular


axis through its center.

b
1
MR 2
2
( k)

1
M(l 2 + b 2 )
12
(j)
a rectangle abo ut a per pendicular axis
through its center.

a thin loop about a diameter

R
2
MR
5
(m )

2
MR 2
3
(l)

a solid s phere about its


diameter

hollow spher e about a diameter

www.thinkiit.in

26

6.3

PHYSICS

Torque
Torque is the rotational analog of force.
Force causes linear acceleration; torque causes angular acceleration.
In order to lift a stone by using a lever, a force is required (see figure 6.6). The effectiveness of the
force depends both on its direction and where it is applied relative to the pivot point.
F

M
Fig.(6.6) A stone of mass M is lifted by using
a lever.

The turning ability of a force about an axis or pivot is called its torque.
The torque of a force F that acts at a distance r from the origin is defined as
t = rF sinq
(6.19)
Where q is the angle between the vector r and F, as shown in the figure (6.7).
y

F^= Fsinq
q

q
r

r
O

Fcosq

r^

t = r (F sinq) = rF^
(b)

t = (r sinq)F = r^F

(a)

Fig.(6.7)Torque produced by a force F about


the origin O.

6.4

Newtons Second Law


Since torque is a rotational analog of force, therefore, Newtons second law for rotational motion
is given by

tnet = Ia
(6.20)
Note that the above equation (6.20) is not a vector equation.
It is valid in two situations:
(i)
The axis is fixed in position and direction.
(ii)
The axis passes through the center of mass and is fixed in direction only.
(6.21)
The equation tcm = Icmacm
is valid even if the center of mass is accelerating.

www.thinkiit.in

27

6.5

PHYSICS

Rotational Work and Energy


The rotational work done by a force is about the fixed axis of rotation is defined as
Wrot =

(6.22)

Where t is the torque produced by the force, and dq is the infinitesimally small angular
displacement about the axis.
The rotational kinetic energy of a body about a fixed rotational axis is defined as
1 2
Iw
2
where I is the moment of inertia about the axis.

Krot =

(6.23)

Work Energy Theorem


In complete analog to the work energy theorem for the translatory motion, it can be stated for
rotational motion as:
Wrot = DKrot
(6.24)
The net rotational work done by the forces is equal to the change in rotational kinetic energy of
the body.
Rotational Power
In complete analog with the linear motion, the instantaneous rotational power is defined as
Prot =

dWrot
dt

= .

(6.25)

In a pure rolling motion a wheel rotates about its center of mass and the center of mass moves
linearly so that it covers a distance equal to its circumference.
That is,
s = 2p R
If T be the time period of one revolution, then dividing both the sides by T, we get

s 2
= R
T T
or
vc = wR
(6.26)
where w is the angular velocity of the wheel about its centerof mass, and vc is the linear velocity
of the center of mass.
vc

va

2pR
Fig.(6.8)When a wheel of radius R rolls without
slipping at angular velocity w, the
speed of its center is vc = wR.

Since rolling is a combination of translation of the center and rotation about the center, therefore,
velocity of any point on the rim is the vector sum
v = vc + v'

(6.27)

where v c is the velocity of the center of mass, and v is the velocity of the particle with respect to
center of mass.

www.thinkiit.in

28

PHYSICS
wR
2

wR

wR

wR

wR

A1

wR
c

vc

v1 = vc 2

vc
vc

v3

wR
wR

vc

vo = 0

v2 = 2vc

0
vo = 0

Fig.(6.9)Rolling is a combination of translation of the center and rotation about the center. Velocity of any point is v = v c + v '

Kinetic Energy of a Rolling Body


Since the rolling motion is a combination of linear velocity of the center and rotational motion
about the center. Therefore, the total kinetic energy of a rolling body is given by
K=
where

1
1
mv c2 + I c 2
2
2

(6.28)

1
mv c2 is the translational kinetic energy and
2

1
I c 2 is the rotational kinetic energy about the center of mass
2
In pure rolling motion,
vc = wR

K=

1
1
2
m(R ) + I c 2
2
2

1
(I + mR2) w2
2 c
Using parallel axes theorem, the term Ic + mR2 gives the moment of inertia about the point of
contact, therefore,
Io = Ic + mR2

or

K=

1
I w2
(6.29)
2 o
Note that equation (6.29) gives the rotational kinetic energy of the wheel about the point of
contact.

and

K=

Application of Newtons Second Law in Rolling Motion


1.

