Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Digital Control Systems
Uploaded by
cooperroverCopyright
Available Formats
Share this document
Did you find this document useful?
Is this content inappropriate?
Report this DocumentCopyright:
Available Formats
Digital Control Systems
Uploaded by
cooperroverCopyright:
Available Formats
= 200 are selected. The plot of Lm 1/H:(jw)He( jw) $
—54 dB, where |C(jw)/D( jw)| ~ |1/He( jw)He(jw)| over the range 0 < w < we =
10 rad/s, is shown in Fig. 2.30. This requires that 200K. > 50 x 10’. The open-loop
transfer function of Fig. 2.26 is now
200K -(s + 4)(s + 8)
s*(s + 1)(s + 200)*
(Ke /1250)(0.25s + 1)(0.125s + 1)
* 35 + 10.0055 + 1) 281)
G2(s)H2(s)He(s)
"
The poles and zeros of Eq. (2.81) are plotted in Fig. 2.31. The value of static-loop
sensitivity 200K. = 5 x 10° yields the set of roots
pi = —3.8469 pz = —10.079
p34 = —23.219 + j66.914 ps6 = —270.32 + j95.873
and are shown in Fig. 2.31. This choice of gain results in a satisfactory design; ie.,
Mp = 0.001076 < 0.002 (—54 dB), tp = 0.155 s (<0.2 8), c(t)ss =0,and0 Sw Supe
10 rad/s. Note that the gain can be reduced until either M, = 0.002 with tp < 0.2 s or
tp = 0.2 s with Mp < 0.002 is achieved. Although it is not specified in this problem, the
phase-margin frequency we = 56.2 rad/s must also be taken into account in the design
of a practical system. 2.9 DISTURBANCE REJECTION 6]
Ss
a
ae
&
a
Lm(i/H,H,]
40
20
ok
20k
49h
—60}—
—so
—100
dB
1000
0.1
()
Bode plot for Example 2.5: (a) Straight-line approximations; (b) exact plots.
FIGURE 2.30 62. CONTINUOUS-TIME CONTROL-SYSTEM RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
Lt ! a !
-300 -280 -260 -240 -220 ~200], -180 -160-100 -80 -60 40
FIGURE 2.31
Sketch of root locus for Eq. (2.81) (not to scale).
2.10 SUMMARY
This chapter has presented the standard FOM based upon a simple second-order
continuous-system model. The qualitative correlation among the frequency response,
the root locus, and the time domain for second- and higher-order systems is presented
as an aid in achieving the desired system performance characteristics. That is, the
FOM in conjunction with this correlation are used as a guidepost for evaluating a
system’s performance. A method for adjusting the forward loop gain of a basic unity-
feedback control system to achieve a desired value of Mj, by use of Nichol’s chart is
developed. When the desired FOM cannot be achieved by the basic system—by mere
gain adjustment—then one of the compensation design procedures, discussed in this
chapter, may be employed to try to achieve these FOM. A discussion of synthesizing
desired tracking- and disturbance-control ratio models is also included. These models
are utilized in many compensation design techniques as an aid to achieving the de-
sired FOM. In the following chapters the controller design approaches presented in
this chapter are applied to sampled-data systems. CHAPTER.
3
LINEAR
SYSTEMS AND
THE SAMPLING
PROCESS
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The mathematical techniques used in this text are based upon the model of linear time-
invariant (LTI) systems. Therefore, unless stated otherwise, from here on only LTI
systems are considered. Section 1.2 introduces the concept of the sampling process,
as illustrated in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. As presented, a sampled continuous signal yields
a signal in the form of discrete values. This chapter develops the sampling process
in more detail and introduces the reality of sampling-time selection. Also, it presents
time- and frequency-domain representations of sampled-data systems in terms of linear
equations, as well as techniques for continuous-signal reconstruction from a sampled
signal by means of a data-hold device. In sampled-data control systems, as shown in
Fig. 1.7, where at least one component operates in continuous time, it is necessary
to include a data-hold device to maintain control over the system between sampling
instants.
