Grammar

1. What is Grammar?
2. The 8 English Parts of Speech.
A. English Parts of Speech:
1. Parts of Speech Table.
2. Parts of Speech Examples
3. Words with More than One Job

B. The 8 types of words:

English Tense System

What is Tense?
Tense & Time
Basic Tenses
Basic Tenses Regular Verbs
Basic Tenses Irregular Verbs
Basic Tenses Be

The 12 Basic Tenses

Present tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect
Continuous
Past tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous
Future tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous

1.
VERBS
1) What Are Verbs?
Verb Classification

helping verbs
main verbs
Regular and Irregular Verbs

2) Verb Forms
3) Phrasal Verbs
4) Conditionals
5) Modal Verbs.
6) Gerunds (-ing)
7) Questions
8) Tag Questions
9) Subjunctive
10)Active Voice, Passive Voice
11)Infinitive or -ing?
12)Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects
13)Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses
14)Used to do / Be used to
15)Going to
16)Future Time
17)For & Since for Time 113pg

2. NOUNS
1

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

What are Nouns?

Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns
Proper Nouns (Names)
Possessive 's
Noun as Adjective
Compound Nouns

3. PRONOUNS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

Personal Pronouns.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Pronoun Case

4. ADJECTIVES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Determiners
Adjective Order
Comparative Adjectives
Superlative Adjectives
Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives
Noun as Adjective

5. ADVERBS
1) What is an Adverb?
2) Adverb Form
3) Kinds of Adverbs
4) Adverb Position
5) Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Manner List
Adverbs of Place List
Adverbs of Time List
Adverbs of Degree List

6. PREPOSITIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)

List of Prepositions
A Simple Rule for Prepositions
Prepositions of Place
Prepositions of Time

7. CONJUNCTIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Form
Function
Position
Coordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions

8. INTERJECTIONS

Grammar
Welcome to English Grammar for English learners.
Many of these grammar lessons also have quizzes to
check your understanding. If you still don't understand
something, feel free to ask a question at the Elluminate
Sesion .

1. What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language.
Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words,
phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All
languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection
of a language at a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? if you are serious about
learning a foreign language, the answer is "yes, grammar can help you to
learn a language more quickly and more efficiently.
It's important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a
friend. When you understand the grammar (or system) of a language, you
can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or
look in a book. So think of grammar as something good, something positive,
something that you can use to find your way - like a signpost or a map.

2. The 8 English Parts of Speech.

There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the
same job.
For example, some words express "action".
Other words express a "thing".
Other words "join" one word to another word.
These are the "building blocks" of the language.
And when we want to build a sentence, we use the different types of word.
Each type of word has its own job. We can categorize English words into 8
basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of speech".
It's quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze
sentences and understand them. It also helps you to construct good
sentences.
In this lesson, we have an overview of the eight parts of speech, followed by
a quiz to check your understanding:

A. English Parts of Speech:

1. Parts of Speech Table: This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*.
Part of
speech

Function or
"job"

example
words

example sentences

Noun

thing or person

pen, dog, work,

music, town,
London,
teacher, John

This is my dog. He lives

in my house. We live in
London.

Pronoun

replaces a noun

I, You, He, She, Tara is Indian. She is

It, We They
beautiful.

Adjective

describes a noun

a/an, the,
some, good,
big, red, well,
interesting

My dog is big. I like big

dogs.

Verb

action or state

(to) be, have,

do, like, work,
sing, can, play

Senavirtual.edu.co is a
web site. I like
Senavirtual.edu.co

Adverb

Describes a verb,
adjective or

quickly, silently,
well, badly,

My dog eats quickly.

When he is very hungry,

Adverb.

very, really

he eats really quickly.

Preposition

links a noun to
another word

to, at, after, on,

but

We went to school on
Monday.

Conjunction

joins clauses or
sentences or
words

and, but, when

I like dogs and I like cats.

I like cats and dogs. I like
dogs but I don't like cats.

Interjection

short
exclamation,
sometimes
inserted into a
sentence

oh!, ouch!, hi!,

well

Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How

are you? Well, I don't
know.

2. Parts of Speech Examples: Here are some sentences made with

different English parts of speech:
nou
n

verb

nou
n

Ver
b

Verb

John

works
.

John

Is

Working
.

verb
Stop!

pronou
n

verb

Noun

Noun

ver
b

adjectiv
e

noun

She

love
s

animals
.

Animal
s

like

kind

people.

nou
n

verb

noun

adver
b

nou
n

verb

adjectiv
e

noun

Tara

speak
s

Englis
h

well.

Tara

speak
s

good

English
.

pronou
n

ver
b

prepositi
on

adjectiv
e

noun

adver
b

She

ran

To

The

statio
n

quickly.

pro
n.

ver
b

adj
.

Noun

conjuncti
on

pro
n.

ver
b

pron
.

She

likes big

Snake

But

hate

them.

s
interjecti
on

pro
n.

conj
.

adj.

nou
n

ver
b

prep
.

Well,

she

and

young

John

walk to

noun

adver
b

school

slowly.

3. Words with More than One Job: Many words in English can have
more than one job, or be more than one part of speech.

For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun;

"but" can be a conjunction and a preposition;
"well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection.
In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.
To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this word doing in
this sentence?"
In the table below you can see a few examples.
word
work

but

well

afternoon

part of speech

example

Noun

My work is easy.

Verb

I work in London.

Conjunction

John came
come.

Preposition

Everyone came but Mary.

Adjective

Are you well?

Adverb.

She speaks well.

Interjection

Well! That's expensive!

Noun

We ate in the afternoon.

but

Mary

didn't

noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.

NOTE: These are the words that you use to make a

sentence. There are only 8 types of word - and the
most important is the Verb!
Verbs be, have, do, work
Nouns man, town, music
Adjectives a, the, 69, big
Adverbs loudly, well, often
Pronouns you, ours, some
Prepositions at, in, on, from
Conjunctions and, but, though
Interjections ah, dear, er, um

B. The 8 types of words:

English Tense System
In English, the concept of tense is very important.
In this lesson we look at the idea behind tense, how to avoid confusing tense
with time, and the structure of the basic tenses, with examples using a
regular verb, an irregular verb and the verb be.

What is Tense?

Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time - past, present and
future, But:
we can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going
to is a special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense
one tense does not always talk about one time (see Tense & Time for
more about this)
Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses.
*

Mood:
Indicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be
positive (affirmative) or negative
Example: I like coffee.
I do not like coffee.
Interrogative mood expresses a question.
Example: Why do you like coffee?
Imperative mood expresses a command
Example: Sit down!
Subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possible
Example: The President ordered that he attend the meeting.

* Voice. Voice shows the relationship of the subject to the action.

In the active voice, the subject does the action (cats eat mice).
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (mice are eaten by
cats).
Among other things, we can use voice to help us change the focus of
attention.
* Aspect: Aspect expresses a feature of the action related to time,
such as completion or duration.
Present simple and past simple tenses have no aspect, but if we wish we
can stress with other tenses that:
the action or state referred to by the verb is completed (and often still
relevant), for example:
I have emailed the report to Jane. (so now she has the report)
(This is called perfective aspect, using perfect tenses.)
the action or state referred to by the verb is in progress or continuing
(that is, uncompleted), for example:
We are eating.
(This is called progressive aspect, using progressive [continuous]
tenses.)

Tense and Time

It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use
it to talk about time.

For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:
I hope it rains tomorrow.
"rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)
Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:
If I had some money now, I could buy it.
"had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)
The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about
different times.
TIME
TENSE
past

present

future

I want a coffee.

I leave tomorrow.

Present Simple
She

likes
I
am
dinner.

Present
Continuous
They
London
Present
Simple

Perfect

Present Perfect
Continuous

having

are living

I have seen ET.

I am taking my
exam
next
month.
in

I have finished.

I
have
been
playing tennis.
We have been working for four
hours.

Past Simple

I finished
hour ago.

Past Continuous

I was working
at
2am
this
morning.

Past
Simple

coffee

one

If she loved you If

you
came
now, she would tomorrow,
you
marry you.
would see her.

Perfect I had not eaten

for 24 hours.

If I had been
We had been
Past
Perfect
working now, I
working for 3
Continuous
would
have
hours.
missed you.

If I had been
working
tomorrow, I could
not have agreed.

Hold on. I'll do it I'll

see
now.
tomorrow.

Future Simple

I
will
be
working at 9pm
tonight.

Future
Continuous

Future
Simple

you

I
will
have
finished by 9pm
tonight.

Perfect

We will have been married for ten years next month.

They
may
be
tired when you
arrive
because
they will have
been working.

Future
Perfect
Continuous

In 30 minutes, we will have been working for four

hours.

Basic Tenses

For past and present, there are 2 simple tenses + 6 complex tenses (using
auxiliary verbs).
To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using modal auxiliary
verbs will/shall).
This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice. Another 12 tenses are
available in the passive voice. So now we have 24 tenses.
24 Tenses
simple
tenses

ACTIV
E

PASSIV
E

complex
tenses
formed
with
auxiliary
verbs

past

present

future*

past

present

future

past perfect

present
perfect

future perfect

past
continuous

present
continuous

future
continuous

present
past
perfect
perfect
continuous
continuous

future perfect
continuous

past

present

future

past perfect

present
perfect

future perfect

past
continuous

present
continuous

present
past
perfect
perfect
continuous
continuous

future
continuous
future perfect
continuous

Some grammar books use the word progressive instead of continuous.

They are exactly the same.
The use of tenses in English may be quite complicated, but the structure
of English tenses is actually very simple.
The basic structure for a positive sentence is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
An auxiliary verb is used in all tenses. (In the simple present and simple
past tenses, the auxiliary verb is usually suppressed for the affirmative, but
it does exist for intensification.)
The following table shows the 12 tenses for the verb to work in the active
voice.
structure
past

present

future*

I worked

I work

I will work

auxiliary main verb

normal
simpl
e

intensiv
e

do

base

I did work I do work

perfect

have

past
participle

I
had I
have I will have
worked
worked
worked

continuous

be

present
participle
-ing

I
was I
am I will be
working
working
working

continuous
perfect

have
been

present
participle
-ing

I
had I
have I will have
been
been
been
working
working
working

* Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal
auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The
examples are included here for convenience and comparison.

Basic Tenses: Be

10

This page shows the basic tenses with the verb be. It includes the
affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative
or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive (+): subject + main verb
subject + main verb +
negative (-):
not
question
main verb + subject
(?):
These are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the
tenses:

base

past
simple

past
participle

present
participle

present
simple

be

was,
were

been

being

am, are, is

past
+ I was
SIMPLE
present simple or
past
simple - I was not
(except future: will +
be)
? Was I?
+ I had been
SIMPLE
PERFECT
have + been
?

I
had
been

CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + being

Had I been?

I
was
being

Was I being?

I had
being

future

I am

I will be

I am not

I will not be

Am I?

Will I be?

I have been

I will have been

not I
have
been

+ I was being
CONTINUOUS
be + being

present

not

not I will not have

been

Have I been?

Will I have been?

I am being

I will be being

I am not being

I will
being

Am I being?

Will I be being?

been I have
being

not

be

been I will have been

being

I had not been I

have
not I will not have
being
been being
been being

11

Had I
being?

been Have I
being?

been Will I have been

being?

In the following table, we see be conjugated for 12 basic tenses.

SIMPLE

singular

plural

past

present

future

was

am

will be

you

were

are

will be

he/she/it

was

is

will be

we

were

are

will be

you

were

are

will be

they

were

are

will be

past

present

future

had been

have been

will have been

you

had been

have been

will have been

he/she/it

had been

has been

will have been

we

had been

have been

will have been

you

had been

have been

will have been

they

had been

have been

will have been

past

present

future

was being

am being

will be being

you

were being

are being

will be being

he/she/it

was being

is being

will be being

we

were being

are being

will be being

you

were being

are being

will be being

they

were being

are being

will be being

past

present

future

PERFECT

singular

plural

CONTINUOUS

singular

plural

CONTINUOUS
PERFECT

12

singular

had
being

been have
being

been will
have
being

been

you

had
being

been have
being

been will
have
being

been

he/she/it

had
being

been

will
have
being

been

we

had
being

been have
being

been will
have
being

been

you

had
being

been have
being

been will
have
being

been

they

had
being

been have
being

been will
have
being

been

has been being

plural

Basic Tenses: Regular Verb

This page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work. It includes the
affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative
or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main
negative: verb
question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base verb

past

past
participle

present
-ing

work

worke
d

worked

working

past
SIMPLE
+ I
did
do + base verb
I worked

present
work I
do
I work

participle

future
work I will work

13

(except
will
+
verb)

future: base
?

I did not work

I do not work

I will not work

Did I work?

Do I work?

Will I work?

I have worked

I
will
worked

+ I had worked
SIMPLE PERFECT
have
+
past participle
?

I
had
worked

not I
have
worked

Had I worked?

+ I was working
CONTINUOUS
be + ing

CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + ing

not I will not

worked

have
have

Have I worked?

Will
I
worked?

I am working

I will be working

not I
am
working

have

I
was
working

Was
working?

I
had
been I
have
working
working

I had not been I have not been I will not have

working
working
been working

Had
I
been Have I been Will I have been
working?
working?
working?

not I will not

working

Am I working?

Will
I
working?

be
be

been I will have been

working

* See Regular verb list.

Basic Tenses: Irregular Verb

This page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb sing. It includes
the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the
interrogative or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main
negative: verb
question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base verb

past

past
participle

present
-ing

participle

14

sing

san
g

sung

singing

past

present

I
did
sing
+
SIMPLE
I sang
do + base verb
(except
future:
- I did not sing
will
+
base
verb)
? Did I sing?

Do I sing?

Will I sing?

I have sung

I will have sung

I had not sung

I have not sung

I will
sung

Had I sung?

Have I sung?

Will I have sung?

I am singing

I will be singing

I
was
singing

Was I singing?

I
had
singing

CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + -ing
?

I will sing
I will not sing

+ I was singing
CONTINUOUS
be + -ing

sing

I do not sing

+ I had sung
SIMPLE PERFECT
have
+
past participle

I
do
I sing

future

not I
am
singing

not I will not

singing

Am I singing?

been I have
singing

not

have

be

Will I be singing?

been I will have been

singing

I had not been I have not been I will not have

singing
singing
been singing
Had
I
been Have I
singing?
singing?

been Will I have been

singing?

* See irregular verb list.

The basic structure of tenses for regular verbs and irregular verbs is exactly
the same (except to be). The only difference is that with regular verbs the
past and past participle are always the same (worked, worked), while with
irregular verbs the past and past participle are not always the same (sang,
sung). But the structure is the same! It will help you a great deal to really
understand that.

15

 The 12 Basic Tenses

The following lessons are for each of the 12 basic tenses. In each lesson we
look at two aspects of the tense:
Structure: How do we make the tense?
Use: When and why do we use the tense?

1. Simple Present Tense

I
sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject +

auxiliary
verb
do

+main verb
base

There are three important exceptions:

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or
es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and
negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
auxiliary
verb

subject

I, you,
they

main
verb

we,

He, she, it

I, you,
they

we,

like

coffee.

likes

coffee.

do

not

like

coffee.

He, she, it

does

not

like

coffee.

Do

I, you,
they

like

coffee?

Does

he, she, it

like

coffee?

we,

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no
auxiliary:

16

subject

main verb

am

French.

are

French.

He, she, it

is

French.

am

not

old.

You, we, they

are

not

old.

He, she, it

is

not

old.

Am

Are

you,
they

Is

he, she, it

+ You, we, they

late?
we,

late?
late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:

the action is general
the action is not only happening now, the action occurs at regular
intervals, happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and
future
non-continuous actions
general truths, or situations existing for a period of time

John drives a taxi.

past

present

future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and
future.
Look at these examples:
I live in New York.
The Moon goes round the Earth.
John drives a taxi.
He does not drive a bus.
We meet every Thursday.
We do not work at night.
Do you play football?

17

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for
situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk
about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present
tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:
Am
I
Tara is not at
You are happy.
past

prese
nt

right?
home.

future

The situation is now.

I
am
Why
are
Ram is tall.
past

not
so

you
present

fat.
beautiful?
future

The situation is general. Past, present and

future.
This page shows the use of the simple present tense to talk about general
events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple present
tense, for example in conditional or if sentences, or to talk about the
future. You will learn about those later.
2. Present Continuous Tense
I
am
singing
We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different
from the simple present tense, both in structure and in use.
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses. So the present
progressive tense is the same as the present continuous tense.
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present continuous tense is:
subject +

auxiliary
verb
be

+main verb
base
ing

Look at these examples:

18

subjec auxiliary
t
verb

main
verb

+ I

am

speaking

to you.

+ You

are

reading

this.

She

is

not

staying

in London.

We

are

not

playing

football.

Is

he

watching

TV?

Are

they

waiting

for John?

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

action happening now, continuous, ongoing actions

action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
past

present

future

The action is happening

now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the
same time...

...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just
before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
John is going out with Mary.
past

present

future

19

The action is happening around now.

Look at these examples:
Muriel is learning to drive.
I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. We
must add (or understand from the context) a future word.
"Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at
Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the
future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have
already made a decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.
past

present

future

!!!
A
firm
plan
or The action is in the
programme exists now.
future.
Look at these examples:
We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the
table..
They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking.
The decision and plan were made before speaking.

How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb.
Normally it's simple - we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change
the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here
are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.
Basic
rule

Just add -ing to the base verb:

work

>

working

play

>

playing

assist

>

assisting

20

see

>

seeing

be

>

being

If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel +

consonant, double the last letter:
s
t
o
p
stressed
consonant
consonant
vowel
(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)
Exceptio
n1

stop

>

stopping

run

>

running

begin

>

beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable
of the base verb is not stressed:
open

>

opening

If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

Exceptio
n2

lie

>

lying

die

>

dying

If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

Exceptio
n3

come

>

coming

mistake

>

mistaking

3. Present Perfect Tense

I
have
sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives
speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses
concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages.
In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The
problems come with the use of the tense.
In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and
American English.
The present perfect tense is really a very interesting tense, and a very
useful one. Try not to translate the present perfect tense into your language.
Just try to accept the concepts of this tense and learn to "think" present
perfect! You will soon learn to like the present perfect tense!

How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

21

The structure of the present perfect tense is:

subject +

auxiliary
verb
have

+main verb
past
participle

Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:

subjec auxiliary
t
verb

main
verb

+ I

have

seen

ET.

+ You

have

eaten

mine.

She

has

not

been

to Rome.

We

have

not

played

football.

Have

you

finished?

Have

they

done

it?

Contractions with the present perfect tense

When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the
subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write.
I have

I've

You have

You've

He
She
It
John
The
has

He's
She's
It's
John's
The
car's

has
has
has
has
car

We have

We've

They have

They've

Here are some examples:

I've finished my work.
John's seen ET.
They've gone home.

