Internal Structure of Earth

Low Velocity Zone

Figure: Velocity of seismic waves in the Earth versus depth. S-waves (seismic shear waves) cannot propagate in

The LVZ occurs close to the boundary between the

lithosphere and the asthenosphere in the upper mantle.
It is characterized by unusually low seismic S-wave
velocity compared to the surrounding depth intervals.
It is present between 80-300 km depth. Another zone
referred as ultra-low velocity zone (ULVZ) has been
detected in a thin 50 km layer at the core mantle
boundary. The LVZ shows a reduction in velocity of
about 36% with the effect being more pronounced
with S-waves compared to P-waves.
Transition Zone
The transition zone is part of the Earths mantle and is
located between the lower mantle and the upper mantle
at depth of 410-660 km. The Earths mantle, including the transition zone, consists primarily of
peridotite, an ultramafic igneous rock. The mantle was divided into the upper mantle, transition
zone, and lower mantle as a result of sudden seismic velocity discontinuities at depths of 410660 km.
Conrad Discontinuity

The Conrad discontinuity is boundary between the upper continental crust (SiAl) and the lower
oceanic crust (SiMa). This boundary is observed in various continental regions at a depth of 1520 km, however it is not found in oceanic regions.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity
The Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) is the boundary between crust and the mantle. The
Mohorovicic discontinuity is 5-10 km below the ocean floor and 20-90 km with an average of 35
km beneath typical continents.
Gutenberg Discontinuity
The Gutenberg discontinuity is the border between Mantle and Core. It is at depth of about 2900
km below the surface of earth. At this depth P-waves velocity decreases while S-waves disappear
completely. S-waves shear material and cannot transmit through liquids, so it is believed that the
unit above the discontinuity is solid and the unit below is in a liquid form. This distinct change
marks the boundary between two sections of the earth's interior known as the lower mantle and
the underlying outer core.
Cratons
The term craton is used to distinguish the stable part of the continental crust from regions that are
geologically active and unstable. Cratons are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates
and are composed of ancient crystalline basement rocks, covered by younger sedimentary rock.
Shields
Cratons can be described as shields, in which the basement rock
crops out at the surface. A shield is tectonically a stable area.
Plateforms
Platforms, in which the basement is overlain by sediments and sedimentary rock.
Basement and Cover

Basement is used to define the rocks below a sedimentary platform, which are metamorphic or
igneous in origin. In the same way the sediments and/or sedimentary rocks on top of the
basement can be called cover.
Sedimentary Basins
Sedimentary basins are regions of the earth of long term subsidence creating accommodation
space for infilling by sediments.
Foreland Basin
A foreland basin is a depression that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain belt. Foreland
basins form because the huge mass created by crustal thickening associated with the evolution of
a mountain belt causes the lithosphere to bend, by a process known as lithospheric flexure.
Rift Basin
The down dropped basin formed during rifting because of stretching and thinning of the
continental crust.
Passive Margin Basin
Subsidence along a passive margin is mostly due to long term accumulation of sediments on the
continental shelf.

Trench (Accretionary Wedge)

Downward flexure of the subducting and non subducting plates (sites of accretionary wedges)
Forearc Basin

The area between the accretionary wedge and the magmatic arc, largely caused by the negative
buoyancy of the subducting plate pulling down on the overlying continental crust.

Foreland Basin
A depression caused by the weight of a large mountain
range pushing the adjacent crust below sea level.
Dip Slip Faults
Dip slip faults are faults on which the movement is parallel to the dip of the fault surface.
Normal fault
Normal faults are dip slip faults on which the hanging wall
move down relative to the footwall. This fault motion is caused
by tensional forces and results in extension. Also termed;
normal slip fault, tensional fault or gravity fault.
Detachment Fault
Where the dip of a normal fault's surface is very gentle or
almost flat, it is referred to as a detachment fault or low-angle
normal fault.
Reverse Faults
Reverse faults are dip-slip faults in which the hanging wall
moves up relative to the footwall. This fault motion is caused by
compressional forces and results in shortening.
Thrust Fault

A thrust fault is a reverse having dip greater than 10 and less

than 45 degree.
Strike Slip Fault
In a strike slip fault the movement of blocks along a fault is
horizontal. If the block on the far side of the fault moves to the
left, the fault is called left-lateral (sinstral fault). If the block
on the far side moves to the right, the fault is called rightlateral (dextral fault). The fault motion of a strike slip fault is
caused by shearing forces. Also called transcurrent fault,
lateral fault, tear fault or wrench fault.
Transform Fault
A transform fault is a type of strike slip fault wherein the
relative horizontal slip is accommodating the movement between two ocean ridges or other
tectonic boundaries.
Transfer Fault
Oblique Fault
Oblique faulting suggests both dip slip faulting and strike
slip faulting. It is caused by a combination of shearing and
tension or compressional forces.