Write F net = M a cm for the object as if it were a point-mass, that is, ignoring rotation.

2.

Write = I cm a as if the object were only rotating about the centre of mass, that is
ignoring translation.
Use of no-slip condition
Solve the resulting equations simultaneously for any unknown.
Caution:
In general, it is not the case that f = N
Be certain that the sign convention for forces and torques are consistent.

3.
4.

www.thinkiit.in

29

6.6

PHYSICS

Angular Momentum

r
Consider a particle that has linear momentum p and is located at position rr relative to an origin
O, as shown in the figure (6.10). Its angular momentum about the origin is defined as
r r r
(6.30)
y
L= rp
The magnitude of angular momentum is given by
r
L = rp sin q
p
q
or
L=r^p
(6.31)
where r^ = r sinq is called the moment arm.
r^
r
The direction of angular momentum is given by
r
the right hand rule.
x
O
The SI unit of angular momentum is kg m2/s.
momentum of a particle
Fig.(6.10)Angular
about O. L = r^p = rp sinq

r
The total angular momentum L of a system of particles relative to a given origin is the sum of the
angular momentum of the particles.
w
L = ri p i
r
r
Since ri and p i are perpendicular,,
therefore,
L = Sripi
ri
Also pi = mivi = miriw
mi
2
or
L = Smiri w
or
L = Iw
(6.32)
2
where I = Smiri
r
r dL
=
dt

Fig.(6.11)A rigid body rotating about a fixed


axis.

(6.33)

r
r dP
The above equation is the rotational analog of equation F =
dt

Conservation of Angular Momentum


If the net external torque on a system is zero, the total angular momentum is constant in
magnitude and direction.
That is, if ext = 0

dL
=0
dt

Thus, L = constant
For rigid body rotating about a fixed axis,
Lf = Li
or
Ifwf = Iiwi
(6.34)
Angular Impulse
In complete analogy with the linear momentum, angular impulse is defined as
= ext dt

(6.35)

Using Newtons second law for rotation motion,

www.thinkiit.in

30

PHYSICS
ext =

dL
dt

\
(6.36)
= DL = Lf - L
The net angular impulse acting on a rigid body is equal to the change in angular momentum of the
body. This is called the impulse momentum theorem for rotational dynamics.
Table 5.3 Analogy between Rotational Dynamics and Linear Dynamics.

Qu antity
1.

Linear
m

Inertia

Rotational
m i ri 2

r dm
2

or
2.

Newtons Second Law

3.

Work

4.

Kinetic Energy

5.
6.

Work Energy Theorem


Impulse

7.
8.
9.

Momentum
Impulse Momentum Theorem
Power

Fext = ma
r
r
dp
Fext =
dt
Wlin = Fd .s
1
mv 2
2
Wlin = DKlin

K lin =

text = Iar
r
dL
t ext =
dt
W rot = .d
1 2
Iw
2
W rot = DKrot

K rot =

I = Fext .dt

= Le xt .dt

p = mv
I = Dp
P = F .v

L = Iw
I = DL
P =.

Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum


For a rigid body undergoing linear and rotational motion, the total angular momentum may be
split into two parts the orbital angular momentum and the spin angular momentum. The
orbital angular momentum Lo is the angular momentum of the center of mass motion about an
origin O in an inertial frame.
The spin angular momentum Lcm is the angular momentum relative to the center of mass.
The orbital term treats the system as a point particle at the center of mass, whereas the spin term
is the sum of the angular momenta of the particles relative to the center of mass. The total angular
momentum relative to the origin O in an inertial frame is the sum:
L = Lo + Lcm

7.0 GRAVITATION
7.1

Newtons Law Of Gravitation


The force of interaction between any two particles having masses m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r is attractive and acts along the line joining the particles. The magnitude of the forces is
given by
Gm1 m 2
F=
(7.1)
r2
where G is a universal constant having the same value for all pairs of particles. Its numerical
value is 6.67 10-11 Nm2/kg2.

www.thinkiit.in

31

7.2

PHYSICS

The Gravitational Field Strength


Every mass particle is surrounded by a space within which its influence can be feft. This region or
space is said to be occupied with gravitational field.
m

The gravitational field strength (also called gravitational


intensity) is given by
g=

7.3

GM
F
= - 2 r
m
r

(7.2)