22

He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs
have and be. For example, "It's eaten" can mean:
It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active voice]
It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]
It is usually clear from the context.

How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection
with the past and with the present. Non-continuous actions completed
before a certain time. There are basically three uses for the present perfect
tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation

1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the
past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to
know if you did it:
I
have
He
has
Have
you
We have never eaten caviar.
past

seen
in
been

lived

present

ET.
Bangkok.
there?

future

!!!
The action or state was In my head, I have a
in the past.
memory now.
Connection

with

past:

the

event

was

in

the

past.

Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the

event; I know something about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new
information:
I have bought a car.
past

present

future

Last week I didn't have

Now I have a car.
a car.

23

John has broken his leg.

past

present

future

Yesterday John had a

Now he has a bad leg.
good leg.

Has the price gone up?

past

present

Was the price

yesterday?

$1.50

future

Is the price $1.70 today?

The police have arrested the killer.

past

present

future

Yesterday the killer was

Now he is in prison.
free.
Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.
Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers.
Americans often use the past tense instead. An American might say "Did
you have lunch?", where a British person would say "Have you had lunch?"

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing

situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the
present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an
action). We usually use for or since with this structure. continuous, ongoing
actions completed before a certain time

I
have
worked
He
has
been
How long have you known Tara?

here
ill

for

since
2

June.
days.

24

past

present

future

The situation started in

It continues up to now.
the past.
Connection

with

past:

the

situation

(It
will
continue
future.)
started

in

probably
into
the

the

past.

Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6
years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st
January, Monday.
for
a period
time

since
of a point
time

in

past

x-----------20 minutes

6.15pm

three days

Monday

6 months

January

4 years

1994

2 centuries

1800

a long time

I left school

ever

the
beginning
time

etc

etc

of

Here are some examples:

I have been here for 20 minutes.
I have been here since 9 o'clock.
John hasn't called for 6 months.
John hasn't called since February.
He has worked in New York for a long time.
He has worked in New York since he left school.

25

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses
only.
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I
have
been
singing

How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:
subject +

auxiliary
verb
have
has

auxiliary
verb

+main verb
base
ing

been

Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:

subjec auxiliary
t
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

+ I

have

been

waiting

for one hour.

+ You

have

been

talking

too much.

It

has

not

been

raining.

We

have

not

been

playing

football.

Have

you

been

seeing

her?

Have

they

been

doing

their
homework?

Contractions: When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking,

we often contract the subject and the first auxiliary. We also
sometimes do this in informal writing.
I have been

I've been

You have been

You've been

He has
She has
It
has
John has
The
car
been

He's
She's
It's
John's
The
been

been
been
been
been
has

We have been

been
been
been
been
car's

We've been

26

They have been

They've been

Here are some examples:

I've been reading.
The car's been giving trouble.
We've been playing tennis for two hours.

How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a
connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the
present perfect continuous tense:

1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that
started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.
I'm tired because I've been running.
past

present

future

!!!
Recent action.

Result now.

I'm tired [now] because I've been running.

Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining?
You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening.

2. An action continuing up to now

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that
started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or
since.
I have been reading for 2 hours.
past

present

Action started in past.

Action
now.

future

is

continuing

I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]

We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning
now.]
We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]

27

For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6
years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st
January, Monday.
for

since

a period
time

of a point
time

in

past

x
20 minutes

6.15pm

three days

Monday

6 months

January

4 years

1994

2 centuries

1800

a long time

I left school

ever

the
beginning
time

etc

etc

of

Here are some examples:

I have been studying for 3 hours.
I have been watching TV since 7pm.
Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
He has been playing football for a long time.
He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses
only.
5. Simple Past Tense
I
sang
The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use
several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one
we use most often.

28

How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

To make the simple past tense, we use:
past form only
or
auxiliary did + base form

Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular
verbs and regular verbs:

regular
verb

irregular
verb

V1
base

V2
past

V3
past participle

work
explod
e
like

worked
explode
d
liked

worked
exploded
liked

The past form

for all regular
verbs ends in
-ed.

gone
seen
sung

The past form

for
irregular
verbs
is
variable.
You
need to learn it
by heart.

go
see
sing

went
saw
sang

You do not need the past

participle form to make
the simple past tense. It
is
shown
here
for
completeness only.
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject +main verb
past
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject +

auxiliary
verb
did

+not +main verb

base

The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
auxiliary
verb
did

+subject +main verb

base

The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did,
you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look
at these examples with the main verbs go and work:

29

subjec auxiliary
t
verb

main
verb

went

to school.

You

worked

very hard.

+
She

did

not

go

with me.

We

did

not

work

yesterday.

Did

you

go

to London?

Did

they

work

at home?

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was,

you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an
auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we
exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:
subject

main verb

I, he/she/it

was

here.

You, we, they

were

in London.

I, he/she/it

was

not

there.

You, we, they

were

not

happy.

Was

I, he/she/it

right?

Were

you,
they

late?

we,

How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation - an

event - in the past. The event can be short or long.
Here are some short events with the simple past tense:
The
car
exploded
She
went
We
did
not
Did you see that car?
past

present

at
to
hear

9.30am
the
the

yesterday.
door.
telephone.

Future

30

The action is in the

past.
Here are some long events with the simple past tense:
I
lived
in
The
Jurassic
period
We
did
not
Did you watch TV last night?
past

Bangkok
for
lasted
about
62
sing
at

present

10
million
the

years.
years.
concert.

Future

The action is in the

past.
Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few
minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does
not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car
explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past
tense when:
the event is in the past
the event is completely finished
we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple
past tense; we cannot use the present perfect.
Here are some more examples:
I lived in that house when I was young.
He didn't like the movie.
What did you eat for dinner?
John drove to London on Monday.
Mary did not go to work yesterday.
Did you play tennis last week?
I was at work yesterday.
We were not late (for the train).
Were you angry?
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We
may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always
use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this example of the
beginning of a story:
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It
was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took of his coat,
which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the
corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."

31

This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events.
But note that there are some other uses for the simple past tense, for
example in conditional or if sentences.
6. Past Continuous Tense
I
was
singing
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to
say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb BE
conjugated
tense

in

+ main verb
simple

past

was
were

present
participle
base + ing

For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between
the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the
past continuous tense:
auxiliary
verb

main
verb

+ I

was

watching

TV.

+ You

were

working

hard.
Mary.

subject

He, she,
was
it

not

helping

We

were

not

joking.

Were

you

being

silly?

Were

they

playing

football?

The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the
same as for the present continuous tense.

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

32

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the

past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that
moment.
For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and
finished at 9pm.
At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.
past

present

Future

8p
m
At 8pm, I was in the
middle of watching TV.
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or
understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
I was working at 10pm last night.
They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
What were you doing at 10pm last night?
What were you doing when he arrived?
She was cooking when I telephoned her.
We were having dinner when it started to rain.
Ram went home early because it was snowing.
Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses.
We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use
it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action
begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then
moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:
" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was
blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the
killer in a telephone box..."
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense
We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense.
We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the
simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of
the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense
2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense
past

present

Future

Long action.

I was watching TV at 8pm.

8p

33

You telephoned at 8pm.

Short action.
We can join these two actions with when:
I was watching TV when you telephoned.
(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time
[8pm].)
We use:
when + short action (simple past tense)
while + long action (past continuous tense)
There are four basic combinations:

Whe
n

I was walking past the whe

car
n

it exploded.

the car exploded

I was walking past

it.

The car exploded

Whil
e

I was walking past the

car

whil
e

I was walking past

it.
it exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.
"Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few
milliseconds.
7. Past Perfect Tense
I
had
sung
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use.
This tense talks about the "past in the past".
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?
The structure of the past perfect tense is:

subject
+
I

auxiliary verb HAVE

main verb
+
conjugated in simple past
past
tense
participle
had

been

34

For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the
auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the
past perfect tense:
subjec auxiliary
t
verb

main
verb

+ I

had

finished

my work.

+ You

had

stopped

before me.

She

had

not

gone

to school.

We

had

not

left.

Had

you

arrived?

Had

they

eaten

dinner?

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject
and auxiliary verb:
I had

I'd

you had

you'd

he had he'd
she had she'd
it had
it'd
we had

we'd

they had

they'd

The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example,
we'd can mean:
We had
or
We would
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:
We had arrived (past participle)
We would arrive (base)
It is always clear from the context.
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in
the past. This is the past in the past. For example:
The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the
train had left.

35

The train had left when we arrived.

past

present

Future

Train leaves in past at

9am.
9

9.1
5

We arrive in past at
9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
"Mary
wasn't
at
home
when
I
"Really? Where had she gone?"

arrived."

You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect
tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect tense
had
|
done
|
>|
past
now

future

present perfect tense

have
|
done
|
>|
past
now
Future

For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The
stationmaster says to you:
"You are too late. The train has left."
Later, you tell your friends:
"We were too late. The train had left."
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said,
told, asked, thought, wondered.
Look at these examples:
He told us that the train had left.
I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
I wondered if I had been there before.
I asked them why they had not finished.
8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I
had
been
singing
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:

36

subject + auxiliary verb HAVE

conjugated
past tense

in

simple

had

auxiliary verb
+ main verb
BE
past
participle

present
participle

been

base + ing

For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not
after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with
the past perfect continuous tense:
subjec auxiliary
t
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

+ I

had

been

working.

+ You

had

been

playing

tennis
.

It

had

not

been

working

well.

We

had

not

been

expecting

her.

Had

you

been

drinking?

Had

they

been

waiting

long?

When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract
the subject and first auxiliary verb:
I had been

I'd been

you had been

you'd been

he
had he'd been
she had been she'd been
it had been
it'd been
we had been

we'd been

they had been

they'd been

How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it
expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For
example:
Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram
had been waiting for two hours.

37

Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.

past

present

Future

Ram starts waiting in

past at 9am.
9

11

I arrive in past at 11am.

Here are some more examples:
John was very tired. He had been running.
I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been
running well for a long time.
Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the
present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the
time is past.
past
perfect
tense
had
||
been
||
doing
||
>>>> |
|
past
now

continuous

present
tense
|
|
|
|
past

future

perfect
have
been
doing
>>>> |
now

continuous
|
|
|
Future

For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
"I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."
Later, you tell your friends:
"Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."
9. Simple Future Tense
I
will
sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple
future tense with the modal auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
The structure of the simple future tense is:
subject +

auxiliary
WILL
invariable

verb

+ main verb
base

38

will

V1

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between
the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the
simple future tense:
subjec auxiliary
t
verb

main
verb

+ I

will

open

the door.

+ You

will

finish

before me.

She

will

not

be

at school tomorrow.

We

will

not

leave

yet.

Will

you

arrive

on time?

Will

they

want

dinner?

When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and auxiliary verb:
I will

I'll

you will

you'll

he will he'll
she will she'll
it will
it'll
we will

we'll

they
will

they'l
l

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't,
like this:
I will not

I won't

you will not

you won't

he will not he won't

she will not she won't
it will not
it won't

39

we will not
they
not

we won't

will they
won't

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do
something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the
time of speaking. Look at these examples:
Hold on. I'll get a pen.
We will see what we can do to help you.
Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is
made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
I think I will have a holiday next year.
I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future.
Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen.
Here are some examples:
It will rain tomorrow.
People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
Who do you think will get the job?
Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we
have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:
I'll be in London tomorrow.
I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
Will you be at work tomorrow?
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future,
we usually use other tenses or expressions, such as the present
continuous tense or going to
10.Future Continuous Tense
I
will
be
singing
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future continuous tense is:

subject +

auxiliary
WILL
invariable

verb

auxiliary
BE
invariable

verb

+ main verb
present

40

participle
will

be

base + ing

For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not

between will and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and
will. Look at these example sentences with the future continuous tense:
subjec
t

auxiliary
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

+ I

will

be

working

at 10am.

+ You

will

be

lying

on
a
tomorrow.

She

will

not

be

using

the car.

We

will

not

be

having

dinner at home.

Will

you

be

playing

football?

Will

they

be

watching

TV?

beach

When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and will:
I will

I'll

you will

you'll

he will he'll
she will she'll
it will
it'll
we will

we'll

they
will

they'l
l

For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract

with won't, like this:
I will not

I won't

you will not

you won't

he will not he

won't

41

she will not she won't

it will not
it won't
we will not
they
not

we won't

will they
won't

We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in
the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have
finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and
stop work at 6pm:
At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.
past

present

future
4p
m
At 4pm, I will be in the
middle of working.

When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or
understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
What will you be doing when I arrive?
She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return
11.Future Perfect Tense
I will have
sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use.
The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?
The structure of the future perfect tense is:

subject +

auxiliary
WILL
invariable

verb

auxiliary
HAVE
invariable

verb

+ main verb
past

42

participle
will

have

gone

Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:

subjec auxiliary
t
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

+ I

will

have

finished

by 10am.

+ You

will

have

forgotten

me by then.

She

will

not

have

gone

to school.

We

will

not

have

left.

Will

you

have

arrived?

Will

they

have

received

it?

In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and
will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I will have

I'll have

I'll've

you will have

you'll have

you'll've

he will have he'll have he'll've

she will have she'll have she'll've
it will have
it'll have
it'll've
we will have
they
have

we'll have

will they'll
have

we'll've
they'll'v
e

We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another
action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:
The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at
9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.
The train will have left when you arrive.
past

present

future

43

Train leaves in future at

9am.
9

9.1
5

You arrive in future at

9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by
8.
They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a
long time.
"Mary
won't
be
at
home
when
you
arrive."
"Really? Where will she have gone?"
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect
tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:
present perfect tense
|
have
|
done
|
>|
past
now
future

future perfect tense

past

will
have
done
>|
future

now

|
|
|

12.Future Perfect Continuous Tense

I will have been
singing
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:

subject +

auxiliary
verb WILL

auxiliary
verb HAVE

auxiliary
verb BE

+ main verb

invariable

invariable

past
participle

present
participle

will

have

been

base + ing

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not
between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject
and will. Look at these example sentences with the future perfect
continuous tense:
subjec

auxiliary

auxiliary

auxiliary

main

44

verb

verb

verb

verb

+ I

will

have

been

working

for
four
hours.

+ You

will

have

been

travelling

for
two
days.

She

will

not

have

been

using

the car.

We

will

not

have

been

waiting

long.

Will

you

have

been

playing

football?

Will

they

have

been

watching

TV?

When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often

contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will

I'll

you will

you'll

he will he'll
she will she'll
it will
it'll
we will

we'll

they
will

they'l
l

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract

with won't, like this:
I will not

I won't

you will not

you won't

he will not he won't

she will not she won't
it will not
it won't
we will not
they
not

we won't

will they
won't

45

How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action
before some point in the future. Look at these examples:
I will have been working here for ten years next week.
He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for
24 hours

46

VERBS
1) What are Verbs?
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb.
You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You
cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many
verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like
run, fight, do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of
existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and
belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is
the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say
that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:
action (Ram plays football.)
state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words
(adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although
nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in
form.
For example, the verb to work has five forms:
to work, work, works, worked, working

Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to
you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have
no meaning on their own.
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".Helping verbs have no
meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure
of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use
helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the
real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we
divide them into two basic groups:
o Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three
verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them
as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:
be
o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)

47

to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)

have
o

to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

o
o
o
o

to make negatives (I do not like you.)

to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks
faster than she does.)

do

o Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in
some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and
changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:
can, could
may, might
will, would,
shall, should
must
ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
I can't speak Chinese.
John may arrive late.
Would you like a cup of coffee?
You should see a doctor.
I really must go now.
Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)
The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly
like modal helping verbs and partly like main verbs:
need
dare
used to
Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat.
The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to
you? Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are
main verbs and have meaning on their own.
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs". Main verbs have meaning on their
own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main verbs, and we can
classify them in several ways:

48

o Transitive and intransitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An
intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like
speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:
transitive:
I saw an elephant.
We are watching TV.
He speaks English.
intransitive:
He has arrived.
John goes to school.
She speaks fast.
o Linking verbs
A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to
what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or
a change to a different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always
intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).
Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher)
Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful)
That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)
The sky became dark. (the sky > dark)
The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)
o Dynamic and stative verbs
Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used
with continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation).
They are called "stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous
tenses (though some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a
change in meaning).
dynamic verbs (examples):
hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):
be
like, love, prefer, wish
impress, please, surprise
hear, see, sound
belong to, consist of, contain, include, need
appear, resemble, seem
In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and
main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some
of them have a helping verb.
helping verb

main verb

John

likes

coffee.

You

lied

to me.

They

are

happy.

The children

are

playing.

49

We

must

do

not

go

now.

want

any.