3.2, LINEAR TIME-INVARIANT (LTI)
SYSTEM
A system is said to be linear if and only if the superposition theorem can be satisfied.
This theorem states that “the output response of an LTI system to a number of si-
multaneously applied inputs is equal to the summation of the system responses when 64 LINEAR SYSTEMS AND THE SAMPLING PROCESS
ra cy (kT) (kT)
|) BtkT)
FIGURE 3.1
Single-input-single-output_ (SISO)
system: (a) Continuous time; (6)
discrete time.
(a) )
each input is applied individually.” For example, consider a single-input-single-output
(SISO) system, as shown in Fig. 3.1(a), whose output is c(t) = ¢;(t) due to an input
r(t) = r)(t). This system is said to be linear if for the input r(t) = a)ri(t) + a2r2(t)
the output is given by
e(t) = aycy(t) + a2c2(t) 3.1)
When a; and a2 are constant real numbers, and c; is the respective output due to ri,
in terms of function notation, the composite output may be expressed as
= flrl= flan + aorel = ai fLfil + af fra] (3.2)
The notation f represents the manner in which the system function g operates on the
input signal or transforms the input signal to yield an output signal.
For the system whose input and output quantitics represent discrete or sampled
quantities, then Eq. (3.2), using the superposition theorem, can be expressed as
(kT) = flarri (kT) + aara(kT)] = a1 flrs(kT)] + anf fr2kT)] 3.3)
The results for a SISO system may be extended to a multiple-input-multiple-
output (MIMO) system having m inputs and p outputs. The m x 1 input column vector
r and the p x 1 output column vector ¢ are expressed, respectively, as
TM C1
T2 C2
r=|. c=
Tm Cp
where r; and cj are the elements of the respective vectors. Therefore, for either a
continuous- or a discrete-time system to be linear, the relationship
= flair) + a2r2) = ai f(t) + offre] (3.4)
where a; and a2 are constant real numbers and r; and r2 are any two input vectors,
must be satisfied. If this relationship is not satisfied, the system is said to be nonlinear.
Example 3.1. The following first-order differential equation describes a system having
the input r(¢):
c(t) = r(t) +a (3.5)
To determine if the system is linear, proceed as follows:
Solution. Consider r(t) = airi(t) + a2r2(t). 32 LINEAR TIME-INVARIANT (LTH SYSTEM 65
Step 1. For ri(t).
canta (3.6)
Step 2. For ro(t), ,
aQ=nta (3.7)
Step 3. For r = air) +a2r2,
c=artar2+a (3.8)
Step 4. Substituting Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7) into Eq. (3.1) yields
c= air) +azrr + (ai taza (3.9)
Step 5. As Eqs. (3.8) and (3.9) are not identical, assuming a + a2 4 1, Eq. (3.5)
is not linear.
The system is nonlinear since Eq. (3.4) is not satisfied.
Example 3.2. An approximation for numerical differentiation [see Eq. (3.33)] of c(t) =
F(t) is given by the discrete-time equation (first-order backward difference)
1
(kT) = = {r(kT) — rk — T}} (3.10)
where T is the constant sampling time of r(t) and k = 0, 1, 2,.... Is Eq. (3.10) a linear
equation representing a linear system?
Solution
Step 1. For ri(kT),
c(kT) = FlMAT) ~ rik ~ DT} (3.11)
Step 2. For r2(kT),
ek) = Ff (rx(K) ~ lth ~ DT) G.12)
Step 3. For r(kT) = ayr\(kT) + a2r2(kT),
c(kT) = Firer) = rik - DTV} + Finan) ~rf(k — TY} (3.13)
Step 4. Substituting Eqs. (3.11) and (3.12) into the discrete version of Eq. (3.1)
yields
(KT) = ayer(kT) + azc2(kT)
FlrAKD) ~ rk = WTI} + Blk) — ral NT G4)
Step 5. As Eqs. (3.13) and (3.14) are identical, Eq. (3.10) is linear.