Gravitational Potential Energy


U=-

GMm
r

(7.3)

r
GMm
F = - 2 r
r

R
M
Fig.(7.1)

7.4

Mechanical Energy of an Orbiting Body


Consider a satellite of mass m orbiting around earth in a circular orbit of radius r. The total
mechanical energy of the system (earth + satellite) is the sum of its potential energy and the
kinetic energy of the satellite.
1
Mm
mv 02 - G
2
r
where M is the mass of earth, and v0 is the orbital velocity of the satellite.
The orbital velocity of a satellite in a stable orbit is given by

E=

GMm
mv02
=
r2
r
GM
(7.4)
r
The kinetic energy is, therefore, given by

or

v0 =

1
Mm
mv 02 = +G
(7.5)
2
2r
Note that the kinetic energy is half of the magnitude of potential energy.
The total mechanical energy is

K=

- GMm
(7.6)
2r
The negative sign of the energy means that the satellite is in a bound state. The quantity |E| is the
binding energy of the particle, which is the minimum energy that must be supplied by an external
agent to make it an unbound particle - whose mechanical energy is greater than zero.

E=K+U=

7.5

Escape Velocity
It is the minimum velocity required to escape from the gravitational field of earth.
When a rocket is fired with the minimum escape speed vesc it will reach r = with zero speed;
that is, Ef = K + U = 0. Its initial energy at the earths surface is
1
GMm
2
mv esc
2
R
Using energy conservation
Ef = Ei

Ei =

www.thinkiit.in

32

PHYSICS
O=
or

1
GMm
2
mv esc
2
R

vesc =

2GM
R

(7.7)

Bound and Unbound Trajectories


Suppose that a cannonball is fired from the peak of very tall tower with speed v. Let us consider
the shapes of the paths for various value of v.
If the ball is located at a distance r from the center of the earth, the speed that is required to escape
from the point is given by
vesc =

2GM
= 11.2 km/s
r

For a circular orbit of radius r the orbital speed is

vo =

GM
= 8 km/s
r

(a)

When v < vo, the orbit is elliptical, with the peak as the apogee (the farthest point from
earth). If v is too small, the projectile will strike the earth.
When v = vo, the orbit is circular.
When vesc > v > vo, the orbit is again an ellipse, but now the peak is the perigee (the closest
point to earth).

(b)

When v = vesc =
bound.

(c)

When v > vesc, the path is hyperbola and not closed. The object is not bound.

2 vo, the path is parabolic and is not a closed orbit. The object is not

v > vesc
v = vesc
v < vesc
v = vo

Fig.(7.2)A drawing of one of Newtons diagrams. A projectile is fired with


initial speed v from the top of a high tower. If v < vesc, the
trajectory is a closed elliptical orbit (which might intersect the
surface.). If v = vesc , te trajectory is parabolic. If v > vesc , the
trajectory is hyperbolic.

www.thinkiit.in

33

PHYSICS

8.0 FLUID MECHANICS


8.1

Fluid Statics

(i)

Pressure (a scalar quantity) on a surface is defined as


F dF
=
(8.1)
S dS
The units for pressure are Nm-2 or pascal (Pa), or mm of mercury (or any other substance).
For example, 760 mm of Hg

p = Lim
Ds 0

760
kg
m
m 13.6 10 3 3 9.8 2 = 1.01 105 N/m2 (Pa)
1000
m
s
3
4
10 m of water = 10 1 10 9.8 = 9.8 10 Pa
=

(ii)

Hydrostatic pressure distribution


dp
= rg
dh
Pressure at a point A at a depth h below the free surface is given by
pA = rgh
Note that pressure at the free surface is assumed to be zero.
If the pressure at the free surface is also taken into account which
is the atmospheric pressure po, then
pA = rgh + po

(iii)

h
A
Fig.(8.1)

Variation in atmospheric pressure due to height assuming isothermal atmosphere


Mgh

p = po exp RT
M : Molecular weight of air = 29 10-3 kg/mol
g : Acceleration due to gravity
h : height above the surface of earth
R : Gas constant = 8.314 J/mol/K
T : Absolute temperature
po : Pressure at the surface of the earth

(iv)