Waves and Rays

In a homogeneous, isotropic medium, a seismic wave propagates away from its source at the
same speed in every direction. The wave front is the leading edge of the disturbance. The ray is
the normal to the wave front.
Huygenss Principle
Every point on a wave front can be considered a secondary source of spherical waves and the
position of the wave front after a given time is the envelope of these secondary wave front.
Huygenss construction can be used to explain
reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves.
Fermats Principle
According to Fermat principle, a wave always
follow the minimum path.
Snells Law
Snell's law, is the mathematical expression that
allows us to determine the path, a wave takes as it is reflected or transmitted from one rock layer
into another. The change in direction depends on the ratio of the wave velocities of the two
different rocks. Exact angles of transmission and reflection are given by;
sin1 sin r sin3 sin 2
=
=
=
=p
V P1 V P2
V S1
VS2
p is known as the ray parameter
Critical Angles
Angel at which a wave moves along the boundary of subsurface reflector i.e. no reflection occurs
called critical angel.
Reflection Coefficient
It is a ratio of reflected wave amplitude (
Rc =

A1

) to incidence wave amplitude (

A1 Z 2Z 1
=
A 0 Z 2 + Z1

Rc

is positive when Z 2 > Z 1 and negative when Z 1 > Z 2

R = +1 when Z 1 = 0 and R = -1 when Z 2 = 0

A0

).

R is approach to unity in two cases

When incidence angle = Critical incidence angle
Tangential incidence

Transmission Coefficient
T c=

A2
2 Z1
=
A 0 Z2 + Z 1

Where Z is the acoustic impedance of the layer and is given by Z = V , where V is the Pwave velocity and

the density.

Head Waves
At critical angle a wave move along the boundary of the reflector, such a wave is called head
wave. A head wave refracts at an interface, travelling along it, within the lower medium and
produces oscillatory motion parallel to the interface. This
motion causes a disturbance in the upper medium that is
detected on the surface. The ray associated with this head
wave emerges from the interface at the critical angle. This
phenomenon is the basis of the refraction surveying method.
Reflection Survey
Reflection seismology or seismic reflection is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the
principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected
seismic waves.

Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence

When a seismic wave encounters a boundary between two materials of different acoustic
impedances, some of the energy in the wave will be reflected at the boundary while some of the
energy will be transmitted through the boundary. The amplitude of the reflected wave is
predicted by multiplying the amplitude of the incident wave by the seismic reflection coefficient,
determined by the impedance contrast between the two materials. Similarly, the amplitude of the
incident wave is multiplied by the transmission coefficient to predict the amplitude of the wave
transmitted through the boundary.
Reflection and Transmission at Non-Normal Incidence
The situation becomes much more complicated in the case of non-normal incidence due to mode
conversion between P-waves and S-waves and is described by the Zoeppritz equations. In 1919,
Karl Zoeppritz derived 4 equations that determine the amplitudes of reflected and refracted
waves at a planar interface for an incident P-wave as a function of the angle of incidence and six
independent elastic parameters. These equations have 4 unknowns and can be solved but they do
not give an intuitive understanding for how the reflection amplitudes vary with the rock
properties involved.
Limitations of Seismic reflection Survey

The vertical and horizontal limits of resolution (10-20 Hz and 1/2 Hz)
The presence of noise from electronic and other cultural sources
Out of plane reflections caused by offline geological structures or 3D features
Velocity variations with vertical and horizontal location in the near surface

Seismic Refraction Survey

The seismic refraction method utilizes the refraction of seismic waves on geologic layers and
rock units in order to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure. The
methods depend on the fact that seismic waves have differing velocities in different types of
rock: in addition, the waves are refracted when they cross the boundary between different types
of rocks. The methods enable the general rock types and the approximate depth to strata
boundaries or to bedrock, to be determined.