Regular and irregular verbs

This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real
difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different
endings for their past tense and past participle forms.
For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always
the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past
participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
look, looked, looked
work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
buy, bought, bought
cut, cut, cut
do, did, done
One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: all verbs are
irregular and the so-called regular verbs are simply one very large group of
irregular verbs.
Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb could be
irregular, transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive
and stative.
Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.
o Regular Verbs List
English regular verbs change their form very little (unlike irregular verbs).
The past tense and past participle of regular verbs end in -ed, for example:
work, worked, worked
But you should note the following points:
1. Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, for example:
learn,
learned,
learned
learn, learnt, learnt
1. Some verbs change their meaning depending on whether they are
regular or irregular, for example "to hang":

regular

hang,
hanged, to kill or die, by dropping with a rope around
hanged
the neck

irregul
ar

hang,
hung

hung, to fix something (for example, a picture) at the

top so that the lower part is free

50

2. The present tense of some regular verbs is the same as the past tense of
some irregular verbs:

regular

found,
founded

founded,

irregul
ar

find, found, found

Regular Verbs List

There are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of 600 of the
more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations

accept
add
admire
admit
advise
afford
agree
alert

back
bake
balance
ban
bang
bare
bat
bathe
battle
beam

calculate
call
camp
care
carry
carve
cause
challenge
change
charge
chase
cheat
check
cheer
chew

dam

allow
amuse
analyse
announce
annoy
answer
apologise
appear

beg
behave
belong
bleach
bless
blind
blink
blot
blush
boast

applaud
appreciate
approve
argue
arrange
arrest
arrive
ask

boil
bolt
bomb
book
bore
borrow
bounce
bow
box
brake

choke
chop
claim
clap
clean
clear
clip
close
coach
coil
collect
colour
comb
command
communicate
deliver

attach
attack
attempt
attend
attract
avoid

brake
branch
breathe
bruise
brush
bubble
bump
burn
bury
buzz

compare
compete
complain
complete
concentrate
concern
confess
confuse
connect
consider
consist
contain
continue
copy
correct
disapprove

cough
count
cover
crack
crash
crawl
cross
crush
cry
cure
curl
curve
cycle

dress

51

damage
dance
dare
decay
deceive
decide
decorate
delay
delight

depend
describe
desert
deserve
destroy
detect
develop
disagree
disappear

earn
educate
embarrass
employ
empty
encourage

face
fade
fail
fancy
fasten
fax
fear
fence

fetch
file
fill
film
fire
fit
fix
flap

gather
gaze
glow
glue

grab
grate
grease
greet

hammer
hand
handle
hang
happen
harass

harm
hate
haunt
head
heal
heap

identify
ignore
imagine
impress
improve
include

increase
influence
inform
inject
injure
instruct

jail
jam

kick
kill

label

end
enjoy
enter
entertain
escape
examine

disarm
discover
dislike
divide
double
doubt
drag
drain
dream
excite
excuse
exercise
exist
expand
expect
flash
float
flood
flow
flower
fold
follow
fool

drip
drop
drown
drum
dry
dust

explain
explode
extend

force
form
found
frame
frighten
fry

guard
guess
guide

heat
help
hook
hop
hope
hover

hug
hum
hunt
hurry

intend
interest
interfere
interrupt
introduce
invent

invite
irritate
itch

jog
join

joke
judge

juggle
jump

kiss
kneel

knit
knock

knot

learn

lighten

load

grin
grip
groan
guarantee

52

land
last
laugh
launch

level
license
lick
lie

like
list
listen
live

lock
long
look
love

man
manage
march
mark
marry
match
mate

matter
measure
meddle
melt
memorise
mend
mess up

milk
mine
miss
mix
moan
moor
mourn

move
muddle
mug
multiply
murder

nail
name

need
nest

nod
note

notice
number

obey
object
observe

obtain
occur
offend

offer
open
order

overflow
owe
own

pack
paddle
paint
park
part
pass
paste
pat
pause
peck
pedal
peel
peep
perform

permit
phone
pick
pinch
pine
place
plan
plant
play
please
plug
point
poke
polish

pop
possess
post
pour
practise
pray
preach
precede
prefer
prepare
present
preserve
press
pretend

prevent
prick
print
produce
program
promise
protect
provide
pull
pump
punch
puncture
punish
push

question

queue

race
radiate
rain
raise
reach
realise
receive
recognise
record
reduce
reflect

refuse
regret
reign
reject
rejoice
relax
release
rely
remain
remember
remind

sack
sail
satisfy

shiver
shock
shop

remove
repair
repeat
replace
reply
report
reproduce
request
rescue
retire
return
soothe
sound
spare

rhyme
rinse
risk
rob
rock
roll
rot
rub
ruin
rule
rush

stop
store
strap

53

save
saw
scare
scatter
scold
scorch
scrape
scratch
scream
screw
scribble
scrub
seal
search
separate
serve
settle
shade
share
shave
shelter

shrug
sigh
sign
signal
sin
sip
ski
skip
slap
slip
slow
smash
smell
smile
smoke
snatch
sneeze
sniff
snore
snow
soak

talk
tame
tap
taste
tease
telephone
tempt
terrify
test
thank

undress
unfasten

unite
unlock

vanish

visit

wail
wait
walk
wander
want
warm
warn
wash

waste
watch
water
wave
weigh
welcome
whine
whip

x-ray

yawn

yell

zip

thaw
tick
tickle
tie
time
tip
tire
touch
tour
tow

spark
sparkle
spell
spill
spoil
spot
spray
sprout
squash
squeak
squeal
squeeze
stain
stamp
stare
start
stay
steer
step
stir
stitch

trace
trade
train
transport
trap
travel
treat
tremble
trick
trip

strengthen
stretch
strip
stroke
stuff
subtract
succeed
suck
suffer
suggest
suit
supply
support
suppose
surprise
surround
suspect
suspend
switch

trot
trouble
trust
try
tug
tumble
turn
twist
type

unpack
untidy

use

whirl
whisper
whistle
wink
wipe
wish
wobble
wonder

work
worry
wrap
wreck
wrestle
wriggle

zoom

54

o Irregular Verbs List

Irregular verbs are an important feature of English. We use irregular verbs a
lot when speaking, less when writing. Of course, the most famous English
verb of all, the verb "to be", is irregular.
What is the difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs?
Base
Form

Past
Simple

Past
Participle

finish

finished

finished

stopped

stopped

worked

worked

sing

sang

sung

Sometimes there is "half" a change:

buy

bought

bought

Sometimes there is no change:

cut

cut

cut

With regular verbs, the rule is simple...

The past simple and past participle

stop
always end in -ed:
work
But with irregular verbs, there is no rule...
Sometimes
completely:

the

verb

changes

One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as
above.
Here is a list of irregular verbs in English.
V1
Base
Form

V2
Past Simple

V3
Past Participle

awake

awoke

awoken

be

was, were

been

beat

beat

beaten

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

bend

bent

bent

bet

bet

bet

bid

bid

bid

55

bite

bit

bitten

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

brought

broadcast

broadcast

broadcast

build

built

built

burn

burned/burnt

burned/burnt

buy

bought

bought

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

come

came

come

cost

cost

cost

cut

cut

cut

dig

dug

dug

do

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

dream

dreamed/dreamt

dreamed/dreamt

drive

drove

driven

drink

drank

drunk

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feel

felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

fly

flew

flown

forget

forgot

forgotten

56

forgive

forgave

forgiven

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

gotten

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

hang

hung

hung

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

hid

hidden

hit

hit

hit

hold

held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

know

knew

known

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

learn

learned/learnt

learned/learnt

leave

left

left

lend

lent

lent

let

let

let

lie

lay

lain

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

mean

meant

meant

meet

met

met

57

pay

paid

paid

put

put

put

read

read

read

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

show

showed

showed/shown

shut

shut

shut

sing

sang

sung

sit

sat

sat

sleep

slept

slept

speak

spoke

spoken

spend

spent

spent

stand

stood

stood

swim

swam

swum

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

throw

threw

thrown

58

understan
d

understood

understood

wake

woke

woken

wear

wore

worn

win

won

won

write

wrote

written

59

2) Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be:
to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. English
tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make the
tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be,
English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not
confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verb forms to make the
tenses, but they are not the same thing.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping (auxiliary)
verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
13.Forms of Main Verbs, remember Main verbs are also called "lexical
verbs". Main verbs (except the verb "be") have only 4, 5 or 6 forms.
"Be" has 9 forms.

regular

irregul
ar

V1

V2

V3

infiniti
ve

base

past
simple

past
participl
e

present
participle

present
simple, 3rd
person
singular

(to)
work

work

worked

worked

working

works

(to) sing
sing
(to)
make
make
cut
(to) cut

sang
made
cut

sung
made
cut

singing
making
cutting

sings
makes
cuts

(to) do*
do
(to)
have
have*

did
had

done
had

doing
having

does
has

infiniti
ve

base

past
simple

past
participl
e

present
participle

present
simple

(to) be*

be

was,
were

been

being

am, are, is

In the above examples:

to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts
to work has 5 forms: to work, work, worked, working, works
to sing has 6 forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
to be has 9 forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are
The infinitive can be with or without to. For example, to sing and sing are
both infinitives. We often call the infinitive without to the "bare infinitive".

60

Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive
I want to work
He has to sing.
This exercise is easy to do.
Let him have one.
To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
Work well!
Make this.
Have a nice day.
Be quiet!
Base - Present simple
(except 3rd person singular)
I work in London.
You sing well.
They have a lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
I can work tomorrow.
You must sing louder.
They might do it.
You could be right.
Past simple
I worked yesterday.
She cut his hair last week.
They had a good time.
They were surprised, but I was not.
Past participle
I have worked here for five years.
He needs a folder made of plastic.
It is done like this.
I have never been so happy.
Present participle
I am working.
Singing well is not easy.
Having finished, he went home.
You are being silly!
3rd person singular, present simple
He works in London.
She sings well.
She has a lot of money.
It is Vietnamese.
14.Forms of Helping Verbs: All helping verbs are used with a main verb
(either expressed or understood*). There are 2 groups of helping
verbs:
Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense or voice of
the main verb, and in making questions and negatives.
Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the main verb.

61

Study the table below. It shows the prinicipal forms and uses of helping
verbs, and explains the differences between primary and modal helping
verbs.
* Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to
have no main verb. In fact, the main verb is "understood". Look at the
following examples:
Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is
"expressed".)
Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is
"understood" from the context. We understand: Yes, I can speak
English.
But if somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", we would
understand nothing!
Helping Verbs
Primary

Modal

Do

(to make simple tenses, and

can
questions and negatives)

could

Be

(to make continuous tenses,

may
and the passive voice)

might

Have

(to make perfect tenses)

will

would

shall

should

must
ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs
have exactly the same forms as when Modal
helping
verbs
are
they are main verbs (except that as invariable. They always have the
helping verbs they are never used in same form.
infinitive forms).
"Ought" is followed by the main
verb in infinitive form. Other
Primary helping verbs are followed by
modal helping verbs are followed
the main verb in a particular form:
by the main verb in its base form
do + V1 (base verb)
(V1).
be + -ing (present participle)
ought + to... (infinitive)
have + V3 (past participle)
other modals + V1 (base
verb)
"Do", "be" and "have" can also function
as main verbs.

Modal helping verbs

function as main verbs.

cannot

62

3) Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs

Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs".
Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the
English language.
These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other
word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that
make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs
are often all called "phrasal verbs".
The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb.
"Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up"
are two different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should
treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other
verb. Look at these examples.
You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:

look

direct your eyes in You must look

a certain direction before you leap.

look
after

take care of

phrasal verbs

look up

You can look up

search for and find
my number in the
information in a
telephone
reference book
directory.

phrasalprepositional
verbs

look
forward
to

anticipate
pleasure

single-word verb
prepositional
verbs
Multiword
verbs

Who is looking
after the baby?

with I look forward to

meeting you.

Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus
another word or words.
Phrasal verbs are made of:
verb + adverb
Phrasal verbs can be:
intransitive (no direct object)
transitive (direct object)
Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:
Examples

intransitiv

phrasal
verbs

meaning

get up

rise from bed

Direct
object
I don't like to get up.

63

e phrasal break
verbs
down
transitive
phrasal
verbs

cease
function

to He was late because his

car broke down.

put of

postpone

We will have to put of

the
meeting.

turn
down

refuse

They turned down

my offer.

Separable Phrasal Verbs

When phrasal verbs are transitive (that is, they have a direct object), we can
usually separate the two parts. For example, "turn down" is a separable
phrasal verb. We can say: "turn down my offer" or "turn my offer down".
Look at this table:

transitive phrasal
are
separable

verbs

The
y

turne
d

The
y

turne
d

down
my offer

my offer.

down
.

However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must

separate the phrasal verb and insert the pronoun between the two parts.
Look at this example with the separable phrasal verb "switch on":
Direct
object
pronoun
s must
go
between
the two
parts of
transitiv
e phrasal
verbs

John

switche
d

John

switche
d

the
radio

on
.

John

switche
d

it

on
.

John

switche
d

on

on

the
radio.
These are
possible.

it.

This
is
possible.

all

not

Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs? Some dictionaries tell you when

phrasal verbs are separable. If a dictionary writes "look (something) up", you
know that the phrasal verb "look up" is separable, and you can say "look
something up" and "look up something". It's a good idea to write
"something/somebody" as appropriate in your vocabulary book when you
learn a new phrasal verb, like this:
get up
break down
put something/somebody of
turn sthg/sby down
This tells you whether the verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

64

Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus
another word or words.
Prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + preposition
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have
direct objects. Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:
examples
prepositional
verbs

meaning

believe in

have
faith
existence of

look after

take care of

He is looking
the dog.
after

talk about

discuss

Did you
about

wait for

await

John is waiting
Mary.
for

direct
object
in

the

I believe in

God.

talk

me?

Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the
direct object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look after
the baby". We cannot say "look the baby after":

prepositional
inseparable

verbs

are

Who is looking after This

the baby?
possible.
Who is looking
baby after?

the This is
possible.

is
not

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book

when you learn a new prepositional verb, like this:
believe in something/somebody
look after sthg/sby
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made from
a verb plus another word or words.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + adverb + preposition

65

Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:

examples

phrasalprepositional
verbs

meaning

get on with

have
a
friendly He doesn't get
his wife.
relationship with
on with

put up with

tolerate

look forward to

anticipate
pleasure

run out of

use up, exhaust

direct
object

I won't put up your

with
attitude.
with I look forward seeing
to
you.
We have
out of

run

eggs.

Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always

a direct object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs
cannot be separated. Look at these examples:

phrasal-prepositional
inseparable

verbs

are

We

ran out of

fuel.

We

ran out of

it.

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book

when you learn a new phrasal-prepositional verb, like this:
get on with somebody
put up with sthg/sby
run out of something
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

66

4) English Conditionals
There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.
"Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is
true, then a particular result happens.
If y = 10 then 2y = 20
If y = 3 then 2y = 6
There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are
some more conditionals that we do not use so often.
People sometimes call conditionals " IF " structures or sentences, because
there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.

Structure of Conditional Sentences

The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic
possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but
the basic structure is usually like this:
I
F

conditio
n

result
2y
20

IF y = 10

or like this:
result

I
F

2y
20

IF y = 10

conditio
n

First Conditional: real possibility

We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition
or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real
possibility that this condition will happen.
For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this
afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What
will you do?
I
F

If

condition

Result

present
simple

WILL
verb

it rains

I will
home.

base

stay

at

67

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But
the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain.
We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition.
We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result.
The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real
possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more
examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result]
and [result IF condition]?):
I
F

Condition

result

present simple

WILL + base verb

If

I see Mary

I will tell her.

If

Tara is free tomorrow

he will invite her.

If

they do not pass their their

exam
sad.

If

it rains tomorrow

will you stay at home?

If

it rains tomorrow

what will you do?

I
F

result
WILL + base verb

teacher

will

be

condition
present simple

I will tell Mary

if

I see her.

He will invite Tara

if

she is free tomorrow.

Their teacher will be

if
sad

they do
exam.

not

pass

Will you stay at home

if

it rains tomorrow?

What will you do

if

it rains tomorrow?

their

Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you
are good today, you can watch TV tonight.

Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking
about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future,

68

and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this
condition will happen.
For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No
lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future.
I
F

If

condition

result

past simple

WOULD
verb

I
won
lottery

I would buy a car.

the

base

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple
tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk
about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is
that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.
Here are some more examples:
I
F

condition

result

past simple

WOULD + base verb

If

I married Mary

I would be happy.

If

Ram became rich

she would marry him.

If

it snowed
July

next would
you
surprised?

If

it snowed
July

next

what would you do?

I
F

result

be

WOULD + base verb

condition
past simple

I would be happy

If

I married Mary.

She would marry Ram

If

he became rich.

Would
surprised

If

it
snowed
July?

you

be

next

69

What would you do

If

it
snowed
July?

next

Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for

example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working.

Third Conditional: no possibility

With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a
condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility
for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no
possibility of the dream coming true.
Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win.

If

condition

result

Past Perfect

WOULD HAVE
Participle

I had
lottery

won

the

Past

I would have bought a car.

We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition.
We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past
result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the
condition and result are impossible now.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of
would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might
have won.
Look at some more examples in the tables below:
I
F

Condition

result

past perfect

WOULD HAVE + past participle

If

I had seen Mary

I would have told her.

If

Tara had been free yesterday

I would have invited her.

If

they had not passed their their teacher would have been
exam
sad.

If

it had rained yesterday

would you have stayed at home?

If

it had rained yesterday

what would you have done?

70

I
F

Result
WOULD HAVE + past participle

condition
past perfect

I would have told Mary

if

I had seen her.

I would have invited Tara

if

she had been free yesterday.

Their teacher would have been

if
sad

they had
exam.

not

passed

Would you have stayed at home

if

it had rained yesterday?

What would you have done

if

it had rained yesterday?

their

Zero Conditional: certainty

We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is
always true, like a scientific fact.
I
F

If

condition

Result

present
simple

present
simple

you heat ice

it melts.

Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this
condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are
thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about
the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result.
The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition
always has the same result.
We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss
my bus.
Look at some more examples in the tables below:
I
F

Condition

result

present simple

present simple

If

I miss the 8 o'clock

I am late for work.
bus

If

I am late for work

my

boss

gets

71

angry.
If

people don't eat

they get hungry.

If

you heat ice

does it melt?

I
F

result
present simple

condition
present simple

I am late for work

if

I miss the 8 o'clock

bus.

My
boss
angry

if

I am late for work.

People get hungry

if

they don't eat.

Does ice melt

if

you heat it?

gets

Conditionals: Summary
Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not
take the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.
probability

conditional

example

time

100
%

zero
conditional

If you heat ice, it melts.

any
time

50%

first
conditional

If it rains, I will stay at

future
home.

10%

second
conditional

If I won the lottery, I would

future
buy a car.

0%

third
conditional

If I had won the lottery, I

past
would have bought a car.

72

5) Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)

Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are
invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive"
(the infinitive without "to").

Can, Could, Be able to

Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary
verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for
convenience.
Can

Can
is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
talk about possibility and ability
make requests
ask for or give permission

o Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subjec
t
+ I

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

can

play

tennis.

play

tennis.

play

tennis
?

cannot
-

He
can't

Can

you

Notice that:
Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
We cannot say: I CAN TO PLAY TENNIS
o Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
She can drive a car.
John can speak Spanish.
I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we
make present decisions about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

73

can: Requests and Orders

We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is
not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do
something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal
(mainly between friends and family):
Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
Can you put the TV on.
Can you come here a minute.
Can you be quiet!
can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A. Can I smoke in this room?
B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for
permission is informal.)

Could
Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:
talk about past possibility or ability
make requests
o

Structure of Could
subject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject

auxiliary verb

main
verb

My
grandmother

could

swim.

She

could not
walk.
couldn't
?

Could

your
grandmother

swim?

Notice that:
Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:
I COULD TO PLAY TENNIS
o Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability
We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were
able or free to do:
I could swim when I was 5 years old.
My grandmother could speak seven languages.

74

When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't

open the door.)
Could you understand what he was saying?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the
past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be
able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:
Past
General

Specific Occasion

My
grandmother
speak Spanish.

could A man fell into the river yesterday. The

police were able to save him.

My grandmother couldn't A man fell into the river yesterday. The

speak Spanish.
police couldn't save him.

o could: Requests
We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The
use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):
Could you tell me where the bank is, please?
Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able to
Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the
verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be
able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.
We use be able to:
to talk about ability
o Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:
subject + be + able + infinitive

subjec
t
+ I

be
main
verb

able
adjectiv
e

infinitiv
e

am

able

to drive.

able

to drive.

able

to
drive?

is not
-

She
isn't

Are

you

Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:

I was able to drive...
I will be able to drive...

75

I have been able to drive...

Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:

I would like to be able to speak Chinese.
o Use of Be able to
Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for
convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are
modal auxiliary verbs.
be able to: ability
We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having
the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it
is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can"
or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses - but "can" is
possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for
ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be
able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these
examples:
I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)
Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't
Must is a modal auxiliary verb.
Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We
include have to here for convenience.

Have to (objective obligation)

We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:
Children have to go to school.
o Structure of Have to
Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in
fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb.
In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:
subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to)
Look at these examples in the simple tense:
subjec
t

auxiliary
verb

+ She

main
have

verb infinitive (with

to)

has

to work.

do not

have

to see

the doctor.

Did

you

have

to go

to school?

76

o Use of Have to
In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have
to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the
Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:
In France, you have to drive on the right.
In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
John has to wear a tie at work.
In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or
idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.
We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We
conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:
subjec
t

auxiliary
verb

main
have

verb infinitiv
e

past simple

had

to work

yesterday.

present simple

have

to work

today.

future simple

will

have

to work

tomorrow.

present
continuous

She

is

having

to wait.

present perfect

We

have

had

to
change

the time.

modal (may)

They

may

have

to do

it again.

Must (subjective obligation)

We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for
example:
I must go.
o Structure of Must
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure
is:
subject + must + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to"). Look at these
examples:
subjec auxiliary
t
must

main
verb

must

go

home.

You

must

visit

us.

77

We

must

stop

now.

Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:
I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)
o Use of Must
In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the
speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:
I must stop smoking.
You must visit us soon.
He must work harder.
In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the
person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from
outside.
It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule
or a law. But generally we use have to for this.
We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these
examples:
I must go now. (present)
I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)
We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about
the past.

Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)

We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for
example:
Passengers must not talk to the driver.
o Structure of Must not
Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for
must not is:
subject + must not + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Must not is often contracted to mustn't. Look at these examples:
subject

auxiliary must + main

not
verb

mustn't

forget

my
keys.

You

mustn't

disturb

him.

Student
s

must not

be

late.

NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:

78

You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)

o Use of Must not

Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not
allowed.
The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real
law or rule). Look at these examples:
I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)
You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)
Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)
We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:
Visitors must not smoke. (present)
I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)
We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to
talk about the past, for example:
We were not allowed to enter.
I couldn't park outside the shop.

Shall versus Will

The difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we
usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.
The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:
1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

Singula
r

Plural

Person

Ver
b

Example

Contractio
n

shall

I shall be in London tomorrow.

I'll

you

will

You will see a large building on the

You'll
left.

he, she,
will
it

He will be wearing blue.

we

shall

We shall not be there when you

We shan't
arrive.

you

will

You will find his office on the 7th

You'll
floor.

they

will

They will arrive late.

2nd Conjugation
command)

(subjective,

strong

He'll

They'll

assertion,

promise

or

79

Singula
r

Person

Ver
b

Example

will

I will do everything possible to

I'll
help.

you

shall

You shall be sorry for this.

You'll

shall

It shall be done.

It'll

we

will

We will not interfere.

We won't

you

shall

You shall do as you're told.

You'll

they

shall

They shall
notice.

They'll

he,
it

Plural

she,

Contractio
n

give

one

month's

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized.

Would
Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:
talk about the past
talk about the future in the past
express the conditional mood
We also use would for other functions, such as:
expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope,
wish and regret...
Structure of Would
subject + would + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subjec
t

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

would
+ She

like

tea.

like

whisky.

like

coffee?

'd
would not
-

She
wouldn't

Would

she

Notice that:
Would is never conjugated. It is always would or 'd (short form).
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

80

The main verb is always

I would to like cofee.

the

bare

infinitive.

We

cannot

say:

Be careful! Would and had have the same short form 'd:
He'd finished. (He had finished.)
He'd like coffee. (He would like coffee.)
o Use of Would
would: Talking about the past
We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:
Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life.
I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.
Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in
reported speech:
She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase
taxes.")
Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's
going to rain.")
We often use would not to talk about past refusals:
He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree.
Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.
We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual
past behaviour:
Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and
watch TV.
Every summer we'd go to the seaside.
Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night.
We would always argue. We could never agree.
would: Future in past
When talking about the past we can use would to express something that
has not happened at the time we are talking about:
In London she met the man that she would one day marry.
He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.
would: Conditionals
We often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:
If he lost his job he would have no money.
IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.
Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving
advice:
I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
If I were in your place I'd refuse.
If you asked me I would say you should go.
Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an
"if" clause:
Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If
someone liked John they would probably love John's father.)

81

You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never
know that he was rich.)
Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come.
Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not
stated) as in:
I'd like to stay. | I wish you would. (would stay)
Do you think he'd come? | I'm sure he would. (would come)
Who would help us? | John would. (would help us)

would: Desire or inclination

I'd love to live here.
Would you like some coffee?
What I'd really like is some tea.
would: Polite requests and questions
Would you open the door, please? (more polite than: Open the door,
please.)
Would you go with me? (more polite than: Will you go with me?)
Would you know the answer? (more polite than: Do you know the
answer?)
What would the capital of Nigeria be? (more polite than: What is the
capital of Nigeria?)
would: Opinion or hope
I would imagine that they'll buy a new one.
I suppose some people would call it torture.
I would have to agree.
I would expect him to come.
Since you ask me I'd say the blue one is best.
would: Wish
I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.)
They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I'd resign.
Note that all of these uses of would express some kind of distance or
remoteness:
remoteness in time (past time)
remoteness of possibility or probability
remoteness between speakers (formality, politeness)
would: Presumption or expectation
That would be Jo calling. I'll answer it.
We saw a police helicopter overhead yesterday morning. | Really?
They would have been looking for those bank robbers.
would: Uncertainty
He would seem to be getting better. (less certain than: He seems to
be getting better.)
It would appear that I was wrong. (less certain than: It appears that I
was wrong.)
would: Derogatory
They would say that, wouldn't they?

82

John said he didn't steal the money. | Well, he would, wouldn't he?

would that: Regret (poetic/rare) - with clause

This rare, poetic or literary use of would does not have the normal structure:
Would that it were true! (If only it were true! We wish that it were
true!)
Would that his mother had lived to see him become president.

Should
Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly
to:
give advice or make recommendations
talk about obligation
talk about probability and expectation
express the conditional mood
replace a subjunctive structure
Structure of Should
subject + should + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subjec
t
+ He

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

should

go.

should not
-

He

go.
shouldn't

Shoul
d

he

go?

Notice that:
Should is invariable. There is only one form of should.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb
He should to go.

is

always

the

bare

infinitive.

We

cannot

say:

There is no short form for should. The negative should not can be
shortened to shouldn't.
o Use of Should
should: Giving advice, opinions
We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):
You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great!
You should try to lose weight.
John should get a haircut.
He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too.
What should I wear?
They should make that illegal.

83

There should be a law against that.

People should worry more about global warming.

should: Obligation, duty, correctness

Another use of should (also similar to ought to) is to indicate a kind of
obligation, duty or correctness, often when criticizing another person:
You should be wearing your seat belt. (obligation)
I should be at work now. (duty)
You shouldn't have said that to her. (correctness)
He should have been more careful.
Should you be driving so fast?
should: Probability, expectation
We use should to indicate that we think something is probable (we expect it
to happen):
Are you ready? The train should be here soon.
$10 is enough. It shouldn't cost more than that.
Let's call Mary. She should have finished work by now.
should: Conditionals
We sometimes use should (instead of would) for the first person singular (I)
and first person plural (we) of some conditionals:
If
I
lost
my
job
I
should
have
no
money.
(If he lost his job he would have no money.)
We should be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue.
should: (If I were you I should...)
We often use the conditional structure "If I were you I should..." to give
advice.
If I were you, I should complain to the manager.
If I were you I shouldn't worry about it.
I shouldn't say anything if I were you.
Note that we can omit "If I were you..." and just say:
I should complain to the manager.
I shouldn't worry about it.
I shouldn't say anything.
In these cases, the phrase "I should" really means something like "you
should".
should: Pseudo subjunctive
We often use a special verb form called the subjunctive when talking about
events that somebody wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines
happening, for example:
The president insists that the prime minister attend the meeting.
However, this is much more common in American English. British English
speakers would probably convey the same idea using should:
The president insists that the prime minister should attend the
meeting.
Here are some more examples:
Subjunctive

Using

should

84

typically American English

The president is insisting
pollution be reduced.

typically British English

that The president is insisting that pollution
should be reduced.

The manager recommended that The manager recommended that Mary

Mary join the company.
should join the company.
It is essential that we decide today.

It is essential that we should decide

today.

It was necessary that everyone It was necessary that everyone should

arrive on time.
arrive on time.
should: Why should..? | How should..?
If we don't understand (or agree with) something, we may use "Why
should..?":
Why should it be illegal to commit suicide? It's your life.
"Why should..?" and "How should..?" can also indicate anger or irritation:
"Help me with this." | "Why should I?"
"Where are my keys?" | "How should I know?"

85

6) Gerunds (-ing)
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is
important to understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is
usually a present participle:
Anthony is fishing.
I have a boring teacher.
Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".
In this lesson, we look at how we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check
your understanding:
Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a
sentence:
Smoking costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing.
My favourite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the
whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or
complement of the sentence.
Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing letters.
My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.
Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other
determiners):
pointless questioning
a settling of debts
the making of Titanic
his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct
object:
a settling of debts (not a settling debts)
Making "Titanic" was expensive.
The making of "Titanic" was expensive.
Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a
gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).
My favourite occupation is reading.
My favourite niece is reading.
Gerunds after Prepositions
This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!

86

If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is

impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:
I will call you after arriving at the office.
Please have a drink before leaving.
I am looking forward to meeting you.
Do you object to working late?
Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:
I will call you after my arrival at the office.
Please have a drink before your departure.
I am looking forward to our lunch.
Do you object to this job?
Tara always dreams about holidays.
The
above
rule
has
no
So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2?
1. I am used to driving on the left.
2. I used to drive on the left.

exceptions!

Gerunds after Certain Verbs

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in
the infinitive form, for example:
I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
I dislike eating.
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually
followed by a verb in gerund form:
admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny,
detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish,
forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention,
mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't
stand, suggest, understand
Look at these examples:
She is considering having a holiday.
Do you feel like going out?
I can't help falling in love with you.
I can't stand not seeing you.
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form
without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love,
prefer, propose, start
I like to play tennis.
I like playing tennis.
It started to rain.
It started raining.

Gerunds in Passive Sense

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case,
the gerund has a passive sense.

87

I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)

This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

The expression "something wants doing" is British English.

Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is
because there is sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a
present participle.

88

7)Questions or Interrogative
What is a question?
A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence
that asks for information. Questions are also called "interrogative".
Stateme
nt:

I like EnglishClub.com.

Question
:

Do
you
EnglishClub.com?

like

A written question in English always ends with a question mark: ?

In this lesson we look at basic questions in English, followed by a quiz to
check your understanding:
Basic Question Structure
The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
auxiliary
verb

subject

main
verb

Do

you

like

Mary?

Are

they

playing

football?

Will

Anthony

go

to Tokyo?

Have

you

seen

ET?

Exception!
For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an
auxiliary verb. We simply reverse the positions of be and subject:
Stateme
nt:

He

is

German.

Question
:

Is

he

German?

Basic Question Types

There are 3 basic types of question:
1. Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")
2. Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is
"Information")
3. Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")

89

1. Yes/No Questions
auxiliary
verb

subjec
t

main
verb

Answer
Yes or No

Do

you

want

Can

you

drive?

Has

she

finished

her work?

Yes, she has.

Did

they

go

home?

No,
didn't.

dinner?

Yes, I do.
No, I can't.

they

Exception! verb be simple present and simple

past
Is

Anne

French?

Yes, she is.

Was

Ram

at home?

No, he wasn't.

2. Question Word Questions

question
word

auxiliary
verb

subjec main
t
verb

Answer
Information

Where

do

you

live?

In Paris.

When

will

we

have

Who

did

she

meet?

Why

hasn't

Tara

done

lunch?

At 1pm.
She met Ram.

it?

Because
can't.

she

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Where

is

Bombay?

In India.

How

was

she?

Very well.

3. Choice Questions
auxiliary
verb

subjec
t

main
verb

O
R

Answer
In the question

Do

you

want

tea

or

coffee?

Coffee, please.

Will

we

meet

John

or

James?

John.

Did

she

go

to

or

New

She

went

to

90

London

York?

London.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Is

your car

white

or

black?

It's black.

Were

they

$15

or

$50?

$15.

91

8)Tag Questions
You speak English, don't
you?
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed
by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the miniquestion at the end is called a "question tag".
A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. For example,
the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or washing instructions
is a tag.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They
mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very
common in English.
The basic structure is:
+
Positive statement,

negative tag?

Snow is white,

isn't it?

Negative
statement,

+
positive tag?

You don't like me,

do you?

Look at these examples with positive statements:

positive statement [+]

negative tag [-]

auxiliar
subject
y

main
verb

auxiliar
y

not

personal
pronoun
(same as
subject)

You

are

coming,

are

n't

you?

We

have

finished
,

have

n't

we?

You

do

like

coffee,

do

n't

you?

like

coffee,

do

n't

you?

You
like...

wo

n't

they?

won't = will
not

You
They

will

help,

notes:

(do)

92

can

come,

can

't

I?

We

must

go,

must

n't

we?

He

should

try

harder, should

n't

he?

You

are

English
are
,

n't

you?

John

was

there,

n't

he?

was

no auxiliary
for
main
verb
be
present &
past

Look at these examples with negative statements:

negative statement [-]
auxiliar
subject
y

positive tag [+]

main
verb

auxiliar
y

personal
pronoun
(same
subject)

is

it?

It

is

n't

raining,

We

have

never

seen

that,

have

we?

You

do

n't

like

coffee,

do

you?

They

will

not

help,

will

they?

They

wo

n't

report

us,

will

they?

can

never

do

it
right,

can

I?

We

must

n't

tell

her,

must

we?

He

should

n't

drive

so
fast,

should

he?

You

are

n't

English
are
,

you?

John

was

not

there,

he?

was

as

Some special cases:

I am right, aren't I?

aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't

you (do) have to go...
you?

93

I have been answering,

use first auxiliary
haven't I?
Nothing came
post, did it?

in

Let's go, shall we?

the treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like

negative statements
let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't

he had better (no auxiliary)
he?
Here are some mixed examples:
But you don't really love her, do you?
This will work, won't it?
Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
We'd never have known, would we?
The weather's bad, isn't it?
You won't be late, will you?
Nobody knows, do they?
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help,
starting with a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of
making a request.
For example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very
polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite),
we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?"
Here are some more examples:
You don't know of any good jobs, do you?
You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?

You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?

Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our
voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our
intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real
answer:
intonation
You don't know where my wallet
do you?
is,

/ rising

real question

It's a beautiful view,

\ falling

not
a
question

isn't it?

real

Answers to tag questions

94

A question tag is the "mini-question" at the end. A tag question is the

whole sentence.
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes
we may repeat the tag and reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they do).
Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an
oposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers
sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer
reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.
For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions,
and the correct answers:
tag
question

correct
answer

Snow
is
Yes
white, isn't
is).
it?

(it

Snow isn't
Yes it is!
white, is it?
Snow
is
No
black, isn't
isn't!
it?
Snow isn't No
black, is it? isn't).

the answer is the

same in both cases because
snow
IS
WHITE!

it

the answer is the

same in both cases because snow IS NOT
(it BLACK!

but notice the change of

stress when the answerer
does not agree with the
questioner

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?"
with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in
English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:
The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
Men don't have babies, do they? No.
The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.
Question tags with imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but
the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer.
We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.
imperative

+ question notes:

95

tag
invitatio
n

order

Take a seat, won't you?

polite

Help me, can you?

quite friendly

Help me, can't you?

quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would

quite polite
you?
Do it now, will you?

less polite

Don't forget, will you?

with negative imperatives only will is

possible

Same-way question tags

Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or
negative-positive, it is sometime possible to use a positive-positive or
negative-negative structure.
We use same-way question tags to express interest, surprise, anger etc, and
not to make real questions.
So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!
She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
So you think that's amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
So you don't like my looks, don't you?

96

9) Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.
Structure of the Subjunctive
The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the
past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive
without "to"):
be (past)

be
(present)

all other verbs (past &

present)

I
were
you
were
he,
she,
it
were
we
were
you
were
they were

I
be
I
you
be
you
he, she, it
he,
she,
be
we
we
be
you
you
be
they work
they be

it

work
work
work
work
work

The subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc).
Use of the Subjunctive
We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain
to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events
that somebody:
wants to happen
hopes will happen
imagines happening
Look at these examples:
The President requests that you be present at the meeting.
It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest + that
the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary,
vital + that
Here are some examples with the subjunctive:
The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.
The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the
weekend.
Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does
not matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:
Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.
Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.

97

Present: It is essential that she be present.

Past: It was essential that she be present.

The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English

than in English, where should + infinitive is often used:
The manager insists that the car park should be locked at night.
It was essential that we should vote as soon as possible.
We usually use the subjunctive were instead of "was" after if (and other
words with similar meaning). Look at these sentences:
If I were you, I would ask her.
Suppose she were here. What would you say?

Why do we say "I were", "he were"?

We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were
here, he would tell you".
Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was. But the if I
were you structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb "to be".
It uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples,
you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was"
after:
if
as if
wish
spose
Formal

Informal

(The were form is correct at (The was form is possible in informal,

all times.)
familiar conversation.)
If I were younger, I would go.

If I was younger, I would go.

If he weren't so mean, he If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for

would buy one for me.
me.
I wish I weren't so slow!

I wish I wasn't so slow!

I wish it were longer.

I wish it was longer.

It's not as if I were ugly.

It's not as if I was ugly.

She acts as if she were

She acts as if she was Queen.
Queen.
If I were you, I should tell Note: We do not normally say "if I was you",
her.
even in familiar conversation.
Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples:
Long live the King!

98

God bless America!

Heaven forbid!
Be that as it may, he still wants to see her.
Come what may, I will never forget you.
We are all citizens of the world, as it were

99

10) Active Voice, Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most
of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the
active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:
subjec
t
activ
e

ver
b

objec
t

>
Cats

eat

fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives
the action of the verb:
subjec
t
passiv
e

verb

object

are eaten

by cats.

<
Fish

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
subject

verb

object

active

Everybod
y

drinks

water.

passiv
e

Water

is
drunk

by everybody

Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the
"normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we
look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to
conjugate it.
Construction of the Passive Voice
The structure of the passive voice is very simple:
subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)
The main verb is always in its past participle form.

100

Look at these examples:

subject

auxiliary
(to be)

verb

main
verb
participle)

Water

is

drunk

by everyone.

100
people

are

employed

by
company.

am

paid

in euro.

We

are

paid

in dollars.