If the container is also accelerated in the horizontal direction, then


dp
= -r ax
dx

dp
= - g
dy

y
q

The free surface of the liquid is inclined at


an angle q given by
ax
tan q = a + g
y

Fig.(8.2)

www.thinkiit.in

ax

34
(v)

(vi)

PHYSICS
If the container is placed on a lift which moves upward with an acceleration a
p = r(g + a)h
If it moves downward with an acceleration a
p = r(g a)h
In particular if a = g
p=0
Note that during the free fall, pressure does not vary in such a situation
Hydrostatic Paradox

Fig.(8.3)

Three vessels of equal base area but containing different amounts of liquid upto the same height
will have same force at their bottom.
(vii)

Archimedes Principle
When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a fluid, there acts an upward force on it
called the buoyancy and its magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The point of
the application of buoyancy is at the centre of mass of the displaced fluid and is called the centre
of buoyancy. Buoyancy exists because of pressure gradient. Thus in case of a free fall situation
buoyancy is zero.

(viii)

Principle of floatation
Weight of the object = Buoyancy
rsVg = rlVsg
V : total volume of the object
Vs : submerged volume of the object
rs : density of object
rl : density of liquid

(ix)

The force due to a fluid filled upto height h on a surface of width W is


1
rgh2W
2
and it acts at a distance

F=

2h
from the top
3
Therefore, the moment of this force about O is
1
M = rgWh3
3

www.thinkiit.in

(2/3)h

F
Fig.(8.4)

35

PHYSICS

8.2

Fluid Dynamics

(i)

Principle of Continuity
A1v1 = A2v2

(ii)

Bernoullis equation (conservation of energy)


1
1
rv12 + rgh1 = p2 + rv22 + rgh2
2
2
In case of horizontal flow of fluid

p1 +

1
1
rv12 = p2 + rv22
2
2
i.e. Pressure is more if velocity is small and vice versa

p1 +

(iii)

The force of reaction felt by the vessel when a fluid comes out of it with a velocity v is given by
F = rav2
where r is the density of the fluid and a is the cross-sectional area of the hole.

h
v=

2g h

Fig.(8.5)

8.3 SURFACE TENSION


Let an imaginary line AB be drawn in any direction in a liquid
surface. The magnitude of force per unit length of AB is taken as a
B
F
measure of the surface tension of the liquid. Thus if F be the total
force acting on either side of the line AB of length l, then the
F
surface tension is given by
T = F/l
A
Its unit is Newton/meter and the dimensions are [MT-2].
The value of the surface tension of a liquid decreases with rise in temperature and becomes zero
at the critical temperature.

Surface Energy
Change in free energy of a surface layer
DU = T DA
where DA is the change in area of surface layer.

Excess pressure inside a drop


Let us consider a spherical drop of liquid of radius R.
If the pressure just outside the surface is P1 and just inside the surface is P2.
P2 - P1 = 2T/R

www.thinkiit.in

36

PHYSICS
Note that the pressure on the concave side is greater than the pressure on the convex side.
P1

P2

Excess Pressure Inside a Soap Bubble


Let the pressure of the air outside the bubble be P1 and that in the air inside the bubble be P2.
P1

P2

Then P2 - P1 = 4T/R

Capillarity
When a glass capillary tube open at both ends is dipped vertically in water, the water rises up in
the tube to a certain height above the water level outside the tube.

Water
(a)

Mercury
(b)

If r be the radius of the capillary tube and q the angle of contact of water-glass,
then height h to which water rises in the tube is given by
2T cos q
h=
rrg , r is the density of water..

Also the radius of curvature R of the meniscus is given by R = r/cosq.

r
q
R
q

Rising of liquid in a capillary tube of insufficient length :


The length of the tube is less than h, say h, then the liquid rise up to the top of the tube and then
spreads out until its radius of curvature R increases to R, such that
2T
hR = hR = rg

It is clear that liquid cannot emerge in the form of a fountain from the upper end of a short
capillary tube.

www.thinkiit.in

37

PHYSICS

8.4 VISCOSITY
According to Newton, the viscous force F acting between two layers of a liquid flowing in
stream-lined motion is given by
Dv x
Dz
where h is a constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid and Dvx/Dz is velocity-gradient.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with rise in temperature. On the other hand, the viscosity of
gases increases with rise in temperature.
F = hA

Flow of liquid through a tube (Poiseuilles formula)


If l and a be the length and radius of the tube and p the pressure difference across its ends, then the
volume of the liquid flowing per second through the tube is given by

ppa 4
q=
8hkl
Where h is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. This is known as Poiseuilles formula.