Condition for Refraction

When V2 < V1 so i1 > i2, in this case refraction will not take place, the wave will be deflected
When V2 > V1, i2 > i1 , when i2 =90 the wave will travel along the interface and refraction will
take place, So i2 is called critical angle

Assumptions and Interpretation of Refraction Travel Time Data

After completion of refraction survey first arrival times are picked from seismograms and plotted
as time verses offset distance, called travel time curves. The interpretation of TX graph provide
the depth and velocity of weathered layer. Assumptions for refraction survey are;

Subsurface composed of stack of layers, separated by plane interfaces

Seismic velocity is uniform in each layer
Layer velocities increase with increase in depth
All ray paths are located in vertical plane, i.e. no 3-D effects with layers dipping out of plane

Critical Distance
Offset at which first refracted wave is appeared. At critical distance we have;

Critical refraction has same travel time as reflection

Angle of reflection same as critical angle

Crossover Distance
Offset at which critical refraction becomes first arrival. Means refracted wave reach earlier than
direct wave.
Two Horizontal Layers
i co=Critical Angel

i co=a sin

Vo
V1

V o=Velocity of 1 st layer

T =1 +

X
V1

V 1=Velocity of 2 nd layer
hO =

X Cross 1 V 1V o
2
V 1+V o

ho =Thickness of 1 st layer
1

= Intercept time

Thickness of Weathering Layer from Travel time and Crossover Distance

Procedure from travel time and critical refraction;

Velocity of layer 1 is calculated by slope of direct arrival

Velocity of layer 2 is calculated by slope of critical refraction
Estimate t i (intercept time) from plot and solve for Z
tV V
Z = 2 i 2 1 22
V 2V 1

At crossover point, travel time of direct and refraction are equal

X cross X cross 2 Z V 22V 21
=
+
V1
V2
V 1V 2
Solve for Z to get, (Depth to interface is always less than half the crossover distance)
Difference between Seismic Refraction and Reflection Survey

Refraction survey measure nearly horizontal density contrasts at depths <100 f whereas

seismic reflection survey measure horizontal to dipping density contrasts at depths >50 f
Seismic refraction is applicable only when seismic velocities of layers increase with

depth whereas, seismic reflection survey can be performed in the presence of LVL
Seismic refraction requires an arrays of 4-5 times more than the depth of investigation
whereas seismic reflection survey can delineate very deep with much less shot energy and

shorter array lengths

In seismic refraction survey only first arrivals are picked while in seismic reflection
survey we identify a complex set of overlapping seismic arrivals, generally by collecting
and filtering multi-fold data from numerous shot points per geophones

The field acquisition and processing time for a given line of seismic reflection survey are

much greater than for seismic refraction survey

Vertical and horizontal resolution for refraction survey is 10-20 and 1/2 percent of depth
respectively whereas for seismic reflection survey, vertical and horizontal resolution are

5-10 and 1/2 percent of depth respectively

The main limitations to seismic reflection are its higher cost than refraction and its
practical limitation to depths > 50 f. At depths < 50 f, reflections arrive at geophones at
nearly the same time as the ground rolls and air blast. Reflections from greater depths
arrive at geophones after the ground roll and air blast have passed, making these deeper
targets easier to detect and delineate

Applications of Seismic Refraction and Reflection Surveys

Seismic Refraction

Rock competence for engineering applications

Depth to bedrock
Groundwater exploration
Crustal structure and tectonics

Seismic Reflection

Detection of subsurface cavities

Shallow stratigraphy
Hydrocarbon exploration
Crustal structure and tectonics

Seismic Waves and Types

Seismic waves are divided into two main categories i.e. Body waves and Surface waves.
A. Body Waves
These are waves which travels inside the body of earth. There are two types of body waves as
discussed below;
P-waves (Primary, Compressional and Push-Pull)

Particle motion in a solid is parallel to direction of wave propagation

P-waves have highest speed
P-waves are first arrivals on recorder
Causes volumetric changes
Can pass through both solids and liquids
Similar to sound waves

S-waves (Secondary, Shear, Shake)

Particle motion in a plane is perpendicular to direction of wave propagation

If particle motion along a line in perpendicular plane, then S-wave is said to be plane

polarized; SV in vertical plane, SH in horizontal plane

No volume change
S-waves cannot exist in fluids like water or air because the fluid is unable to support shear
stresses