Are

they

paid

in yen?

not

(past

this

Use of the Passive Voice

We use the passive when:
we want to make the active object more important
we do not know the active subject
subject

verb

object

give importance to active President

object (President Kennedy)
Kennedy

was killed

by Lee Harvey
Oswald.

active subject unknown

has been
?
stolen.

My wallet

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten
by cats).
Look at this sentence:
He was killed with a gun.
Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the
active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a
gun.
In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is
the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".
Conjugation for the Passive Voice
We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the
passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle
form and the auxiliary verb is always be.
To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for
example:
present simple: It is made
present continuous: It is being made

101

present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive

to be washed
present

It is washed.

past

It was washed.

future

It will be washed.

conditional

It would be washed.

present

It is being washed.

past

It was being washed.

future

It will be being washed.

conditional

It would be being washed.

present

It has been washed.

past

It had been washed.

future

It will have been washed.

conditional

It would have been washed.

present

It has been being washed.

past

It had been being washed.

future

It will
washed.

conditional

It would
washed

simple

continuous

perfect simple

perfect
continuous

have
have

been
been

being
being

102

11) Infinitive or -ing?

Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:

-ing

form

or
infinitive form (to do, to sing).

(doing,

singing)

For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one?
I dislike working late. (???)
I dislike to work late. (???)

When to use the infinitive

The infinitive form is used after certain verbs:
- forget, help, learn, teach, train
- choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like
- agree, encourage, pretend, promise
- allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse
I forgot to close the window.
Mary needs to leave early.
Why are they encouraged to learn English?
We can't aford to take a long holiday.
The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example:
- disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised
I was happy to help them.
She will be delighted to see you.
This includes too + adjective:
The water was too cold to swim in.
Is your coffee too hot to drink?
The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough:
He was strong enough to lift it.
She is rich enough to buy two.
When to use -ing
The -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause:
Swimming is good exercise.
Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.
The -ing form is used after a preposition:
I look forward to meeting you.
They left without saying "Goodbye."
The -ing form is used after certain verbs:
- avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise
I dislike getting up early.
Would you mind opening the window?
Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the infinitive without a big
change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose,
start.
It started to rain.

103

It started raining.
I like to play tennis.
I like playing tennis.

104

12) Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects

We often use singular nouns that refer to groups of people (for example:
team, government, committee) as if they were plural.
This is particularly true in English and less true in USA English. This is
because we often think of the group as people, doing things that people do
(eating, wanting, feeling etc).
In such cases, we use:
plural verb
they (not it)
who (not which)
Here are some examples:
The committee want sandwiches for lunch. They have to leave early.
My family, who don't see me often, have asked me home for
Christmas.
The team hope to win next time.
Here are some examples of words and expressions that can be considered
singular or plural:
choir, class, club, committee, company, family, government, jury,
school, staff, team, union, the BBC, board of directors, the
Conservative Party, Manchester United, the Ministry of Health
But when we consider the group as an impersonal unit, we use singular
verbs and pronouns:
The new company is the result of a merger.
An average family consists of four people.
The committee, which was formed in 1999, is made up of four men
and four women.
Notice that this is often a question of style and logic. The important thing is
to be consistent.
Using a plural verb with singular subject is less common in
American English.

105

13) Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses

There are some verbs that we do not normally use in the continuous tense.
And there are other verbs that we use in the simple tense with one meaning
and in the continuous tense with another meaning.
In this lesson we look at various uses of continuous tenses, followed by a
quiz to check your understanding:
Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses
There are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses.
We usually use the following verbs with simple tenses only (not continuous
tenses):
hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish
believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember,
suppose, understand
belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe,
own, possess
appear, resemble, seem,
hear, see
Here are some examples:
I want a coffee.

not I am wanting a coffee.

I don't believe you are not I am not believing you are

right.
right.
Does this pen belong to
not Is this pen belonging to you?
you?
It seemed wrong.

not It was seeming wrong.

I don't hear anything.

not I am not hearing anything.

Notice that we often use can + see/hear:

I
can
see
someone
in
(not I am seeing someone in the distance.)
I
can't
hear
you
(not I am not hearing you very well.)

the
very

distance.
well.

With verbs that we don't use in the continuous tense, there is no real action
or activity. Compare "to hear" and "to listen". "To hear" means "to receive
sound in your ears". There is no real action or activity by you. We use "to
hear" with simple tenses only. But "to listen" means "to try to hear". You
make an effort to hear.
There is a kind of action or activity. We can use "to listen" with simple or
continuous tenses.
Verbs with Two Meanings

106

Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must
use a simple tense. For the other sense we can use a continuous or simple
tense.
For example, the verb to think has two different senses:
1. to
believe,
to
have
an
opinion
I think red is a sexy colour.
2. to
reflect,
to
use
your
brain
to
solve
a
problem
I am thinking about my homework.
In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In
sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called
"dynamic".
When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the
dynamic sense, we can use a simple or continuous tense, depending on the
situation.
Look at the examples in the table below:
Stative
sense Dynamic
(no real action)
(a kind of action)
Simple only
I
think
beautiful.

she

is

sense

Continuous

Simple

Be quiet. I'm thinking.

I will think about

this
problem
tomorrow.

I don't consider We are considering your job We consider every

that he is the right application and will give you job application very
man for the job.
our answer in a few days.
carefully.
This
measures
feet.

table
A good carpenter
She is measuring the room
x 6
measures his wood
for a new carpet.
carefully.

Does the wine taste I was tasting the wine when I I always taste wine
good?
dropped the glass.
before I drink it.
Mary
has
children.

three Please phone later. We are We have dinner at

having dinner now.
8pm every day.

If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is
there any real action or activity?"
Be and Continuous Tenses
The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main
verb (Marie is French). On this page we look at the verb be as a main verb.
Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example,
we say:
London
is
the
capital
of
the
UK.
(not London is being the capital of the UK.)

107

Is
she
beautiful?
(not Is she being beautiful?)
Were
you
late?
(not Were you being late?)
Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This
is when the real sense of the verb be is "act" or "behave". Also, of course,
the action is temporary. Compare the examples in the table below:

Mary is a careful person. (Mary John is being careful. (John is acting

is always careful - it's her carefully now, but maybe he is not always
nature.)
careful - we don't know.)
Is he always so stupid? (Is that They were being really stupid. (They were
his personality?)
behaving really stupidly at that moment.)
Andrew is not usually selfish. (It
Why is he being so selfish? (Why is he
is not Andrew's character to be
acting so selfishly at the moment?)
selfish.)
Notice that we also make a difference between "to be sick" and "to be being
sick":
She is sick (= she is not well)
She is being sick (= she is vomiting)
Here is the structure of the verb be in the continuous present tense:
I
am
being
You
are
being
He,
she,
it
is
being
We
are
being
They are being

108

14) Used to do & Be used to

These two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely
different.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of both expressions, followed
by a quiz to check your understanding:
Used to do
We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a
tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for the
past only.
Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have
different meanings.
Structure of Used to do
The structure is:

subjec
t

auxiliar
y
did

no
t

+ I
-

did

Did

you

not

main
verb
use

infiniti
ve

used

to do.

use

to do.

use

to do?

Used or use?
when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d)
when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)
Use of Used to do
We use the used to do expression to talk about:
an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)
a situation that was true in the past
I used to smoke.
//////
past
present

future

Look at these examples.

the past

the present

She used to work in a shop.

Now she works in a bank.

He used to watch a lot of TV.

Now he doesn't watch much TV.

They used to be married.

Now they are divorced.

109

There used to be a cinema Now there is a supermarket

here.
here.
I didn't use to go swimming.

Now I go swimming.

Did you use to smoke?

Be used to
Be used to something
Be used to doing
Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to
Thailand", it is like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand."
Do not confuse be used to with with the special construction used to do.
They have different meanings.
Structure of Be used to
The structure is:
subject + be + used to + object
main
subjec verb
t
be
+ I

no
t

am
not

used
to

object

used
to

horses.

used
to

horses.

He

is

We

aren't

used
to

horses.

Are

you

used
to

horses
?

If the object invoves a verb, we use the -ing form:

I

am

not

used to being lied to.

He

is

used to working late.

We

aren't

used to

Are

you

used to cooking?

taking
bus.

the

Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use
-ing for a verb after a preposition - and the to is a preposition.

110

Use of Be used to
The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar
to us or easy for us. For example:
I am used to driving on the left.
It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am
Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA
where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the USA,
but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because "I am
used to it".
Look at these examples.
I am used to hard work.
I am used to working hard.
He is not used to New York.
He isn't used to living in New York.
Are you used to fast food?
Are you used to eating quickly?
Tenses
We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the
tense that we need. Look at these examples:
When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather.
I have been used to snakes for a long time.
You will soon be used to living alone

111

15) Going to
Going to is not a tense. It is a special expression to talk about the future.
Structure of Going to
The structure is:
subject + be + going + infinitive
The verb be is conjugated (past, present or future).
subjec
t
+ I

be

(not
)

am

+ I'm
not

goin
g

infiniti
ve

going

to buy

a new car.

going

to go

swimming.

going

to take

the exam.

He

is

It

isn't

going

to rain.

Are

you

going

to paint

the house?

Use of Going to
Going to - intention
We use going to when we have the intention to do something before we
speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these
examples:
Jo has won the lottery. He says he's going to buy a Porsche.
We're not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The
decision was made before speaking.
Going to - prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction
is based on present evidence. We are saying what we think will happen.
Here are some examples:
The sky is very black. It's going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky, the time, damaged
car) gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.

112

16) Future Time

The future is uncertain. We know the past. We know the present. We do not
know the future. We can be 100% sure or certain about the past and the
present. But we can never be 100% certain about the future. In English
there are several structures and tenses to talk about the future. It is usually
the degree of certainty about the future that decides our choice of structure
or tense.
Although we often talk about "future tenses", technically there are no future
tenses in English - only different ways of talking about the future, using
special constructions, other tenses or modal verbs.
In this lesson we look at four of the most common ways to talk about the
future, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Will
One of the most common ways to talk about the future is with will, for
example: I will call you tonight.
We often call this the "future simple tense", but technically there are no
future tenses in English. In this construction, the word will is a modal
auxiliary verb.
Here are the three main ways that we use will to talk about the future.
No plan
We use will when there is no prior plan or decision to do something before
we speak. We make the decision at the time of speaking. Look at these
examples:
Hold on. I'll get a pen.
We will see what we can do to help you.
Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision
was made at the time of speaking.
We often use will with the verb think:
I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
I think I'll have a holiday next year.
I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use will to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no
firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some
examples:
It will rain tomorrow.
People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
Who do you think will get the job?
Be
The verb be is an exception with will. Even when we have a very firm plan,
and we are not speaking spontaneously, we can use will with be. Look at
these examples:

113

I will be in London tomorrow.

There will be 50 people at the party.
The meeting will be at 9.30 am.

The verb be is always exceptional!

Going to
Intention
We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do
something before we speak. We have already made a decision before
speaking. Look at these examples:
I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV.
We're not going to see my mother tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The
decision was made before we spoke.
Prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction
is based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are
some examples:
The sky is very black. It is going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car)
gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.
We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain
tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.)
We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence:
"It's going to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it
doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.)

Present Continuous for Plan

We often use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. Of
course, we normally use the present continuous to talk about action
happening in the present, but if we add a future word, we can use it to
talk about the future. (By "future word" we mean words or expressions like
tomorrow, next week, in June.
The future word may be clearly expressed or understood from the context.)
Sometimes there is no real difference between an intention (going to) and
a plan (present continuous). In this case, it doen't matter which we use.
We're going to paint the bedroom tomorrow.
We're painting the bedroom tomorrow.
We use the present continuous only when a plan exists before we speak.
Look at these examples:
Mary is taking her music exam next year.
They can't play tennis with you tomorrow. They 're working.
We're going to the theatre on Friday.

Present Simple for Schedules

114

When an event is on a schedule or timetable (for example, the take-off time

for a plane), we often use the present simple to express the future. We
usually also use a future word (expressed or understood) like tomorrow, at
6.30pm, next week.
Only a few verbs are used in this way, for example:
be, open, close, begin, start, end, finish, arrive, come, leave, return
Look at these sentences:
The train leaves Detroit at 9pm tonight.
John starts work next week.
Tomorrow is Thursday.
Future Time: Summary
When we speak, we choose the tense that we use. This is important in
English, because the tense we choose expresses more than just a simple
fact. When we speak about the future, the tense we choose can express how
we "see" the future, even our personal feelings about the future. It certainly
expresses what we believe to be the probability (the chance, the reality) of
something happening or whether we have already decided to do it.
This table gives a simple scale of probability for each structure. It is not
exact because language is not a science, and there are many variables.
This table should help you to think about the "concept" of the future in
English. This concept does not exist in all languages, but it is rather
important in English.
% probability before
speaker speaks of event
happening
structure

used
for

example

0%

will

no plan

Don't get up. I'll

answer the phone.

70%

going to

intention

We're going to watch

TV tonight.

90%

present
continuous

plan

I'm taking my exam in

June.

99.999%

present
simple

schedule

My plane takes off at

6.00am tomorrow.

It is impossible in English to express the future with 100% certainty.

(The speakers of any language that can do this must all be
billionaires!)

115

17) For and Since for Time

We often use for and since when talking about time.
for + period
A period is a duration of time, for example: 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
For means "from the beginning of the period until the end of the period."
For can be used with all tenses.
since + point
A point is a precise moment in time, for example: 9 o'clock, 1st January,
Monday. Since means "from a point in the past until now." Since is
normally used with perfect tenses.
for
a
period
(from start to
end)
>===<

since
a
(up
x===>|

since
for 20 minutes
since
for three days
since
for
6
months
since
for
4
years
since
for 2 centuries
since
for a long time
since
for
ever
time
etc
etc
all tenses

I
the

to

point
now)

9am
Monday
January
1997
1500
left
school
beginning of

perfect tenses only

For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:
They study for two hours every day.
They are studying for three hours today.
He has lived in Bangkok for a long time.
He has been living in Paris for three months.
I worked at that bank for five years.
Will the universe continue for ever?
For is NOT used with "all day", "all the time" etc.
I was there all day. (not *for all day)
Since is normally used with perfect tenses:
He has been here since 9am.
He has been working since he arrived.
I had lived in New York since my childhood.
Since can also be used in the structure "It is [period] since...":
It is a year since I saw her.
How long is it since you got married?

116

Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time.
Here are some examples:
This is for you.
Is this the train for London?
Since you ask, I'll say yes.
Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam.

Grammar
hot
links
Verbs | Passive voice | Modal verbs | Conditionals | Questions | Irregular
verbs | Going to | Gerunds | Phrasal Verbs | Tenses | Nouns | (Un)Countable
nouns | Adjectives | Articles | Preposition List

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we
include pronouns and noun phrases.)
An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog).
Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after
certain verbs (It is hard).
We can often use two or more adjectives together
(a beautiful young French lady).

Determiners
The determiner is an important noun modifier which contextualizes a noun, often in
terms of quantity and possession. Determiners in English precede a noun phrase and
include demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically
similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we
cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:

a, an, the

Possessive Adjectives:

my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose

Other determiners:

each, every

117

either, neither
some, any, no
much, many; more, most
little, less, least
few, fewer, fewest
what, whatever; which, whichever
both, half, all
several
enough

Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun
2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound,
smell, taste)
adj. noun

verb adj.

1 I like big

cars.

My car is

big.

In this lesson we look at the position of adjectives in a sentence,

followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Adjective Before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:

I like big black dogs.

She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.

What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?

1. The general order is: opinion, fact:

a nice French car (not a French nice car)

("Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is

definitely true about something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour,
origin and material:

a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table

118

3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:

articles (a, the)

possessives (my, your...)
demonstratives (this, that...)
quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
numbers (one, two, three)

Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:

adjectives

noun

deter- opinion fact

miner
age shape
two

nice

colour

old round red

candles

When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":

Many newspapers are black and white.

She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.

Adjective After Certain Verbs

An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel,
get, look, seem, smell, sound
Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it
always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb.
Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective

Ram is English.
Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
Is it getting dark?
The examination did not seem difficult.
Your friend looks nice.
This towel feels damp.
That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
Dinner smells good tonight.
This milk tastes sour.
It smells bad.

These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of

state, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some

119

verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and
dynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money). The above
examples do not include all stative verbs.
Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the
adjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.

Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if
they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways
and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to
describe the differences.
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not
three or more things).
In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective
"big":

A1 A2
A1 is bigger than A2.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives,
and then at how we use them:

Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:

short adjectives: add "-er"

long adjectives: use "more"

Short adjectives

1-syllable adjectives

old, fast

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y

happy, easy

Normal rule: add "-er"

old older

120

Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r

late later

Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant,

vowel, consonant, double the last consonant

big bigger

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y

to i

happy happier

Long adjectives

2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y

modern, pleasant

all adjectives of 3 or more syllables

expensive,
intellectual

Normal rule: use "more"

modern more
modern
expensive more
expensive

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':

quiet quieter/more quiet
clever cleverer/more clever
narrow narrower/more narrow
simple simpler/more simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good better
well (healthy) better
bad worse
far farther/further

Use of Comparative Adjectives

We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10
or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".
Look at these examples:

John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.

America is big. But Russia is bigger.
I want to have a more powerful computer.

121

Is French more difficult than English?

If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them
as shown in the table below:
Earth

Mars

Diameter (km)

12,760

6,790

Mars is smaller than Earth.

Distance from Sun

(million km)

150

228

Mars is more distant from the

Sun.

Length of day (hours)

24

25

A day on Mars is
slightly longer than a day on
Earth.

Moons

Mars has more moons than

Earth.

Surface temperature
(degrees Celcius)

22

-23

Mars is colder than Earth.

Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things

(not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a
group of things.
Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.
Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still
comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other
mountains).

Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a
quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of
one thing in a group of things.
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective
"big":

122

AB

A is the biggest.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives,
and then at how we use them:

Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form
a superlative adjective:

short adjectives: add "-est"

long adjectives: use "most"

We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.

Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives

old, fast

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y

happy, easy

Normal rule: add "-est"

old the oldest

Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st

late the latest

Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant,

vowel, consonant, double the last consonant

big the biggest

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the

y to i

happy the happiest

Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y

modern, pleasant

all adjectives of 3 or more syllables

expensive,
intellectual

Normal rule: use "most"

modern the most

modern
expensive the

123

most expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':
quiet the quietest/most quiet
clever the cleverest/most clever
narrow the narrowest/most narrow
simple the simplest/most simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good the best

bad the worst
far the furthest

Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three
or more things. Look at these examples:

John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.

Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the
biggest.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use
superlative adjectives as shown in the table below:
Earth

Mars

Jupiter

Diameter (km)

12,760

6,790

142,800

Jupiter is the biggest.

