Graphs, Linear Equations, and

Functions

3-1
3-2
3-3
3-5

The Rectangular Coordinate System

The Slope of a Line
Linear Equations in two variables
Introduction to Functions

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Plotting ordered pairs.

An ordered pair of numbers is a pair of
numbers written within parenthesis in which
the order of the numbers is important.
Example 1: (3,1), (-5,6), (0,0) are ordered pairs.
Note: The parenthesis used to represent an ordered pair are also
used to represent an open interval. The context of the problem tells
whether the symbols are ordered pairs or an open interval.
Graphing an ordered pair requires the use of graph paper and the
use of two perpendicular number lines that intersect at their 0 points.
The common 0 point is called the origin. The horizontal number
line is referred to as the x-axis or abscissa and the vertical line is
referred to as the y-axis or ordinate. In an ordered pair, the first
number refers to the position of the point on the x-axis, and the
second number refers to the position of the point on the y-axis.
2

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Plotting ordered pairs.

The x-axis and the y-axis
make up a rectangular or
Cartesian coordinate
system.
Points are graphed by moving the
appropriate number of units in the x
direction, than moving the appropriate
number of units in the y direction.
(point A has coordinates (3,1), the point
was found by moving 3 units in the
positive x direction, then 1 in the
positive y direction)
The four regions of the graph are called
quadrants. A point on the x-axis or yaxis does not belong to any quadrant
(point E). The quadrants are numbered.
3

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Finding ordered pairs that satisfy a given

equation.
To find ordered pairs that satisfy an equation, select any
number for one of the variables, substitute into the equation that
value, and solve for the other variable.
Example 2: For 3x 4y = 12, complete the table shown:
Solution
Given:
Equation
Solution
X
Y
0
0
-12
-4

x=0

3x - 4y =12
3(0) -4y = 12

y = -3

y=0

3x - 4(0) =12

x=4

y = -12

3x - 4(-12) = 12

x = -12

x = -4

3(-4) -4y = 12

y = -6

X
0
4

Y
-3
0

-12

-12

-4

-6
4

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Graphing lines:
Since an equation in two variables is satisfied with
an infinite number of ordered pairs, it is common
practice to graph an equation to give a picture of
the solution.
Note: An equation like 2x +3y = 6 is called a first degree

equation because it has no term with a variable to a power

greater than 1.
The graph of any first degree equation in two variable is a
straight line.
A linear equation in two variable can be written in the
form: Ax + By = C, where A,B and C are real numbers
(A and B both not zero). This form is called the Standard
Form.
5

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Graphing lines:
Example 3: Draw the graph of 2x + 3y = 6
Step 1: Find a table of ordered pairs that satisfy the equation.
Step 2: Plot the points on a rectangular coordinate system.
Step 3: Draw the straight line that would pass through the
points.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Finding Intercepts:
In the equation of a line, let y = 0 to find the x-intercept and
let x = 0 to find the y-intercept.
Note: A linear equation with both x and y variables will have
both x- and y-intercepts.
Example 4: Find the intercepts and draw the graph of 2x y = 4
x-intercept: Let y = 0 : 2x 0 = 4
2x = 4
x=2
y-intercept: Let x = 0 : 2(0) y = 4 -y = 4
y = -4
x-intercept is (2,0)
y-intercept is (0,-4)

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Finding Intercepts:
In the equation of a line, let y = 0 to find the x-intercept and
let x = 0 to find the y-intercept.
Example 5: Find the intercepts and draw the graph of 4x y = -3
x-intercept: Let y = 0 : 4x 0 = -3
4x = -3
x = -3/4
y-intercept: Let x = 0 : 4(0) y = -3 -y = -3
y=3

3
x-intercept is (- , 0)
4
y-intercept is (0,3)