B. Surface Waves
These are the kind of waves which travel along the surface of earth. No stresses act on the Earth's
surface and two types of surface wave can exist.
Rayleigh waves
These are the lowest from all the waves
Amplitude decreases with depth
Near the surface the particle motion is retrograde elliptical
Rayleigh waves are similar to water waves in the ocean
Love waves
Love waves are transverse waves
Vibrate the ground in horizontal direction perpendicular to the direction of waves traveling
formed by interaction of S-waves with Earth's surface and shallow structure
These are dispersive waves and amplitude of ground vibration decreases with depth
The decrease in amplitude depends on rate of time
Example of Love wave is snake like motion

Propagation of Seismic Waves within Earth

When waves are produced from a source, they are subjected to several phenomenon when travel
through the earth e.g.

Attenuation
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
Multiples
Generation of wave face
Change of velocity
Frequency filtering

Attenuation: There are two types of attenuation;

Geometrical Spreading: Take place due to traveling certain amount of distance.
Intrinsic Attenuation: Loss of amplitude due to dissipation of energy into heat by friction.

Reflection
It is take place when a seismic wave hits an interface separating two media of different acoustic
impedance.
Refraction
A part of seismic wave is refracted when it hits an interface of two separating media.
Diffraction:
It takes place when the seismic wave hits, an irregularity, abrupt discontinuity and faults. In this
case the irregular feature act as point source for radiating waves in all directions.

Multiples
They are signals undergone more than one reflection, and they are of small energy.
There are two types of multiples:
Short Path Multiples
They are almost arrived with useful signals and form a tail to them e.g. ghost, near surface and
peg leg multiples.
Long Path Multiples
These are arrived at a later time than primary and appeared as separate signals e.g. simple and
interaforamational multiples.

Generation of Wave Phase

When P-wave hits an interface generate four types of the seismic waves.

When the wave hits an interface vertically, does not generate other type of waves. But when the
first medium is liquid only three types will generate because S-wave does not propagates through
the liquid.
Types of Seismic Noise
All types of disturbances which interfere the signal of interest are called noises and the pulse of
interest is called signal. Noises are divided into two types i.e. Coherent and Incoherent Noise.
1. Coherent Noise
Noise which shows a regular pattern on the seismic monitor is known as coherent noise. This is
also called source generated noise. This type of noise is often confused with the signal. Sources
of coherent noise includes,

Direct waves
Ground roll
Refracted waves
Multiple reflections

This type of noise can be suppressed by the ideal field procedure i.e. by selecting proper
geophone spacing. To remove ground roll the charge should be buried at an appropriate depth.
a. Direct Wave
The airwave travels directly from the source to the receiver and is an example of coherent noise.
It is easily recognizable because it travels at a speed of 330 m/s, the speed of sound in air.
b. Ground Roll
These are typically, low velocity, low frequency and high amplitude waves and are frequently
present on a seismic record and can obscure signal, degrading overall data quality. They are
known within the industry as Ground Roll and are an example of coherent noise that can be

attenuated with a carefully designed seismic survey. The velocity of these waves varies with
wavelength, so they are said to be dispersive and the shape of the wave train varies with distance.
c. Head waves
At critical angle a wave move along the boundary of the reflector, such a wave is called head
wave. A head wave refracts at an interface, travelling along it, within the lower medium and
produces oscillatory motion parallel to the interface. This motion causes a disturbance in the
upper medium that is detected on the surface.
d. Multiple Reflections
An event on the seismic record that has occurred more than once is called a multiple. Multiples
can be either short path or long path, depending whether they interfere with primary reflections
or not.
e. Cultural Noise
Cultural noise includes noise from planes, helicopters and electrical pylons and all of these can
be detected by the receivers.
2. Incoherent Noise (Random Noise)
Random noise shows no regular pattern on the seismic section. It occurs commonly when the
shot point overlies or close to gravel, boulders all of which can cause scattering of waves.
Sources of Random Noise

Wind noise
Rain noise
Traffic noise
Small movements within earth
Bad geophone noise

Controlling of Incoherent Noise

Source depth
Receivers arrays
Electronic filtering
Better contact of geophone to earth
Burry geophone to avoid noise
Avoid power lines