Example 3.3. To determine if (kT) = r°(kT) is a linear equation proceed as follows. 66 LINEAR SYSTEMS AND THE SAMPLING PROCESS
Path |
System
ra) e() = f[r)] t ey(f- t)
un T*] L POHS ER] delay PTT ete - 97]
{ System
! t [rt — = et - 7)
Le. —E —
| delay ik PFT FP gute — pT = elk - PT]
Path 2
FIGURE 3.2
Time-invariance concept.
Solution
Step 1. For ri(kT),
e(kT) = ri(kT) (3.15)
Step 2. For r2(kT),
ex(kT) = ri(kT) (3.16)
Step 3. For r(kT’) = airi(kT) + a2r2(kT),
e(kT) = abr}(kT) + 2ayayri(kT)r2(kT) + 0373(KT) @.17)
Step 4. Using the discrete version of Eq. (3.1) and substituting Eqs. (3.15) and
(3.16) into it yields
(KT) = ayer(kT) + anex(kT) = ari (KT) + a2r3(kT) (3.18)
Step 5. As Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18) are not identical, the given equation (kT) =
r*(kT) is not linear.
A system is said to be time-invariant when the coefficients of the differential or
difference equation relating the system’s output to its input do not depend upon time.
In general, if a specified input is applied to a given system at any time ¢; or t;, and if
the output responses to each application of this input are the same, the system is said
to be time-invariant. The concept of time invariance can be illustrated by using the
notation of a function with a time delay of r seconds and a block diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.2. The delay in path 1 acts on both the implicit and explicit time variables
in the equation for c(-). The delay in path 2 acts only on the implicit variable in the
equation for c(-). Thus, if the output quantities of path 1 are equal to the corresponding
outputs of path 2, the system is said to be time-invariant; i.e.,
et — 7) = fir -7)] for a continuous-time system (3.19)
e{(k — p)T] = f{rl(k - p)T]} for a discrete-time system (3.20)
where rT = pT and p=1, 2, 3,.... 3.2 LINEAR TIME-INVARIANT (LT) SYSTEM 67.
Example 3.4. To determine if the system described by
(t) + c(t) = tr(t) (3.21) ;
is time-invariant, proceed as follows.
Solution
Path 1.
a(t) + er) = tr(t) > a(t — 7) Felt — 7) = (t- Tr(t—7)
= tr(t—7r)-—7r(t—7) (3.22)
Path 2.
x(t —7)+e(t—7) = trit—7)
= ir(t—1)—7r(t- 7) +7r(t—7) (3.23)
As Eqs. (3.22) and (3.23) are not identical, c(t — r) c(t — 7). Therefore, the system
is not time-invariant.
Example 3.5. The solution for determining if the discrete-time system described by
c(kT) = kT r(kT) is time-invariant is as follows.
Solution
Path 1.
ex(kT) = kT (kT) > ei[(k — p)T] = ((k — p)T rk — p)T) (3.24)
Path 2.
ca[(k — p)T] = kT r{(k — pT}
= [(k — p)TWr[(k — pT) + pT rik — p)T) (3.25)
As Eqs. (3.24) and (3.25) are not identical,
elk — p)T] ¥ eal(k — p)T]
Therefore, the system is not time-invariant.
Example 3.6. Repeat Example 3.5 for the system described by c[(k + IT] — c(kT) =
(kT). As both paths 1 and 2 result in
of(k + 1 — p)T] - ef(k - pT] = r{(k — pT)
the system is said to be time-invariant.
From these examples it can be stated that a continuous (discrete) system is time-
invariant if the variable t(kT) does not explicitly appear in the system’s differential
(difference) equation, i.e., as a coefficient. All system models in this text are assumed
LTI owing to the general techniques used in control-system analysis and synthesis.
Also, most systems can be approximated over some range of operation as LTI. 68 LINEAR SYSTEMS AND THE SAMPLING PROCESS
3.3 SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFFERENCE
EQUATIONS
Sampled-data control systems discrete variables can be modeled by linear difference
equations. In order to simulate or model the continuous-time variables on a digital
computer, it is necessary to develop the methods of discretizing continuous variables,
This section focuses on the use of a difference operator as an approximation to a
differential or integral operator.