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Recognizing equations of vertical and

horizontal lines:
An equation with only the variable x will always intersect the xaxis and thus will be vertical.
An equation with only the variable y will always intersect the yaxis and thus will be horizontal.
Example 6: A) Draw the graph of y = 3
B) Draw the graph of x + 2 = 0
x = -2
A)

B)

3-1 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Graphing a line that passes through the

origin:
Some lines have both the x- and y-intercepts at the origin.
Note: An equation of the form Ax + By = 0 will always pass
through the origin. Find a multiple of the coefficients of x and y
and use that value to find a second ordered pair that satisfies the
equation.
Example 7:
A) Graph x + 2y = 0

10

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Finding the slope of a line given two

points on the line:
The slope of the line through two distinct points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is:

rise change in y y2 - y1
slope = m =
=
=
run change in x x2 - x1

( x 2 x1 )

Note: Be careful to subtract the y-values and the x-values in the

same order.
Correct
Incorrect

y2 - y1
y1 - y2
or
x2 - x1
x1 - x2

y2 - y1
y1 - y2
or
x1 - x2
x2 - x1
11

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Finding the slope of a line given two points on

the line:
Example 1) Find the slope of the line through the points
(2,-1) and (-5,3)

rise y2 - y1 3 - (-1)
4
4
slope = m =
=
=
=
=run x2 - x1 (-5) - 2 -7
7

12

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Finding the slope of a line given an equation of

the line: The slope can be found by solving the
equation such that y is solved for on the left
side of the equal sign. This is called the slopeintercept form of a line. The slope is the
coefficient of x and the other term is the yintercept. The slope-intercept form is
y = mx + b
Example 2) Find the slope of the line given 3x 4y = 12

3 x - 4 y = 12
-4 y = -3 x + 12
3
y = x-3
4

3
\ The slope is
4
13

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Finding the slope of a line given an equation of

the line:
Example 3) Find the slope of the line given y + 3 = 0
y = 0x - 3
\The slope is 0

Example 4) Find the slope of the line given x + 6 = 0

Since it is not possible to solve for y, the slope is Undefined
Note: Being undefined should not be described as no slope
Example 5) Find the slope of the line given 3x + 4y = 9

3x + 4 y = 9
3
4 y = -3 x + 9 \ The slope is - 4
3
9
y =- x+
4
4

14

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Graph a line given its slope and a point on the

line: Locate the first point, then use the slope
to find a second point.
Note: Graphing a line requires a minimum of two points. From the
first point, move a positive or negative change in y as indicated by the
value of the slope, then move a positive value of x.
Example 6) Graph the line given
2
slope =
passing through (-1,4)
3
Note: change in y is +2

15

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Graph a line given its slope and a point

on the line: Locate the first point, then use the
slope to find a second point.
Example 7) Graph the line given
slope = -4 passing through (3,1)
Note:

A positive slope indicates the line moves up from L to R

A negative slope indicates the line moves down from L to R
16

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Using slope to determine whether two lines are

parallel, perpendicular, or neither:
Two non-vertical lines having the same slope are parallel.
Two non-vertical lines whose slopes are negative reciprocals
are perpendicular.

Example 8) Is the line through (-1,2) and (3,5) parallel to the line
through (4,7) and (8,10)?

For line 1:
5-2
3
m1 =
=
3 - (-1) 4
\ YES

For line 2:
10 - 7 3
m2 =
=
8-4 4

17

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Using slope to determine whether two lines are

parallel, perpendicular, or neither:
Two non-vertical lines having the same slope are parallel.
Two non-vertical lines whose slopes are negative reciprocals are perpendicular.

Example 9) Are the lines 3x + 5y = 6 and 5x - 3y = 2 parallel,

perpendicular, or neither?

For line 1:
For line 2:
3x + 5 y = 6
5x - 3 y = 2
5 y = -3 x + 6
- 3 y = -5 x + 2
3
6
5
2
y =- x+
y = x5
5
3
3
3
5
- is the negative reciprocal of
5
3
\ Perpendicular

18

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Solving Problems involving average rate

of change: The slope gives the average rate of change in y

per unit change in x, where the value of y depends on x.