Introduction to Seismic Velocities

Seismic velocities vary largely in sedimentary rocks as compared to igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Metamorphic and igneous rocks have little or no porosity and the seismic wave velocity

depend upon the elastic properties of the material making up the rock material itself. In terms of
lithology, whenever there is a change in grain size and mineralogical composition of the rock,
velocity behavior changes. An increase in grain size will result in the increase in velocity. In
many areas, seismic velocity data can be used to identify lithology in discrete formations within
the geologic section.
Why Need of Velocity Data
The velocity measurements are important in terms of proper processing, removal of overburden
velocity effects for depth conversion and for good interpretation of seismic data. According to
Al-Sadi (1980) the seismic velocity can also be used to establish the following,

Stacking of seismic data

Migration of seismic data
Time to Depth conversion
Possible lithology determination
Possible porosity estimation
Also used to estimate geological age, fracturing, fluid content and Geo pressure

3.3.1 Factors Affecting Velocity Estimates

Velocity estimation from seismic data is limited in accuracy due to following reasons,

Spread length
Stacking fold
Muting
Time gate length
Velocity sampling
True departures from hyperbolic moveout

1. Instantaneous Velocity
It is the speed with which a wave front passes through point,
measured in the direction of wave travel or it is average velocity
at a certain point within a layer or a geological formation.
Mathematically,
V inst =

dz
dt

2. Root Mean Square Velocity

Used in NMO correction. It is a weighted average velocity.
When the subsurface layers are horizontal having interval
velocities as

V1

V2

respective TWT are

t1

t2

,
,

V3

t3

tn

Vn

and the

then the root

mean square velocity for the n-layers model will be,

V i2 V t

V RMS =
ti

RMS velocity is always measured from the surface to a particular interface. RMS velocity is
usually higher than average velocity by approximately 5%. RMS velocity map gives a first
indication of velocity variations.
3. Interval Velocity
Used in migration of seismic data. Interval velocity is defined
as the thickness of a particular layer divided by the time it takes
to travel from the top of the layer to its base. Mathematically,
Z Z

= t 2t 1 = 2tZ
2

V
t = Two way travel time
Z = the thickness of a stratigraphic layer
4. Apparent Velocity
Apparent velocity is the speed with which a wave front passes along the recording spread.
5. Average Velocity
The average seismic velocity is the distance traveled by a seismic wave from the source location
to some point within the earth divided by the recorded travel time. If concerned with the distance
and time from the surface of the earth to a point at depth, then the one-way distance and time is
used and if considering with the distance from the surface of the earth to a point at depth and
back to the surface, then two-way distance and travel time is used. Mathematically,

Z 2Z 2Z
V avg= =
=
t 2t
T
Where,
t = One Way time and T = Two Way Time
6. NMO Velocity
The Normal Moveout (

V NMO

) velocity or stacking velocity, has a horizontal component X.

Therefore, it is dependent on the offset, depth and spread length. Seismic records with source to
receiver distances will yield different NMO velocity values. The NMO velocity increases as the
value of X increases. Mathematically,
V NMO =

X
X
=
2
T T o 2 T 0 T NMO
2
X

X = Distance between source and receiver

TX

= TWT of a seismic wave reflected off a particular interface

and recorded at the receiver location

T O = TWT of a seismic wave reflected off the particular interface at zero offset
7. Stacking Velocity
It is the velocity obtained from NMO measurements and is used to maximize events in stacking
process. It is approximately but not exactly same the RMS velocity. Stacking velocity is almost
always greater than the average velocity.
Conclusion

V avg

V RMS

V Stacking

V Interval

8. Migration Velocity
It is the velocity that is used to migrate seismic data. The best migration velocities are the
borehole average velocities. Sometimes stacking velocities are straight away used for migration.
V mig =V NMO . cos
9. Dix Equation
In seismic prospecting we are dealing with a medium which is made up of a sequence of layers
of different velocities. In dealing with this kind of situation, it is necessary to specify the kind of

velocity we are using. When velocity is measured for a defined depth interval, it is called as
interval velocity and when it is determined for several layers it is called as average velocity.
Relationship between interval velocity, root mean square velocity and average velocity is given
by Dix Formula. If root mean square velocities (V rms) is given then interval velocities (Vint),
can be determine by using the following form of Dix formula.