Distance from Sun

(million km)

150

228

778

Jupiter is the most

distant from the Sun.

Length of day
(hours)

24

25

10

Jupiter has the

shortest day.

Moons

16

Jupiter has the

most moons.

Surface temp.
(degrees Celcius)

22

-23

-150

Jupiter is the coldest.

124

When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)
My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most
generous)

Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives

Adjectives describe qualities (characteristics) of nouns.

Some qualities can vary in intensity or grade (for example: rather

hot, hot, very hot; hot, hotter, the hottest).
The adjective hot is gradable.

Other qualities cannot vary in intensity or grade because they are:

a. extremes (for example: freezing)
b. absolutes (for example: dead)
c. classifying (for example: nuclear)

The adjectives freezing, dead and nuclear are non-gradable.

Gradable Adjectives
A gradable adjective can be used with "grading adverbs" that vary the
adjective's grade or intensity. Look at these examples:
grading adverbs
a little, dreadfully, extremely,
fairly, hugely, immensely,
intensely, rather, reasonably,
slightly, unusually, very

+ gradable adjectives
angry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep,
fast, friendly, good, happy, high, hot,
important, long, popular, rich,
strong, tall, warm, weak, young

A gradable adjective can also have comparative and superlative forms:

EC Tip: "Gradable adjectives" are also called "qualitative adjectives".
"Grading adverbs" are also called "submodifiers".
big, bigger, the biggest
hot, hotter, the hottest
important, more important, the most important
Look at these example sentences:

My teacher was very happy with my homework.

That website is reasonably popular. But this one is more
popular.

125

He said that Holland was a little cold and Denmark was rather
cold. But Sweden was the coldest.

EC Tip: The adjective dead is non-gradable because it is anabsolute.

Dead is dead. We cannot be more or less dead. One person cannot be
"deader" than another. Other absolutes include: correct, unique, perfect

Non-gradable Adjectives
A non-gradable adjective cannot be used with grading adverbs:
It was rather freezing outside.
The dog was very dead.
He is investing in slightly nuclear energy.

Non-gradable adjectives do not normally have comparative and

superlative forms:
freezing, more freezing, the most freezing
dead, deader, the deadest
nuclear, more nuclear, the most nuclear

Often, non-gradable adjectives are used alone:

EC Tip: Don't try to learn lists of gradable and non-gradable adjectives!
It's better to understand what makes an adjective gradable or nongradable. This is a matter of logic and common sense. Most nativespeakers have never heard of gradable and non-gradable adjectives.
They just "feel" that it doesn't make sense to say "fairly excellent" or
"very unique". You probably have the same idea in your language.
It was freezing outside.
The dog was dead.
He is investing in nuclear energy.
However, a non-gradable adjective can be used with "non-grading
adverbs" (which usually just give the adjective extra impact), for
example:
non-grading adverbs non-gradable adjectives
absolutely

awful

utterly

excellent

completely

terrified

totally

dead

nearly

impossible

extreme

absolute

126

virtually

unique

essentially

chemical

mainly

digital

almost

domestic

classifying

Here are some example sentences with non-gradable adjectives:

Her exam results were absolutely awful. She will have to take
the exam again.
Is there anything like it in the world? It must be virtually unique.
It starts an essentially chemical reaction.

Adjectives that can be gradable and non-gradable

Some adjectives may have more than one meaning or sense. It's
possible for the same adjective to be gradable with one sense and nongradable with another sense. For example:
adjective

common
=

He's got a very old car.

gradable

not young

I saw my old boyfriend yesterday.

nongradable

former, ex-

He has some dreadfully common habits.

gradable

vulgar

"The" is a very common word in English.

gradable

prevalent

The two countries' common border poses

problems.

nongradable

shared

Adverbs used with gradable and non-gradable

adjectives
The adverbs really (very much) and fairly and pretty (both meaning
"to a significant degree, but less than very") can often be used with
gradable and non-gradable adjectives:
gradable

non-gradable

Please don't forget! It's really

important.

He was really terrified.

He's a fairly rich man.

It's a fairly impossible job.

127

He's pretty tall.

It's pretty ridiculous when you think

about it.

"Quite" with gradable and non-gradable adjectives

The meaning of the adverb "quite" changes according to the type of
adjective we use it with:
adjective
It's quite warm today. gradable

quite =
fairly, rather

Are you quite certain? non-gradable completely, absolutely

Reference
Non-gradable adjectives
Although we don't recommend that you learn lists of non-gradable
adjectives, here are some for reference. You can decide for yourself
whether they are extreme, absolute or classifying.
alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic, enormous,
environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge, immediately,
impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect, pregnant, principal,
ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique, unknown, white, whole
Non-grading adverbs
Again, no need to learn lists. Here are a few examples. There are many
more. Remember that you cannot use all non-grading adverbs with all
non-gradable adjectives. Some collocate (go together). Some don't.
absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, exclusively, fully, largely, mainly,
nearly, perfectly, practically, primarily, utterly, virtually
see also:

Noun as Adjective
As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a
word that describes a noun:
adjective noun
clever

teacher

small

office

128

black

horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the

first noun "acts as" an adjective.
noun
as adjective noun
history

teacher

ticket

office

race

horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first

If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked
about:

a race horse is a horse that runs in races

a horse race is a race for horses
a boat race is a race for boats
a love story is a story about love
a war story is a story about war
a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis
tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis
a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers
a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles

The "noun as adjective" is singular

Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is
usually in the singular form.
Right

Wrong

boat race

boat races

NOT boats race, boats races

toothbrush

toothbrushes

NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes

shoe-lace

shoe-laces

NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarette packet cigarette packets NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes

packets
In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only.
A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for
example news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as
adjectives" they are unchanged:

a news reporter, three news reporters

129

one billiards table, four billiards tables

an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers

Exceptions:
When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs,
accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:

clothes shop, clothes shops

sports club, sports clubs
customs duty, customs duties
accounts department, accounts departments
arms production

How do we write the "noun as adjective"?

We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different
ways:

two separate words (car door)

two hyphenated words (book-case)
one word (bathroom)

There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in
two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)

How do we say the "noun as adjective"?

For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:

shoe shop
boat-race
bathroom

Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?

Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective"
together. Look at these examples:
car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars
noun as noun as
adjective adjective

noun
costs

production costs
car production costs

130

England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who
trains the team that plays football for England
noun as noun as noun as noun
adjective adjective adjective
coach
team coach
football

team coach

England football

team coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun
as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns
(foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way
that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as
adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own
dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For
example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other
dictionaries do not.
government road accident research centre: we are talking about a
centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government
noun as
adjective

noun as noun as noun as noun

adjective adjective adjective
centre
research centre
accident research centre
road accident research centre

government

road accident research centre

Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space.

Look at this example:
BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY
To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The
above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE
for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS.
Note, too, that we can still use a real adjective to qualify a "noun as
adjective" structure:

empty coffee jar

honest car salesman
delicious dog food

131

rising car production costs

famous England football team coach

Examples of Adjectives
Looking at examples of adjectives can make it easier to understand
how these important parts of speech are used within the English
language.

Popular Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes, identifies or further defines a
noun or a pronoun. There are thousands of adjectives available to
describe how something feels, looks, sounds, tastes and acts. Here
are a few examples:

To Describe Taste
Bitter

Lemon-flavored

Spicy

Bland

Minty

Sweet

Delicious

Pickled

Tangy

Fruity

Salty

Tasty

Gingery

Sour

Yummy

To Describe Touch
Auricular

Fluffy

Sharp

Boiling

Freezing

Silky

Breezy

Fuzzy

Slick

Bumpy

Greasy

Slimy

Chilly

Hard

Slippery

Cold

Hot

Smooth

Cool

Icy

Soft

Cuddly

Loose

Solid

Damaged

Melted

Steady

132

Damp

Painful

Sticky

Dirty

Plastic

Tender

Dry

Prickly

Tight

Dusty

Rough

Uneven

Filthy

Shaggy

Warm

Flaky

Shaky

Wet

To Describe Sound
Blaring

Melodic

Screeching

Deafening

Moaning

Shrill

Faint

Muffled

Silent

Hoarse

Mute

Soft

High-pitched

Noisy

Squealing

Hissing

Purring

Squeaking

Hushed

Quiet

Thundering

Husky

Raspy

Voiceless

Loud

Resonant

Whispering

To Describe Color
Azure

Gray

Pinkish

Black

Green

Purple

Blue

Indigo

Red

Bright

Lavender

Rosy

Brown

Light

Scarlet

Crimson

Magenta

Silver

Dark

Multicolored

Turquoise

Drab

Mustard

Violet

133

Dull

Orange

White

Gold

Pink

Yellow

To Describe Size
Abundant

Jumbo

Puny

Big-boned

Large

Scrawny

Chubby

Little

Short

Fat

Long

Small

Giant

Majestic

Tall

Gigantic

Mammoth

Teeny

Great

Massive

Thin

Huge

Miniature

Tiny

Immense

Petite

Vast

To Describe Shape
Blobby

Distorted

Rotund

Broad

Flat

Round

Chubby

Fluffy

Skinny

Circular

Globular

Square

Crooked

Hollow

Steep

Curved

Low

Straight

Cylindrical

Narrow

Triangular

Deep

Oval

Wide

To Describe Time
Annual

Futuristic

Rapid

Brief

Historical

Regular

Daily

Irregular

Short

134

Early

Late

Slow

Eternal

Long

Speed

Fast

Modern

Speedy

First

Old

Swift

Fleet

Old-fashioned

Waiting

Future

Quick

Young

To Describe an Amount
All

Heavy

One

Ample

Hundreds

Paltry

Astronomical

Large

Plentiful

Bountiful

Light

Profuse

Considerable

Limited

Several

Copious

Little

Sizable

Countless

Many

Some

Each

Measly

Sparse

Enough

Mere

Substantial

Every

Multiple

Teeming

Few

Myriad

Ten

Full

Numerous

Very

To Describe an Emotion
Abrasive

Embarrassed

Grumpy

Abrupt

Energetic

Kind

Afraid

Enraged

Lazy

Agreeable

Enthusiastic

Lively

Aggressive

Envious

Lonely

135

Amiable

Evil

Lucky

Amused

Excited

Mad

Angry

Exhausted

Manic

Annoyed

Exuberant

Mysterious

Ashamed

Fair

Nervous

Bad

Faithful

Obedient

Bitter

Fantastic

Obnoxious

Bewildered

Fierce

Outrageous

Boring

Fine

Panicky

Brave

Foolish

Perfect

Callous

Frantic

Persuasive

Calm

Friendly

Pleasant

Calming

Frightened

Proud

Charming

Funny

Quirky

Cheerful

Furious

Relieved

Combative

Gentle

Repulsive

Comfortable

Glib

Rundown

Defeated

Glorious

Sad

Confused

Good

Scary

Cooperative

Grateful

Selfish

Courageous

Grieving

Silly

Cowardly

Gusty

Splendid

Crabby

Gutless

Successful

Creepy

Happy

Tedious

Cross

Healthy

Tense

136

Cruel

Heinous

Terrible

Dangerous

Helpful

Thankful

Defeated

Helpless

Thoughtful

Defiant

Hilarious

Thoughtless

Delightful

Homeless

Tired

Depressed

Hungry

Troubled

Determined

Hurt

Upset

Disgusted

Immoral

Weak

Disturbed

Indignant

Weary

Eager

Irate

Wicked

Elated

Itchy

Worried

Embarrassed

Jealous

Zany

Enchanting

Jolly

Zealous

To Describe a Person or Personality

Aggressive

Famous

Restless

Agoraphobic

Fearless

Rich

Ambidextrous

Fertile

Righteous

Ambitious

Fragile

Ritzy

Amoral

Frank

Romantic

Angelic

Functional

Rustic

Brainy

Gabby

Ruthless

Breathless

Generous

Sassy

Busy

Gifted

Secretive

Calm

Helpful

Sedate

Capable

Hesitant

Shy

137

Careless

Innocent

Sleepy

Cautious

Inquisitive

Somber

Cheerful

Insane

Stingy

Clever

Jaunty

Stupid

Common

Juicy

Super

Complete

Macho

Swanky

Concerned

Manly

Tame

Crazy

Modern

Tawdry

Curious

Mushy

Terrific

Dead

Naughty

Testy

Deep

Odd

Uninterested

Delightful

Old

Vague

Determined

Open

Verdant

Different

Outstanding

Vivacious

Diligent

Perky

Wacky

Energetic

Poor

Wandering

Erratic

Powerful

Wild

Evil

Puzzled

Womanly

Exuberant

Real

Wrong

To Describe Appearance
Ablaze

Distinct

Quirky

Adorable

Drab

Ruddy

Alluring

Dull

Shiny

Attractive

Elegant

Skinny

Average

Embarrassed

Sloppy

138

Awkward

Fancy

Smiling

Balanced

Fat

Sparkling

Beautiful

Filthy

Spotless

Blonde

Glamorous

Strange

Bloody

Gleaming

Tacky

Blushing

Glossy

Tall

Bright

Graceful

Thin

Clean

Grotesque

Ugly

Clear

Handsome

Unattractive

Cloudy

Homely

Unbecoming

Clumsy

Interior

Uncovered

Colorful

Lovely

Unsightly

Confident

Magnificent

Unusual

Cracked

Murky

Watery

Crooked

Old-fashioned

Weird

Crushed

Plain

Wild

Curly

Poised

Wiry

Cute

Pretty

Wooden

Debonair

Puffy

Worried

Dirty

Quaint

Zaftig

To Describe Situations
Accidental

Doubtful

Main

Achievable

Elementarty

Minor

Advantageous

Finger-printed

Nasty

Alcoholic

Groundless

Nutritious

139

Animated

Hard

Obsolete

Aquatic

Harmful

Optimal

Aromatic

High

Organic

Aspiring

Honest

Premium

Bad

Horrible

Quizzical

Bawdy

Illegal

Rainy

Biographical

Illegible

Redundant

Bizarre

Imperfect

Remarkable

Broken

Impossible

Simple

Careful

Internal

Tangible

Credible

Inventive

Tricky

Creepy

Jazzy

Wholesale

Cumbersome

Juvenile

Worse

Disastrous

Legal

Wry

Dismissive

Logical

X-rated

Using Adjectives in Writing

While its important to understand how adjectives add to the
descriptions of the nouns and pronouns, its also wise to understand
how to effectively use these parts of speech in your own writing.
Adjectives are best used sparingly. Generally, nouns and verbs should
do the bulk of the descriptive work in your prose. Dont simply tell
your reader that something is beautiful, exciting, or interesting. Use
your words to show why these descriptive labels are appropriate.

Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a
pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours,
themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to
repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:

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Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president
is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:

Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them
depending on:

number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)

person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person
(eg: he)

gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)

case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)

We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are

talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I
almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to
you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about
another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or
"him". And so on.
Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:
number

person

gender

subject
singular

1st

object

male/female

2nd

male/female

3rd

male he

him

female

she

her

neuter

it

it

plural 1st

personal pronouns

you

me

you

male/female

we

us

2nd

male/female

you

you

3rd

male/female/neuter

they them

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Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the
second an object pronoun):

I like coffee.

John helped me.

Do you like coffee?

John loves you.

He runs fast.

Did Ram beat him?

She is clever.

Does Mary know her?

It doesn't work.

Can the engineer repair it?

We went home.

Anthony drove us.

Do you need a table for three?

Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?

They played doubles.

John and Mary beat them.

When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it.
However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an
animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or
a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some
countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here
are some examples:

This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.

The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.

My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.

Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

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For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she.

There are several solutions to this:

If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.

If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.

If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

We often use it to introduce a remark:

It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.

It is important to dress well.

It's difficult to find a job.

Is it normal to see them together?

It didn't take long to walk here.

We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and
distance:

It's raining.

It will probably be hot tomorrow.

Is it nine o'clock yet?

It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.

Demonstrative Pronouns
demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:

near in distance or time (this, these)

far in distance or time (that, those)

near far

singular

this

that

plural these those

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an
illustration:

143

This tastes good.

Have you seen this?

These are bad times.

Do you like these?

That is beautiful.

Look at that!

Those were the days!

Can you see those?

This is heavier than that.

These are bigger than those.

Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives.

They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a
demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.

That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)

That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use
them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:

This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?

That sounds like John.

Possessive Pronouns
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or
thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and
sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:

number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)

person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd
person (eg: his)

144

gender: male (his), female (hers)

Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example

sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:

be subject or object

refer to a singular or plural antecedent

number

person

singular

1st

gender (of "owner")

male/female

2nd

male/female

3rd

male his
female

plural 1st

possessive pronouns

mine

yours

hers

male/female

ours

2nd

male/female

yours

3rd

male/female/neuter

theirs

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)

I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)

I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't
find yours. (object = your key)

My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)

All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his
essay)

John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her
passport)

John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her
clothes)

Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject =
Our car)

Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)

Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject =

Your books)

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I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your
garden)

These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair.
(subject = Their children)

John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object =
their car)
Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's,
your's, their's
Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive
pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:

There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.

This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it?

Interrogative Pronouns
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative
pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking
the question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative
pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).
subject
person

who

object
whom

thing what
person/thing
person

which

whose

(possessive)

Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of
the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal,
spoken English we rarely usewhom. Most native speakers would say (or
even write): "Who did you see?"
Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun
phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.

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question

answer

Who told you?

John told me.

Whom did you tell?

subject

I told Mary. object

What's happened?An accident's happened.subject

What do you want?

I want coffee.

object

Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first.

Which will the doctor see first?
bluefirst.
object

subject

The doctor will see the patient in

There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? John's (car) hasn't
arrived.
subject
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find?
(keys).
object

I found John's

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from
some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When
we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or
surprise. Look at these examples:

Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?

Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?

They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

Reflexive Pronouns
reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of
the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "selves" (plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns:
reflexive pronoun
singular

myself

yourself
himself, herself, itself

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plural ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Look at these examples:
reflexive pronouns
the underlined words are NOT the same person/thing the underlined
words are the SAME person/thing
John saw me.

I saw myself in the mirror.

Why does he blame you?

Why do you blame yourself?

David sent him a copy. John sent himself a copy.

David sent her a copy.

Mary sent herself a copy.

My dog hurt the cat.

My dog hurt itself.

We blame you.

We blame ourselves.

Can you help my children?

Can you help yourselves?

They cannot look after the babies.

They cannot look after themselves.

Intensive pronouns
Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive
pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:

I made it myself. OR I myself made it.

Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?

The President himself promised to stop the war.

She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.

The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible.

Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.

You yourselves asked us to do it.

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They recommend this book even though they themselves have
never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have
never read it themselves.
Reciprocal Pronouns
reciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; [grammar] expressing mutual
action
We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting
in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B
is talking to A. So we say:

A and B are talking to each other.