Example 10) The graph shown approximates the percent of
US households owing multiple pcs in the years 1997-2001.
Find the average rate of change between years 2000 and 1997.

Use the ordered pairs:

(1997,10) and (2000,20.8)
20.8 - 10
10.8
%
m=
=
= 3.6
2000 - 1997
3
yr

19

3-2 The Slope of a Line

Solving Problems involving average rate

of change: The slope gives the average rate of change in y

per unit change in x, where the value of y depends on x.

Example 11) In 1997, 36.4 % of high school students smoked.
In 2001, 28.5 % smoked.
Find the average rate of change in percent per year.

Use the ordered pairs:

(1997,36.4) and (2001,28.5)
28.5 - 36.4 -7.9
%
m=
=
= -1.975
2001 - 1997
4
yr
20

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Writing an equation of a line given its slope

and y-intercept: The slope can be found by
solving the equation such that y is solved for
on the left side of the equal sign. This is called
the slope-intercept form of a line. The slope is
the coefficient of x and the other term is the yintercept.
The slope-intercept form is y = mx + b, where
m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
Example 1: Find an equation of the line with slope 2 and yintercept (0,-3)
Since m = 2 and b = -3,

y = 2x - 3
21

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Graphing a line using its slope and yintercept:

Example 2: Graph the line using the slope and yintercept: y = 3x - 6
Since b = -6, one point on the line is (0,-6).
Locate the point and use the slope (m = 3 ) to locate a
1
second point.
(0+1,-6+3)=
(1,-3)

22

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Writing an equation of a line given its

slope and a point on the line: The Point-

Slope form of the equation of a line with slope m and passing

through the point (x1,y1) is:

y - y1 = m(x - x1)

where m is the given slope and x1 and y1 are the respective values of the given point.

Example 3: Find an equation of a line with slope 2 and a

given point (3,-4) y - y1 = m( x - x1 )
5
2
( x - 3)
5
2
6
y+4= x5
5
2
6 20 2
26
y = x- = x5
5 5 5
5
5 y = 2 x - 26 or in standard form 2 x - 5 y = 26
y - (-4) =

23

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Writing an equation of a line given two

points on the line: The standard form for a line was

defined as Ax + By = C.
Example 4: Find an equation of a line with passing through
the points (-2,6) and (1,4). Write the answer in standard form.
4-6
-2
2
Step 1: Find the slope:
m=
=
=1 - (-2)
3
3
Step 2: Use the point-slope
y - y1 = m( x - x1 )
method:
2
y - 6 = - ( x - (-2))
3
2
4
y-6 = - x3
3
2
4 18
2
14
y =- x- +
=- x+
3
3 3
3
3
3 y = -2 x + 14 or 2 x + 3 y = 14

24

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Finding equations of Parallel or

Perpendicular lines:

If parallel lines are required, the slopes are identical.

If perpendicular lines are required, use slopes that are
negative reciprocals of each other.
Example 5: Find an equation of a line passing through the
point (-8,3) and parallel to 2x - 3y = 10.
Step 1: Find the slope

Step 2: Use the point-slope method

y - y1 = m( x - x1 )

of the given line

2 x - 3 y = 10
-3 y = -2 x + 10
y=

2
10
x3
3

2
( x - (-8))
3
2
16
y-3= x+
3
3
2
16 9 2
25
y = x+ + = x+
3
3 3 3
3
3 y = 2 x + 25 or -2 x + 3 y = 25
y-3=

\ m=

2
3

25

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Finding equations of Parallel or

Perpendicular lines:
Example 6: Find an equation of a line passing through the
point (-8,3) and perpendicular to 2x - 3y = 10.
Step 1: Find the slope
of the given line
2 x - 3 y = 10
-3 y = -2 x + 10
2
10
2
y = x\ m=
3
3
3