2
2
( V RMS ,n ) t n( V RMS ,n1 ) t n1

t nt n1
V

If given the average velocity is given then interval velocity (V int) can be determined by another
form of Dix formula.

V a ,n t nV a , n1 t n1
t nt n1
V

Now, if we are given with interval velocities (V int) and we have to determine average velocities
then Dix formula attains the form as given below.
V a , n=

(V , n T n T n1 )+(V a , n1 T n1 )
Tn

Effect of Physical Properties of Rocks on Seismic Velocities

In terms of lithology, whenever there is a change in grain size and mineralogical composition of
rock, velocity behavior changes. The seismic velocities in rocks are affected by several factors,

Porosity
Density
Rock age
Overburden pressure
Fluid content
Lithology
Temperature

Porosity
Increase in porosity causes to decrease the velocity of propagating waves. Further porosity is
dependent upon consolidation of rock body. Also porosity decrease with depth as the result
velocity increases. The relationship between porosity and velocity is given below,

1 1+
= +
V Vf Vm
Where,
Vf

= Velocity of the pore fluids

V m = Velocity in rock matrix

V = Velocity in saturated rock

= Fractional porosity

Density
The relationship of density and elasticity with the seismic velocity is given as,
(Velocity) 2 = Effective elasticity / Density
From this relation, the velocity is directly proportional to elasticity and inversely proportional to
density. So it is expected that the denser rocks would have low velocity, however the reserve is
true in nature. The reason is that as the material becomes more compact its elasticity increases in
such a way that it reduces the effect introduced by increased density.
Age of Rock
An older rock might be expected to have a higher velocity, because may be subjected for a long
time pressures, cementation and other factors, which might increase its velocity.
Overburden Pressure or Depth of Burial
For a given age, velocity increases as depth increases, and for a given depth, velocity increases
as age increases. A quantitative relationship between velocity, depth and age of the rock for the
shale and sandstone section, which is given as;
V=K (Z T) 1/6

where,
V = Velocity in feet per second
Z = Depth in feet
T = Age in years
K = Constant
Fluid Content in the Pores

In actual rocks, the pores spaces are filled with a fluid. This fluid may be in form of air or any
other gas or different liquid solutions. These fluids can affect the seismic velocities. Seismic
velocities will be low in case of gases and different solutions present in the pore spaces of rock.
Lithological and Mineralogical Composition of Rock
Lithological and mineral composition of rocks also affects velocity of seismic waves. As
described earlier that average velocities for igneous rocks is higher than that for other types and
they show a narrower range of variation than sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Mineralogy of
rock surely causes variations in seismic velocities. For example the velocity of a same wave will
be different for sands, silts and clays etc.
Temperature
Seismic velocities decrease slightly with increase in temperature.
Variation in Seismic Velocities
There are two types of variations in seismic velocities as discussed below,
1. Lateral Variations in Seismic Velocities
These variations are supposed because of slow changes in density and elastic properties due to
changes in lithology or physical properties.
2. Vertical Variations in Seismic Velocities
These variations are due to lithological changes of layering and increasing pressure due to
increasing depth. Normally seismic velocities increase with the increase in depth.
Methods for Velocity Determination
Velocity as a seismic parameter plays an important role in the activities involved in seismic
prospecting. The accuracy of data reduction, processing and interpretation of seismic data
depends mainly on the correction of velocity measurements. Since in seismic prospecting, we
require velocity values as a function of depth, all velocity determination methods aim at
computing velocity depth or time function.
Direct Methods

Well Shooting
Uphole Survey

Fig. 1st Well shooting and Fig. 2nd Uphole survey

In both case the velocity is determined by Velocity = h/T.