The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I
give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and
the cat bites the dog.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:

each other

one another

When we use these reciprocal pronouns:

there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so

we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and

they must be doing the same thing

Look at these examples:

John and Mary love each other.

Peter and David hate each other.

The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.

Both teams played hard against each other.

We gave each other gifts.

Why don't you believe each other?

They can't see each other.

The gangsters were fighting one another.

149

The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.

You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above
than one another. That's because in general we use each other more
often than one another, which sounds a little formal. Also, some people
say that we should use one another only for three or more people or
things, but there is no real justification for this.
Indefinite Pronouns
That's Not My Job!
This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody
and Nobody.
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or
amount. It is vague and "not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns
are:

all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each,

everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several,
some, somebody/someone
Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of
speech. Look at "another" in the following sentences:

He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)

I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of

them can be singular in one context and plural in another. The most
common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with examples, as singular,
plural or singular/plural.
Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any
personal pronoun should also agree(in number and gender). Look at
these examples:

Each of the players has a doctor.

I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.

Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement:

Many have expressed their views.

pronoun

meaning

example

singular

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another
an additional or different person or thing
was good. Can I haveanother?

That ice-cream

anybody/anyone no matter what person Can anyone answer this

question?
anything
no matter what thing
The doctor needs to know if you
have eaten anything in the last two hours.
each every one of two or more people or things, seen separately Each
has his own thoughts.
either one or the other of two people or things
coffee? / I don't mind. Either is good for me.

Do you want tea or

enough

Enough is enough.

as much or as many as needed

everybody/everyone
all people
becauseeverybody has arrived.

We can start the meeting

everything all things

They have no house or possessions. They lost
everything in the earthquake.
less

a smaller amount "Less is more" (Mies van der Rohe)

little a small amount

Little is know about his early life.

much a large amount

Much has happend since we met.

neither
not one and not the other of two people or things
keep telling Jack and Jill but neitherbelieves me.
nobody/no-one
no person
nobodyanswered.

I phoned many times but

nothing
no single thing, not anything If you don't know the answer
it's best to say nothing.
one an unidentified person Can one smoke here? | All the students
arrived but now one is missing.
other a different person or thing from one already mentioned
was tall and the other was short.
somebody/someone
an unspecified or unknown person
somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.
something an unspecified or unknown thing
something! What could it be?

One

Clearly

Listen! I just heard

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you

an unidentified person (informal)

And you can see why.

plural
both two people or things, seen together John likes coffee but not tea. I
thinkboth are good.
few a small number of people or things Few have ever disobeyed him
and lived.
fewer a reduced number of people or things
these days.

Fewer are smoking

many a large number of people or things Many have come already.

others
before us.

other people; not us

I'm sure that others have tried

several
more than two but not many They all complained and
several left the meeting.
they people in general (informal)
for you.

They say that vegetables are good

singular or plural
all
the whole quantity of something or of some things or people All is
forgiven.
All have arrived.
any

no matter how much or how many

Is any left?

Are any coming?

more a greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or
things
There is more over there.
More are coming.
most the majority; nearly all Most is lost.
Most have refused.
none not any; no person or persons They fixed the water so why is
nonecoming out of the tap?
I invited five friends but none have come.*

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some an unspecified quantity of something; an unspecified number of

people or things Here is some.
Some have arrived.
such of the type already mentioned He was a foreigner and he felt that
he was treated as such.
* Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb, even
when talking about countable nouns (eg five friends). They argue that
"none" means "no one", and "one" is obviously singular. They say that "I
invited five friends but none has come" is correct and "I invited five
friends but none havecome" is incorrect. Historically and grammatically
there is little to support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of
years with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context
and the emphasis required.

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is
called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it
modifies. Here is an example:

The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.

In the above example, "who":

relates to "person", which it modifies

introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"

There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*
Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose
is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and
things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that
are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information).
Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no
difference between male and female.
Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative
clauses:
example sentences
S=subject, O=object, P=possessive notes

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defining

- The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.

- The person that phoned me last night is my teacher. That is preferable

- The car which hit me was yellow.
- The cars that hit me were yellow. That is preferable
O

- The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher.

- The people who I phoned last night are my teachers.

- The person that I phoned last night is my teacher.
- The person I phoned last night is my teacher. Whom is correct but
very formal. The relative pronoun is optional.
- The car which I drive is old.
- The car that I drive is old.
- The car I drive is old. That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun
is optional.
P

- The student whose phone just rang should stand up.

- Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra.

- The police are looking for the car whose driver was
masked.
- The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked.
Of which is usual for things, butwhose is sometimes possible
non-defining

- Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher.

- The car, which was a taxi, exploded.

- The cars, which were taxis, exploded.
O

- Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher.

- Mr and Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, are my teachers.

correct but very formal.Who is normal.

Whom is

- The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught

fire.
P

- My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor.

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- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident,
was completely destroyed.
- The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was
completely destroyed. Of which is usual for things, butwhose is
sometimes possible
*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun.
**Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use
"who/whom"; there is no good reason for such a claim.
Pronoun Case
Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their
function in the sentence. Their function can be:

subjective (they act as the subject)

objective (they act as the object)

possessive (they show possession of something else)

The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on
case.
subjective case
personal pronouns
2nd

you

3rd

he

plural 1st

singular
you

yours

we

us

ours

you

you

yours

objective case

possessive case

1st

mine

me

she
it

him

her
it

his

hers
its

2nd

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3rd

they them theirs

relative/interrogative pronouns
whoever

who

whomwhose

whomever

which/that/what which/that/what
indefinite pronouns

everybody everybody everybody's

A problem of case: Mary and I or Mary and me?

1.

Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)

2.

The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)

In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the
subjective case ("I"). In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the
pronoun takes the objective case ("me"). An easy way to check the
correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say "I am
delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say
"The letter was addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?
Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, Nobody
That's Not My Job!
This is a story about four people named Everybody,Somebody, Anybody
and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that
Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it.
Somebody got angry about that, because it was Everybody's job.
Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that
Everybody wouldn't do it.
It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what
Anybody could have done.

156

Glossary of English Grammar Terms

This glossary of English grammar terms relates to the English language.
Some terms here may have additional or extended meanings when applied
to other languages. For example, "case" in some languages applies to
pronouns and nouns. In English, nouns do not have case and therefore no
reference to nouns is made in its definition here.
Term

Definition

active voice

one of two voices in English; a direct form of expression

where the subject performs or "acts" the verb; see also
passive
voice
eg: "Many people eat rice"

adjective

part of speech that typically describes or "modifies" a

noun
eg: "It was a big dog."

adjective clause

seldom-used term for relative clause

adjunct

word or phrase that adds information to a sentence

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and that can be removed from the sentence without

making
the
sentence
ungrammatical
eg: I met John at school.
adverb

word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another

adverb
eg: quickly, really, very

adverbial clause

dependent clause that acts like an adverb and

indicates such things as time, place or reason
eg: Although we are getting older, we grow more
beautiful each day.

affirmative

statement that expresses (or claims to express) a truth

or
"yes"
meaning;
opposite
of
negative
eg: The sun is hot.

affix

language unit (morpheme) that occurs before or after

(or sometimes within) the root or stem of a word
eg: un- in unhappy (prefix), -ness in happiness (suffix)

agreement
(also
known
"concord")

logical (in a grammatical sense) links between words

as based
on
tense,
case
or
number
eg: this phone, these phones

antecedent

word, phrase or clause that is replaced by a pronoun

(or other substitute) when mentioned subsequently (in
the
same
sentence
or
later)
eg: "Emily is nice because she brings me flowers."

appositive

noun phrase that re-identifies or describes its

neighbouring
noun
eg: "Canada, a multicultural country, is recognized
by its maple leaf flag."

article

determiner that introduces a noun phrase as definite

(the) or indefinite (a/an)

aspect

feature of some verb forms that relates to duration or

completion of time; verbs can have no aspect (simple),
or can have continuous or progressive aspect
(expressing duration), or have perfect or perfective
aspect (expressing completion)

auxiliary
verb verb used with the main verb to help indicate
(also
called something
such
as
tense
or
voice
"helping verb")
eg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim.
bare infinitive

unmarked form of the verb (no indication of tense,

mood, person, or aspect) without the particle "to";
typically used after modal auxiliary verbs; see also
infinitive

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eg: "He should come", "I can swim"

base form

basic form of a verb before conjugation into tenses etc

eg: be, speak

case

form of a pronoun based on its relationship to other

words in the sentence; case can be subjective,
objective
or
possessive
eg: "I love this dog", "This dog loves me", "This is my
dog"

causative verb

verb that causes things to happen such as "make",

"get" and "have"; the subject does not perform the
action
but
is
indirectly
responsible
for
it
eg: "She made me go to school", "I had my nails
painted"

clause

group of words containing a subject and its verb

eg: "It was late when he arrived"

comparative,
comparative
adjective

form of an adjective or adverb made with "-er" or

"more" that is used to show differences or similarities
between two things (not three or more things)
eg: colder, more quickly

complement

part of a sentence that completes or adds meaning to

the
predicate
eg: Mary did not say where she was going.

compound noun

noun that is made up of more than one word; can be

one word, or hyphenated, or separated by a space
eg: toothbrush, mother-in-law, Christmas Day

compound
sentence

sentence with at least two independent clauses;

usually
joined
by
a
conjunction
eg: "You can have something healthy but you can't
have more junk food."

concord

another term for agreement

conditional

structure in English where one action depends on

another ("if-then" or "then-if" structure); most common
are
1st,
2nd,
and
3rd
conditionals
eg: "If I win I will be happy", "I would be happy if I won"

conjugate

to show the different forms of a verb according to

voice, mood, tense, number and person; conjugation is
quite simple in English compared to many other
languages
eg: I walk, you walk, he/she/it walks, we walk, they
walk; I walked, you walked, he/she/it walked, we
walked, they walked

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conjunction

word that joins or connects two parts of a sentence

eg: Ram likes tea and coffee. Anthony went swimming
although it was raining.

content word

word that has meaning in a sentence, such as a verb or

noun (as opposed to a structure word, such as pronoun
or auxiliary verb); content words are stressed in speech
eg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've
LEFT them at HOME"

verb form (specifically an aspect) indicating actions

continuous
that are in progress or continuing over a given time
(also
called period (can be past, present or future); formed with
"progressive")
"BE"
+
"VERB-ing"
eg: "They are watching TV."
contraction

shortening of two (or more) words

eg: isn't (is not), we'd've (we would have)

into

one

countable noun

thing that you can count, such as apple, pen, tree (see
uncountable
noun)
eg: one apple, three pens, ten trees

dangling participle

illogical structure that occurs in a sentence when a

writer intends to modify one thing but the reader
attaches
it
to
another
eg: "Running to the bus, the flowers were blooming."
(In the example sentence it seems that the flowers
were running.)

declarative
sentence

sentence type typically used to make a statement (as

opposed
to
a
question
or
command)
eg: "Tara works hard", "It wasn't funny"

defining
relative relative clause that contains information required for
clause
the understanding of the sentence; not set off with
(also
called commas;
see
also
non-defining
clause
"restrictive relative eg: "The boy who was wearing a blue shirt was the
clause")
winner"
demonstrative
pronoun
demonstrative
adjective

pronoun or determiner that indicates closeness to

(this/these) or distance from (that/those) the speaker
eg: "This is a nice car", "Can you see those cars?"

dependent clause

part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb

but does not form a complete thought and cannot
stand on its own; see also independent clause
eg: "When the water came out of the tap..."

determiner

word such as an article or a possessive adjective or

other adjective that typically comes at the beginning of

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noun
phrases
eg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new
shirt?", "Let's buy some eggs"
direct speech

saying what someone said by using their exact words;

see
also
indirect
speech
eg: "Lucy said: 'I am tired.'"

direct object

noun phrase in a sentence that directly receives the

action of the verb; see also indirect object
eg: "Joey bought the car", "I like it", "Can you see the
man wearing a pink shirt and waving a gun in
the air?"

embedded
question

question that is not in normal question form with a

question mark; it occurs within another statement or
question and generally follows statement structure
eg: "I don't know where he went," "Can you tell me
where it is before you go?", "They haven't decided
whether they should come"

finite verb

verb form that has a specific tense, number and person

eg: I work, he works, we learned, they ran

first conditional

"if-then" conditional structure used for future actions or

events that are seen as realistic possibilities
eg: "If we win the lottery we will buy a car"

fragment

incomplete piece of a sentence used alone as a

complete sentence; a fragment does not contain a
complete thought; fragments are common in normal
speech but unusual (inappropriate) in formal writing
eg: "When's her birthday? - In December", "Will they
come? - Probably not"

function

purpose or "job" of a word form or element in a

sentence
eg: The function of a subject is to perform the action.
One function of an adjective is to describe a noun.
The function of a noun is to name things.

tense* used to describe things that will happen in the

future continuous
future at a particular time; formed with WILL + BE +
(also called "future
VERB-ing
progressive")
eg: "I will be graduating in September."
future perfect

tense* used to express the past in the future; formed

with
WILL
HAVE
+
VERB-ed
eg: "I will have graduated by then"

future
perfect tense* used to show that something will be ongoing
continuous
until a certain time in the future; formed with WILL

161

HAVE
BEEN
+
VERB-ing
eg: "We will have been living there for three months
by the time the baby is born"

future simple

tense* used to describe something that hasn't

happened yet such as a prediction or a sudden
decision;
formed
with
WILL
+
BASE
VERB
eg: "He will be late", "I will answer the phone"

gerund

noun form of a verb, formed

eg: "Walking is great exercise"

gradable adjective

adjective that can vary in intensity or grade when

paired with a grading adverb ; see also non-gradable
adjective
eg: quite hot, very tall

grading adverb

adverb that can modify the intensity or grade of a

gradable
adjective
eg: quite hot, very tall

hanging participle

another term for dangling participle

helping verb

another term for auxiliary verb

imperative

form of verb used when giving a command; formed

with
BASE
VERB
only
eg: "Brush your teeth!"

indefinite pronoun

pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or

amount.
It
is
vague
and
"not
definite".
eg: anything, each, many, somebody

with

VERB-ing

group of words that expresses a complete thought and

independent clause can stand alone as a sentence; see also dependent
(also called "main clause
clause")
eg: "Tara is eating curry.", "Tara likes oranges and
Joe likes apples."

indirect object

noun phrase representing the person or thing indirectly

affected by the action of the verb; see also direct
object
eg: "She showed me her book collection", "Joey bought
his wife a new car"

indirect question

another term for embedded question

indirect
speech saying what someone said without using their exact
(also
called words;
see
direct
speech
"reported speech") eg: "Lucy said that she was tired"
infinitive

base form of a verb preceded by "to"**; see also bare

162

infinitive
eg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be:
that is the question"
inflection

change in word form to indicate grammatical meaning

eg: dog, dogs (two inflections); take, takes, took,
taking, taken (five inflections)

interjection

common word that expresses emotion but has no

grammatical value; can often be used alone and is
often
followed
by
an
exclamation
mark
eg: "Hi!", "er", "Ouch!", "Dammit!"

interrogative

(formal) sentence type (typically inverted) normally

used
when
asking
a
question
eg: "Are you eating?", "What are you eating?"

interrogative
pronoun

pronoun
that
eg: who, whom, which

intransitive verb

verb that does not take a direct object; see also

transitive
verb
e.g. "He is working hard", "Where do you live?"

inversion

any reversal of the normal word order, especially

placing the auxiliary verb before the subject; used in a
variety of ways, as in question formation, conditional
clauses
and
agreement
or
disagreement
eg: "Where are your keys?","Had we watched the
weather report, we wouldn't have gone to the beach",
"So did he", "Neither did she"

asks

question.

verb that has a different ending for past tense and past
irregular
verb
participle forms than the regular "-ed"; see also regular
see irregular verbs
verb
list
eg: buy, bought, bought; do, did, done
lexicon, lexis

all of the words and word forms in a language with

meaning or function

lexical verb

another term for main verb

linking verb

verbs that connect the subject to more information (but

do not indicate action), such as "be" or "seem"

main clause

another term for independent clause

any verb in a sentence that is not an auxiliary verb; a

main
verb
main
verb
has
meaning
on
its
own
(also called "lexical
eg: "Does John like Mary?", "I will have arrived by
verb")
4pm"

163

modal
(also
"modal")

verb auxiliary verb such as can, could, must, should etc;

called paired
with
the
bare
infinitive
of
a
verb
eg: "I should go for a jog"

modifier

word or phrase that modifies and limits the meaning of

another
word
eg: the house => the white house, the house over
there, the house we sold last year

mood

sentence type that indicates the speaker's view

towards the degree of reality of what is being said, for
example subjunctive, indicative, imperative

morpheme

unit of language with meaning; differs from "word"

because
some
cannot
stand
alone
e.g. un-, predict and -able in unpredictable

multi-word verb

verb that consists of a basic verb + another word or

words
(preposition
and/or
adverb)
eg: get up (phrasal verb), believe in (prepositional
verb), get on with (phrasal-prepositional verb)

negative

form which changes a "yes" meaning to a "no"

meaning;
opposite
of
affirmative
eg: "She will not come", "I have never seen her"

nominative case

another term for subjective case

non-defining
relative
clause
(also called "nonrestrictive relative
clause")

relative clause that adds information but is not

completely necessary; set off from the sentence with a
comma or commas; see defining relative clause
eg: "The boy, who had a chocolate bar in his hand,
was still hungry"

non-gradable
adjective

adjective that has a fixed quality or intensity and

cannot be paired with a grading adverb; see also
gradable
adjective
eg: freezing, boiling, dead

non-restrictive
relative clause

another term for non-defining relative clause

noun

part of speech that names a person, place, thing,

quality, quantity or concept; see also proper noun and
compound
noun
eg: "The man is waiting", "I was born in London", "Is
that your car?", "Do you like music?"

noun clause

clause that takes the place of a noun and cannot stand

on its own; often introduced with words such as "that,
who
or
whoever"
eg: "What the president said was surprising"