Step 2: Take the negative reciprocal

of the slope found

2
3
m=
\ m1 = 3
2

Step 3: Use the point-slope method

y - y1 = m( x - x1 )
3
y - 3 = - ( x - (-8))
2
3
y - 3 = - x - 12
2
3
y = - x -9
2
2 y = -3 x - 18 or 3x + 2 y = -18
26

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Forms of Linear Equations
Equation

Description

When to Use

Y = mx + b

Slope-Intercept Form
slope is m
y-intercept is (0,b)

Given an equation, the slope

and y-intercept can be easily
identified and used to graph

y - y1 = m(x-x 1)

Point-Slope Form
slope is m
line passes through (x 1,y1)

This form is ideal to use when

given the slope of a line and
one point on the line or given
two points on the line.

Standard Form
(A,B, and C are integers, A 0)
Slope is -(A/B)
x-intercept is (C/A,0)
y-intercept is (0,C/B)
Horizontal line
slope is 0
y-intercept is (0,b)

X- and y-intercepts can be found

quickly

Ax + By = C

y=b

x=a

Vertical line
slope is undefined
x-intercept is (a,0)

Graph intersects only the y

axis, is parallel to the x-axis
Graph intersects only the x
axis, is parallel to the y-axis

27

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Writing an equation of a line that

models real data: If the data changes at a fairly
constant rate, the rate of change is the slope. An initial
condition would be the y-intercept.

Example 7: Suppose there is a flat rate of $.20 plus a

charge of $.10/minute to make a phone call. Write an
equation that gives the cost y for a call of x minutes.
Note: The initial condition is the flat rate of $.20 and the
rate of change is $.10/minute.
Solution:

y = .10x + .20
28

3-3 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Writing an equation of a line that

models real data: If the data changes at a fairly
constant rate, the rate of change is the slope. An initial
condition would be the y-intercept.
Example 8: The percentage of mothers of children
under 1 year old who participated in the US labor force
is shown in the table. Find an equation that models the
data.
Year
Percent
Using (1980,38) and (1998,50)
1980
38

59 - 38
21
m=
=
1998 - 1980 18
m = 1.167

1984
1988
1992
1998

47
51
54
59

\ y = 1.167 x + 38
29

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Defining and Identifying Relations

and Functions: If the value of the variable y

depends upon the value of the variable x, then y is the

dependent variable and x is the independent variable.
Example 1: The amount of a paycheck depends upon
the number of hours worked. Then an ordered pair
(5,40) would indicate that if you worked 5 hours, you
would be paid $40. Then (x,y) would show x as the
independent variable and y as the dependent variable.
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
{(5,40), (10,80), (20,160), (40,320)} is a relation.

30

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Defining and Identifying Relations and Functions:

A function is a relation such that for each value of the
independent variable, there is one and only one value of the
dependent variable.
Note: In a function, no two ordered pairs can have the same
1st component and different 2nd components.
Example 2: Determine whether the relation is a function
{(-4,1), (-2,1), (-2,0)}
Solution: Not a function, since the independent variable
has more than one dependent value.

31

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Defining and Identifying Relations and Functions:

Since relations and functions are sets of ordered pairs, they
can be represented as tables or graphs. It is common to
describe the relation or function using a rule that explains the
relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
Note: The rule may be given in words or given as an equation.
y = 2x + 4
where x is the independent variable
and y is the dependent variable
x
0
2
4
6

y
4
8
12
16
32

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Domain and Range:

In a relation:
A) the set of all values of the independent variable (x) is the domain.
B) the set of all values of the dependent variable (y) is the range.
Example 3: Give the domain and range of each relation. Is the
relation a function?
{(3,-1), (4,-2),(4,5), (6,8)}
Domain: {3,4,6}
Range: {-1,-2,5,8}
Not a function
Example 4: Give the domain and range of each relation. Is the
relation a function?
x
y
Domain: {0,2,4,6}
0
4
Range: {4,8,12,16}
2
4
6