Force on a Body Falling in a Liquid: Stokes Law


If a small sphere of radius r is moving with a velocity v through a perfectly homogeneous medium
(liquid or gas) of infinite extension, then the viscous force acting on the sphere is
F = 6phrv
where h is the coefficient of viscosity of that medium.
Terminal Velocity:
Let us consider a small ball, whose radius is r and density is r, falling freely in a liquid (or gas),
whose density is s and coefficient of viscosity h. Its terminal velocity v is given by

2 r 2 (r - s )g
v=
9
h

9.0

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION


If a particle moves back and forth (or up and down) about a fixed point (equilibrium position)
through a force or torque (called restoring force or torque) which is directly proportional to the
displacement (linear or angular) but opposite in direction, the motion is called simple harmonic
motion.

9.1

Equation of SHM

(i)

The necessary and sufficient condition for the motion to be simple harmonic (linear) is that the
force should be directly proportional to the displacement
F = -kxor
or

d2x
= -kx
dt 2

k
d2x
+ 2 x = 0 with w2 =
2
m
dt
x = A sin (wt + f)

www.thinkiit.in

38

(ii)

(iii)

PHYSICS
where A is the amplitude of the motion
w is the angular (circular) frequency = 2p/T (T = time period)
f is phase constant
For rotational SHM the analogues equation is q = qo sin (wt + f)
where qo is the angular displacement and q is the maximum angular displacement
If time is considered from equilibrium position then f = 0 and
therefore x = A sin wt.
If time is considered from the extreme position then f = p/2
and
y = a cos wt
Velocity in SHM is given by
v=
or

dy
= A cos(t + )
dt

v = A 1 - sin 2 (t + )

x2
2
2
or
v = Aw 1 - 2 = A - x
A
The maximum and minimum velocity of the particle are
vmax = Aw
and
vmin = 0
(iv)

(v)

d2y
= - 2 y
The acceleration in SHM is a =
2
dt
2
Thus |amax| = w A
and
|amin| = 0
Energy in SHM
Kinetic Energy
=

1
1
mv 2 = m 2 A 2 - x 2
2
2

Potential Energy = - dW =

1
m 2 x 2
2

1
m 2 A 2 = constant
2
Note that the kinetic and potential energies vary periodically
with double the frequency of motion.

9.2

K, U or E

Total energy =

E
U
K
-A -A/2

A/2 A

Fig.(9.1)

Simple Pendulum
Time period T = 2p

L
g

If the point of suspension itself moves with an acceleration a then g eff = g - a should replace
r
g. Also, if any other force field (such as electric field) is present, find a due to that field and then
find g eff as before.
If length of the pendulum is large, then

www.thinkiit.in

39

PHYSICS
1
T = 2p

1 1
g +
L R

where R = Radius of the earth

R
84.6 minutes.
g

so if L , T = 2p

A seconds pendulum is the simple pendulum having a time period of 2s.

9.3

Spring Pendulum
m
k
If mass of the spring is also taken into
account, then

T = 2p

T = 2p

9.4

m+

ms
3

k
m

or
m

Fig(9.2) A spring-mass system in the horizontal


and vertical position. The gravity has no
influence on the time period

Composite-spring Pendulum
k1

k1

k2

k1

k2
m

k2

Fig.9.3

keff =

9.5

k1k 2
k1 + k 2

keff = k1 + k2

keff = k1 + k2

Motion of a liquid in V-shaped tube


T = 2p

m
Arg (sin1 + sin 2 )

m : mass of the liquid in the tube


r : density of the liquid
A : cross sectional area of the tube
If the tube is of U-shape and liquid is filled to a height h,
q1 = q2 = 90o and
then
m = hAd 2
\

T = 2p

h
g

www.thinkiit.in

q2

q1
Fig.(9.4)

40

9.6

PHYSICS

SHM of a partially submerged floating object


T = 2p

m
A

If it is connected to a vertical spring of spring constant k


T = 2p

9.7

m
k + A

Physical Pendulum
T = 2p

I
Mdg

I : Moment of inertia about point of suspension


d : distance of the center of mass from the point of suspension
Point of suspension

c.m.

Fig.(9.5) A physical pendulum

www.thinkiit.in

You might also like