164

noun phrase (NP)

any word or group of words based on a noun or

pronoun that can function in a sentence as a subject,
object or prepositional object; can be one word or
many words; can be very simple or very complex
eg: "She is nice", "When is the meeting?", "The car
over there beside the lampost is mine"

number

change of word form indicating one person or thing

(singular) or more than one person or thing (plural)
eg: one dog/three dogs, she/they

object

thing or person affected by the verb; see also direct

object
and
indirect
object
eg: "The boy kicked the ball", "We chose the house
with the red door"

objective case

case form of a pronoun indicating

eg: "John married her", "I gave it to him"

part of speech

one of the classes into which words are divided

according
to
their
function
in
a
sentence
eg: verb, noun, adjective

participle

verb form that can be used as an adjective or a noun;

see past participle, present participle

passive voice

one of two voices in English; an indirect form of

expression in which the subject receives the action; see
also
active
voice
eg: "Rice is eaten by many people"

an

object

tense used to talk about an action, event or situation

past
tense
that occurred and was completed in the past
(also called "simple
eg: "I lived in Paris for 10 years", "Yesterday we saw a
past")
snake"
past continuous

tense often used to describe an interrupted action in

the past; formed with WAS/WERE + VERB-ing
eg: "I was reading when you called"

past perfect

tense that refers to the past in the past; formed with

HAD
+
VERB-ed
eg: "We had stopped the car"

tense that refers to action that happened in the past

and continued to a certain point in the past; formed
past
perfect
with
HAD
BEEN
+
VERB-ing
continuous
eg: "I had been waiting for three hours when he
arrived"
past participle

verb form (V3) - usually made by adding "-ed" to the

base verb - typically used in perfect and passive

165

tenses,
and
sometimes
as
an
adjective
eg: "I have finished", "It was seen by many people",
"boiled eggs"
perfect

verb form (specifically an aspect); formed with

HAVE/HAS + VERB-ed (present perfect) or HAD +
VERB-ed (past perfect)

person

grammatical category that identifies people in a

conversation; there are three persons: 1st person
(pronouns I/me, we/us) is the speaker(s), 2nd person
(pronoun you) is the listener(s), 3rd person (pronouns
he/him, she/her, it, they/them) is everybody or
everything else

personal pronoun

pronoun
that
indicates
eg: "He likes my dogs", "They like him"

phrasal verb

multi-word verb formed with a verb + adverb

eg: break up, turn of (see phrasal verbs list)
NB: many people and books call all multi-word verbs
"phrasal verbs" (see multi-word verbs)

phrase

two or more words that have a single function and form

part of a sentence; phrases can be noun, adjective,
adverb, verb or prepositional

plural

of a noun or form indicating more than one person or

thing; plural nouns are usually formed by adding "-s";
see
also
singular,
number
eg: bananas, spoons, trees

position

grammatically correct placement of a word form in a

phrase or sentence in relation to other word forms
eg: "The correct position for an article is at the
beginning of the noun phrase that it describes"

positive

basic state of an adjective or adverb when it shows

quality
but
not
comparative
or
superlative
eg: nice, kind, quickly

possessive
adjective

adjective (also called "determiner") based on a

pronoun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
eg: "I lost my keys", "She likes your car"

possessive case

case form of a pronoun indicating ownership or

possession
eg: "Mine are blue", "This car is hers"

possessive
pronoun

pronoun that indicates ownership or

eg: "Where is mine?", "These are yours"

person

possession

166

predicate

one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a

sentence; the predicate is the part that is not the
subject
eg: "My brother is a doctor", "Who did you call?",
"The woman wearing a blue dress helped me"

prefix

affix that occurs before the root or stem of a word

eg: impossible, reload

preposition

part of speech that typically comes before a noun

phrase and shows some type of relationship between
that noun phrase and another element (including
relationships
of
time,
location,
purpose
etc)
eg: "We sleep at night", "I live in London", "This is for
digging"

prepositional verb

multi-word verb that is formed with verb + preposition

eg: believe in, look after

present participle

-ing form of a verb (except when it is a gerund or

verbal
noun)
eg: "We were eating", "The man shouting at the back
is rude", "I saw Tara playing tennis"

tense usually used to describe states and actions that

are general, habitual or (with the verb "to be") true
present
simple
right now; formed with the basic verb (+ s for 3rd
(also called "simple
person
singular)
present")
eg: "Canada sounds beautiful", "She walks to school",
"I am very happy"
present continuous
(also
called
"present
progressive")

tense used to describe action that is in process now, or

a plan for the future; formed with BE + VERB-ing
eg: "We are watching TV", "I am moving to Canada
next month"

present perfect

tense that connects the past and the present, typically

used to express experience, change or a continuing
situation;
formed
with
HAVE
+
VERB-ed
eg: "I have worked there", "John has broken his leg",
"How long have you been in Canada?"

tense used to describe an action that has recently

stopped or an action continuing up to now; formed with
present
perfect
HAVE
+
BEEN
+
VERB-ing
continuous
eg: "I'm tired because I've been running", "He has
been living in Canada for two years"
progressive

another term for continuous

pronoun

word that replaces a noun or noun phrase; there are

several types including personal pronouns, relative

167

pronouns
and
indefinite
pronouns
eg: you, he, him; who, which; somebody, anything
proper noun

noun that is capitalized at all times and is the name of

a
person,
place
or
thing
eg: Shakespeare, Tokyo, EnglishClub.com

punctuation

standard marks such as commas, periods and question

marks
within
a
sentence
eg: , . ? ! - ; :

quantifier

determiner or pronoun
eg: some, many, all

question tag

final part of a tag question; mini-question at end of a

tag
question
eg: "Snow isn't black, is it?"

question word

another term for WH-word

reciprocal pronoun

pronoun that indicates that two or more subjects are

acting mutually; there are two in English - each other,
one
another
eg: "John and Mary were shouting at each other",
"The students accused one another of cheating"

that

indicates

quantity

construction similar to a relative clause, but containing

reduced
relative
a participle instead of a finite verb; this construction is
clause
possible
only
under
certain
circumstances
(also
called
eg: "The woman sitting on the bench is my sister",
"participial relative
"The people arrested by the police have been
clause")
released"

reflexive pronoun

pronoun ending in -self or -selves, used when the

subject and object are the same, or when the subject
needs
emphasis
eg: "She drove herself", "I'll phone her myself"

regular
verb verb that has "-ed" as the ending for past tense and
see regular verbs past participle forms; see also irregular verb
list
eg: work, worked, worked
relative adverb

adverb that introduces a relative clause; there are four

in English: where, when, wherever, whenever; see
also relative pronoun

relative clause

dependent clause that usually starts with a relative

pronoun such as who or which, or relative adverb such
as
where
eg: "The person who finishes first can leave early"
(defining), "Texas, where my brother lives, is big"
(non-defining)

168

relative pronoun

pronoun that starts a relative clause; there are five in

English: who, whom, whose, which, that; see also
relative adverb

reported speech

another term for indirect speech

restrictive
clause

another term for defining relative clause

relative

second conditional

"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about an

unlikely
possibility
in
the
future
eg: "If we won the lottery we would buy a car"

sentence

largest grammatical unit; a sentence must always

include a subject (except for imperatives) and
predicate; a written sentence starts with a capital letter
and ends with a full stop/period (.), question mark (?)
or exclamation mark (!); a sentence contains a
complete thought such as a statement, question,
request
or
command
eg: "Stop!", "Do you like coffee?", "I work."

series

list
of
items
in
a
sentence
eg: "The children ate popsicles, popcorn and chips"

singular

of a noun or form indicating exactly one person or

thing; singular nouns are usually the simplest form of
the noun (as found in a dictionary); see also plural,
number
eg: banana, spoon, tree

split infinitive

situation where a word or phrase comes between the

particle "to" and the verb in an infinitive; considered
poor
construction
by
some
eg: "He promised to never lie again"

Standard
(S.E.)

English "normal" spelling, pronunciation and grammar that is

used by educated native speakers of English

structure word

subject

word that has no real meaning in a sentence, such as a

pronoun or auxiliary verb (as opposed to a content
word, such as verb or noun); structure words are not
normally
stressed
in
speech
eg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've
LEFT them at HOME"
one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a
sentence; the subject is the part that is not the
predicate; typically, the subject is the first noun phrase
in a sentence and is what the rest of the sentence "is
about"
eg: "The rain water was dirty", "Mary is beautiful",

169

"Who saw you?"

subjective
case
case form of a pronoun indicating
also
called
eg: Did she tell you about her?
"nominative"

subject

subjunctive

fairly rare verb form typically used to talk about events

that are not certain to happen, usually something that
someone wants, hopes or imagines will happen;
formed with BARE INFINITIVE (except past of "be")
eg: "The President requests that John attend the
meeting"

subordinate clause

another term for dependent clause

suffix

affix that occurs after the root or stem of a word

eg: happiness, quickly

superlative,
superlative
adjective

adjective or adverb that describes the extreme degree

of
something
eg: happiest, most quickly

SVO

subject-verb-object; a common word order where the

subject is followed by the verb and then the object
eg: "The man crossed the street"

syntax

sentence structure; the rules about sentence structure

tag question

special construction with statement that ends in a miniquestion; the whole sentence is a tag question; the
mini-question is a question tag; usually used to obtain
confirmation
eg: "The Earth is round, isn't it?", "You don't eat meat,
do you?"

tense

form of a verb that shows us when the action or state

happens (past, present or future). Note that the name
of a tense is not always a guide to when the action
happens. The "present continuous tense", for example,
can be used to talk about the present or the future.

third conditional

"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about a

possible event in the past that did not happen (and is
therefore
now
impossible)
eg: "If we had won the lottery we would have bought a
car"

transitive verb

action verb that has a direct object (receiver of the

action);
see
also
intransitive
verb
eg: "The kids always eat a snack while they watch TV"

uncountable nouns thing that you cannot count, such as substances or

170

(also called "mass

concepts;
see
also
nouns" or "noneg: water, furniture, music
count")

countable

nouns

usage

way in which words and constructions are normally

used in any particular language

V1, V2, V3

referring to Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3 - being the base,

past and past participle that students typically learn for
irregular
verbs
eg: speak, spoke, spoken

verb

word that describes the subject's action or state and

that we can change or conjugate based on tense and
person
eg: (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin

voice

form of a verb that shows the relation of the subject to

the action; there are two voices in English: active,
passive

WH-question

question using a WH-word and expecting an answer

that is not "yes" or "no"; WH-questions are "open"
questions;
see
also
yes-no
question
eg: Where are you going?

WH-word
word that asks a WH-question; there are 7 WH-words:
(also
called
who, what, where, when, which, why, how
"question word")
word order

order or sequence in which words occur within a

sentence; basic word order for English is subject-verbobject or SVO

yes-no question

question to which the answer is yes or no; yes-no

questions are "closed" questions; see also WH-question
eg: "Do you like coffee?"

zero conditional

"if-then" conditional structure used when the result of

the condition is always true (based on fact)
eg: "If you dial O, the operator comes on"

* note that technically English does not have a real future tense
** some authorities consider the base form of the verb without "to" to be the
true infinitive
3. English Grammar Terms Glossary of English Grammar Terms
4. English Grammar Terms (short version) Glossary of English
Grammar Terms
English Grammar Terms
Active Voice: In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action
(eg They killed the President). See also Passive Voice.

171

Adjective: A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a
noun or pronoun.
Adverb: A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a
verb.
Article: The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the.
Auxiliary Verb: A verb that is used with a main verb. Be, do and have are
auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc are modal auxiliary verbs.
Clause: A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It
was late when he arrived).
Conjunction: A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for
example: and, but, if).
Infinitive: The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.
Interjection: An exclamation inserted into an utterance without
grammatical connection (for example: oh!, ah!, ouch!, well!).
Modal Verb: An auxiliary verb like can, may, must etc that modifies the
main verb and expresses possibility, probability etc. It is also called "modal
auxiliary verb".
Noun: A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of
an object, concept, person or place. A "concrete noun" is something you can
see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract noun" is something that you
cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun" is
something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, dollar). An
"uncountable noun" is something that you cannot count (for example:
water, music, money).
Object: In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action
of the verb. In the passive voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the
action of the verb.
Participle: The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the
"present participle". The -ed form is called the "past participle" (for irregular
verbs, this is column 3).
Part Of Speech: One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb,
adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Passive Voice: In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the
verb (eg The President was killed). See also Active Voice.
Phrase: A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (eg on the
table, the girl in a red dress).
Predicate: Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a
predicate. The predicate is what is said about the subject.
Preposition: A word like at, to, in, over etc. Prepositions usually come
before a noun and give information about things like time, place and
direction.
Pronoun: A word like I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun.
Sentence: A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a
statement, question, exclamation or command. A sentence contains or
implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must contain
a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and
ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
Subject: Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a
predicate. The subject is the main noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about
which something is said.
Tense: The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens
(past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a
guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for
example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.

172

Verb: A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an
action or state.

Regular Verbs List

There are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is
a list of 600 of the more common regular verbs. Note
that there are some spelling variations in American
English (for example, "practise" becomes "practice" in
American English).
See also irregular verbs list

accept
add
admire
admit
advise
afford
agree
alert
back
bake
balance
ban
bang

allow
amuse
analyse
announce
annoy
answer
apologise
appear
beg
behave
belong
bleach
bless

applaud
apprecia
te
approve
argue
arrange
arrest
arrive

ask

boil
bolt
bomb
book
bore

attach
attack
attempt
attend
attract

avoid

branch
breathe
bruise
brush
bubble

173

bare
bat
bathe
battle

blind
blink
blot
blush

borrow
bounce
bow
box

beam

boast

brake

calculat
e
call
camp
care
carry
carve
cause
challen
ge
change
charge
chase
cheat
check
cheer

choke
chop
claim
clap
clean
clear
clip
close
coach
coil
collect
colour
comb
command

compare
compete
complai
n
complet
e
concentr
ate
concern
confess
confuse
connect
consider
consist
contain
continue
copy

correct

disappro
ve
disarm
discover
dislike
divide
double
doubt
drag
drain

dream

chew
dam
damag
e
dance
dare
decay
deceive
decide
decorat
e
delay

communi
cate

deliver
depend
describe
desert
deserve
destroy
detect
develop
disagree

disappear

bump
burn
bury

buzz

cough
count
cover
crack
crash
crawl
cross
crush
cry
cure
curl
curve

cycle

dress
drip
drop
drown
drum
dry

dust

174

delight

earn
educate
embarr
ass
employ
empty

end
enjoy
enter
entertain
escape

excite
excuse
exercise
exist
expand

examine

expect

flash
float
flood
flow
flower
fold
follow

encour
age

face
fade
fail
fancy
fasten
fax
fear

fetch
file
fill
film
fire
fit
fix

fence

flap

fool

gather
gaze
glow

grab
grate
grease

grin
grip
groan

glue

greet

guarant
ee

hamme
r
hand
handle
hang
happen

harm
hate
haunt
head
heal

heat
help
hook
hop
hope

heap

hover

increase
influence
inform

intend
interest
interfere

harass

identify
ignore
imagine

explain
explode

extend

force
form
found
frame
frighten

fry

guard
guess

guide

hug
hum
hunt

hurry

invite
irritate

itch

175

impress
improv
e

include

inject
injure
instruct

interrup
t
introduc
e

invent

jail

jog

joke

juggle

jam

join

judge

jump

kick

kiss

knit

knot

kill

kneel

knock

lighten
like
list
listen

learn
level
license
lick

label
land
last
laugh

load
lock
long
look

launch

lie

live

love

man
manag
e
march
mark
marry
match

matter
measure
meddle
melt
memoris
e
mend

move
muddle
mug
multiply

milk
mine
miss
mix
moan
moor

murder

mourn

mate

mess up

nail

need

nod

notice

name

nest

note

number

offer
open

obtain
occur

obey
object

offend

order

observe

overflo
w
owe

own

prevent

pack

permit

pop

176

paddle
paint
park
part
pass
paste
pat
pause
peck
pedal
peel
peep

phone
pick
pinch
pine
place
plan
plant
play
please
plug
point
poke

possess
post
pour
practise
pray
preach
precede
prefer
prepare
present
preserve
press

perfor
m

polish

pretend

questio
n

queue

race
radiate
rain
raise
reach
realise
receive
recogni
se
record
reduce

refuse
regret
reign
reject
rejoice
relax
release
rely
remain
remembe
r

remove
repair
repeat
replace
reply
report
reprodu
ce
request
rescue
retire

reflect

remind

return

sack
sail
satisfy
save
saw
scare

shiver
shock
shop
shrug
sigh
sign

soothe
sound
spare
spark
sparkle
spell

prick
print
produce
progra
m
promise
protect
provide
pull
pump
punch
punctur
e
punish

push

rhyme
rinse
risk
rob
rock
roll
rot
rub
ruin
rule

rush

stop
store
strap
strengt
hen
stretch

177

scatter
scold
scorch
scrape
scratch
scream
screw
scribble
scrub
seal
search
separat
e
serve
settle
shade
share
shave

signal
sin
sip
ski
skip
slap
slip
slow
smash
smell
smile
smoke
snatch
sneeze
sniff
snore
snow

spill
spoil
spot
spray
sprout
squash
squeak
squeal
squeeze
stain
stamp
stare
start
stay
steer
step
stir

soak

stitch

shelter
talk
tame
tap
taste
tease
telepho
ne
tempt
terrify
test

thaw
tick
tickle
tie
time
tip
tire
touch
tour
tow

trace
trade
train
transpor
t
trap
travel
treat
tremble
trick

trip

thank

undress

unite

unpack

unfaste
n

unlock

untidy

strip
stroke
stuff
subtract
succeed
suck
suffer
suggest
suit
supply
support
suppos
e
surprise
surroun
d
suspect
suspen
d

switch

trot
trouble
trust
try
tug
tumble
turn
twist

type

use

178

vanish

visit

waste
watch
water
wave
weigh
welcome
whine

wail
wait
walk
wander
want
warm
warn

whirl
whisper
whistle
wink
wipe
wish
wobble

wash

whip

wonder

x-ray

yawn

yell

zip

zoom

work
worry
wrap
wreck
wrestle

wriggle

Irregular Verbs List

This is a list of some irregular verbs in English. Of
course, there are many others, but these are the more
common irregular verbs.
See also regular verbs list
V1
V2
Base Form Past Simple

V3
Past Participle

awake

awoke

awoken

be

was, were

been

beat

beat

beaten

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

bend

bent

bent

179

bet

bet

bet

bid

bid

bid

bite

bit

bitten

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

brought

broadcast

broadcast

broadcast

build

built

built

burn

burned/burnt

burned/burnt

buy

bought

bought

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

come

came

come

cost

cost

cost

cut

cut

cut

dig

dug

dug

do

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

dream

dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt

drive

drove

driven

drink

drank

drunk

180

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feel

felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

fly

flew

flown

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgive

forgave

forgiven

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

got (sometimes gotten)

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

hang

hung

hung

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

hid

hidden

hit

hit

hit

hold

held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

181

know

knew

known

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

learn

learned/learnt

learned/learnt

leave

left

left

lend

lent

lent

let

let

let

lie

lay

lain

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

mean

meant

meant

meet

met

met

pay

paid

paid

put

put

put

read

read

read

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

182

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

show

showed

showed/shown

shut

shut

shut

sing

sang

sung

sit

sat

sat

sleep

slept

slept

speak

spoke

spoken

spend

spent

spent

stand

stood

stood

swim

swam

swum

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

throw

threw

thrown

understand

understood

understood

wake

woke

woken

wear

wore

worn

win

won

won

183

write

wrote

written

184