8
12
16

33

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Domain and Range:

In a relation:
A) the set of all values of the independent variable (x) is the domain.
B) the set of all values of the dependent variable (y) is the range.
Example 4: Give the domain and range of each relation. Is the
relation a function?
Domain:
{1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999}
Range:
{24134,33786,44043,55312,69209,86047}
This is a function

Cell Phone Users

Subscribers
Year
(thousands)
1994
24,134
1995
33,786
1996
44,043
1997
55,312
1998
69,209
1999
86,047

34

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Domain and Range:
In a relation:
A) the set of all values of the independent variable (x) is the
domain.
B) the set of all values of the dependent variable (y) is the range.
Example 5: Give the domain and range of each relation.
Domain: (-, )
Domain: [-4, 4]
Range: (-, 4]
Range: [-6, 6]

35

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Agreement on Domain:
Unless specified otherwise, the domain of a relation is assumed
to be all real numbers that produce real numbers when
substituted for the independent variable.
The function

1
y=
x

has all real numbers except x = 0

Note: In general, the domain of a function defined by an
algebraic expression is all real numbers except those numbers
that lead to division by zero or an even root of a negative
number.
2
The function y = 3 x - 2 is not defined for values <

36

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Identifying functions defined by graphs

and equations:

Vertical Line Test:

If every vertical line intersects the graph of a relation
in no more than one point, the relation represents a
function .

37

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Identifying functions defined by graphs and

equations:
Vertical Line Test:
If every vertical line intersects the graph of a relation in no
more than one point, the relation represents a function.

Function

Not a Function

38

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Identifying functions defined by graphs and

equations:

Example 5: Decide whether the equations shown define a function and give
the domain

y = 3x - 2

y=

5
x -1

y2 = x

Function

Function

Not a Function

Domain:

Domain:

Domain:

2
3 ,

( -,1) U (1, )

[0, )

39

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Using Function Notation:

When a rule or equation is defined such that y is dependent on
x, the Function Notation y = f(x) is used and is read as y = f
of x where the letter f stands for function.
Note: The symbol f(x) does not indicate that f is multiplied by
x, but represents the y-value for the indicated x-value.
If y = 9x -5, then f(x) = 9x -5 and f(2) = 9(2) -5 = 13
and f(0) = 9(0) -5 = -5
Example 6:

-3 x + 5
2
Find : f (-3) and f (r )
f ( x) =

-3(-3) + 5 9 + 5 14
=
=
=7
2
2
2
-3r + 5
f (r ) =
2
f (-3) =

40

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Using Function Notation:

When a rule or equation is defined such that y is dependent on

x, the Function Notation y = f(x) is used and is read as y = f
of x where the letter f stands for function.
Example 7: f(x) = 5x -1 find: f(m + 2)
f(m + 2) = 5(m + 2) -1 = 5m + 10 - 1
f(m + 2) = 5m + 9
Example 8: Rewrite the equation given and find f(1) and f(a)
x2 - 4 y = 3
Find : f (1) and f (a )
Find : f (1) and f (a )

-4 y = - x + 3
2

x2 - 3
y=
4
x2 - 3
f ( x) =
4

(1)2 - 3 -2
1
f (1) =
=
=4
4
2
a2 - 3
f (a ) =
4
41

3-5 Introduction to Functions

Identifying Linear Functions:

A function that can be defined by f(x) = mx + b for real

numbers m and b is a Linear Function
The domain of a linear function is (-, ).
The range is (-, ).
Note: Remember that m represents the slope of a line and (0,b)
is the y-intercept.
Note:

A function that can be defined by f(x) = b is called a Constant

Function which has a graph that is a horizontal line.
Note:

The range of a constant function is {b}.

42