Given the set of discrete values c(NT), c[(N — 1)T],...,c(0), where N =
1, 2, , one defines the first-backward difference V as
Ve(NT) = (NT) — c{(N — )T] (3.26)
where c(NT) represents the present value and c[(N — 1)] represents the value one
period behind c(NT) or “backward.” The second-backward difference V* is defined
as
WANT)
VIVe(NT)] = Ve(NT) — Ve[(N — IT]
e(NT) — ef(N — NT] — {el(N — 1)T)] - e{(N - 2)T]}
(NT) = 2cl(N = 1)T] + cf(N - 2)T] 3.27)
and the rth-backward difference V" is defined as
V'ANT) = V9O1e(NT) — VON — 1)T] (3.28)
where r = 1, 2, 3,.... The representation of a sampled-data control system by
difference equations permits its solution on a digital computer.
Example 3.7. Evaluate
t
a= [ er) dr (3.29)
0
by means of a numerical integration technique.! The integral of Eq. (3.29) is approxi-
mated (see Fig. 3.3) by
NT N-1 N-1
(NT) = [ e(r) dr) e(kT) At = So Teter) (3.30)
° k= k=O
where k = 0, 1, 2,...,At =, and N is a constant integer greater than zero. e(kT)
represents a constant function for the time interval kT
You might also like
- Using Labview With Wireless DevicesDocument4 pagesUsing Labview With Wireless DevicescooperroverNo ratings yet
- M. Loeve - Multivariable Control Systems - Springer (4th Ed) (Graduate Texts in Mahematics 46)Document427 pagesM. Loeve - Multivariable Control Systems - Springer (4th Ed) (Graduate Texts in Mahematics 46)cooperroverNo ratings yet
- Clark W Edwin - Elementary Number TheoryDocument129 pagesClark W Edwin - Elementary Number Theoryvelo123No ratings yet
- Modelling Time Series Using Information TheoryDocument5 pagesModelling Time Series Using Information TheorycooperroverNo ratings yet
- pdf139 PDFDocument6 pagespdf139 PDFcooperroverNo ratings yet
- Monte Carlo Simulation in The Stochastic Analysis of Non-Linear SystemsDocument15 pagesMonte Carlo Simulation in The Stochastic Analysis of Non-Linear Systemsgiuseppe_piccar5487No ratings yet
- Mallcalc PDFDocument12 pagesMallcalc PDFcooperroverNo ratings yet
- Malliavin PDFDocument23 pagesMalliavin PDFcooperroverNo ratings yet
- The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good LifeFrom EverandThe Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good LifeRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (5783)
- The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)From EverandThe Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (98)
- Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On ItFrom EverandNever Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On ItRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (838)
- Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of NikeFrom EverandShoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of NikeRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (537)
- The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of CancerFrom EverandThe Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of CancerRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (271)
- Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space RaceFrom EverandHidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space RaceRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (890)
- The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy LivingFrom EverandThe Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy LivingRating: 3.5 out of 5 stars3.5/5 (399)
- Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham LincolnFrom EverandTeam of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham LincolnRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (234)
- Grit: The Power of Passion and PerseveranceFrom EverandGrit: The Power of Passion and PerseveranceRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (587)
- Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New AmericaFrom EverandDevil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New AmericaRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (265)
- A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True StoryFrom EverandA Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True StoryRating: 3.5 out of 5 stars3.5/5 (231)
- On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New DealFrom EverandOn Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New DealRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (72)
- Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic FutureFrom EverandElon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic FutureRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (474)
- The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy AnswersFrom EverandThe Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy AnswersRating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (344)
- The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New AmericaFrom EverandThe Unwinding: An Inner History of the New AmericaRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (45)
- The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first CenturyFrom EverandThe World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first CenturyRating: 3.5 out of 5 stars3.5/5 (2219)
- The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You AreFrom EverandThe Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You AreRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (1090)
- The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)From EverandThe Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars4.5/5 (119)
- Her Body and Other Parties: StoriesFrom EverandHer Body and Other Parties: StoriesRating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5 (821)