Indirect Methods

Reflection Travel Times

Refraction Travel Times
Continuous Velocity Survey

Survey Types
In 2D seismic, the source and geophones are located in a straight line, resulting in a seismic cross
section. If the line cannot be straight due to topography, the data is processed to collect data in
short approximations to straight lines.
For 3D seismic, receivers and sources are set up in a pattern which allows simultaneous
recording of many intersecting lines of data. These can be processed to provide a volumetric
view of the subsurface.
4D seismic is a term used to describe surveys taken on the same grid several years apart and are
used to show changes in reservoir properties over time. These can only be due to changes in fluid
content from production or injection. The results are used to evaluate production efficiency.
4C seismic is a relatively new form of marine survey and refers to four components recording of
the seismic signal. The components are the usual, P-wave from a geophone, plus in-line and
cross-line shear arrivals, as well as a compressional wave recorded on a hydrophone. The
different response of the geophone and hydrophone to reverberations in the water allows
specialized processing to remove interference.
Acquisition Parameters
Listed below are some important parameters used for acquiring seismic reflection data.
1. Geophone Interval
It is the spacing between two consecutive geophones.
2. Group Interval
The interval between the mid points of two consecutive geophone groups.
3. Group Base
It is the total length of various groups that collectively feed a single channel. Group base would
act in the way for the suppression of noise.
4. Sample Rate
In digital recording the time during which discrete sample is recorded.
5. Record Length
The total length of time for recording on shot is called record length.

6. Near Offset and Far Offset

Due to direct arrivals 2 or 3 channels are kept dead during recording , the minimum distance at
which first active channel exists is called near offset and the distance at which last active channel
exists is called far offset.
Shooting Parameters

Source size
No of holes
Holes depth
Shot at or between picket

Types of Shooting Used for Seismic Acquisition

1. Symmetric Shooting
This type of shooting has equal numbers of channels on both sides of the source.
2. Asymmetric Shooting
No of channels are not equal on both sides of source.
3. End on Shooting
In this type of shooting the channels lie on only one side of the source. This method of shooting
is used in multifold profiling and in hilly areas.
4. Roll In / Roll Out Shooting
If we have 240 channels and want to use roll in and roll out shooting method then left side of the
shot point have no channel while on right side there will be 120 active channels for first shot,
121 active channels for second shot, 122 active channels for third shot and so on. This process is
called roll in shooting. For shot point no 120 there will be equal no. of channels (i.e.120) on both
sides of the shot point. At this stage it is symmetric spread. Later on at shot point no. 121 the roll
out process starts.
Selection of Shooting and Recording Parameters
Four variables are used in the selection of these parameters. These variables include,

No. of holes
Hole depth
Charge size
Group base

The source and receiver are selected by following method

By changing charge size, keeping no. of holes and hole depth constant
By changing no. of holes, keeping charge size and holes depth constant

By changing depths of hole, keeping charge size and no. of holes constant
By changing group base, keeping charge size, no. of holes and holes depth constant

Sampling Rate ( t )

Time at which a discrete seismic signal is recorded or time difference between two

consecutive seismic signals which are recorded on recording system

Seismic data is usually recorded with 1, 2, 4 and 8 ms etc. sampling interval. For offshore

sampling interval is usually taken as 2 ms and for onshore it is preferred as 4ms

Minimum sampling rate must be at least twice the desired frequency e.g. 1000 samples per
second for 500 Hz and 2000 samples per second for 1000 Hz

Sampling Frequency
It is the number of cycles per second and can be calculated by taking inverse of sampling rate
e.g.
Sampling Frequency =

f s=

1
t ,

t = Sampling rate

Nyquist Frequency
It is maximum recoverable signal frequency and is defined as half of the sampling frequency.
Nyquist has to be higher than all of the frequencies in the observed signal to allow perfect
reconstruction of the signal from the samples.
1 1
f N= .
Nyquist Frequency =
2 fs ,
f N = Nyquist Frequency

Aliasing Frequency
Aliasing is a phenomenon observed when the sample interval is not sufficient to capture the
higher range of frequencies in a signal. In order to avoid aliasing, each constituent frequency has
to be sampled at least two times per wavelength. Above Nyquist, the signal frequencies are not
sampled twice per wavelength and will appear as low frequencies. So not obeying, nyquist gives
a double blow, not only does it fail to record all the frequencies, the frequencies that you leave
out actually destroy part of the frequencies you do record. Seismic data is usually acquired with

either a 4 ms sample interval (250 Hz sample rate) if you are offshore, or 2 millisecond sample
interval (500 Hz) if you are on land. A recording system with a 250 Hz sample rate has a nyquist
frequency of 125 Hz. So information coming in above 150 Hz will wrap around or fold to 100
Hz, and so on.
Antialiasing Filter
In order to avoid from aliasing effect, a low pass filter, having frequency half of the aliasing
frequency is used, called antialiasing filter. Also data should be sampled very carefully to avoid
aliasing effect.
Spatial Aliasing
This effect shows the dip of reflector in opposite direction?
Fold Coverage
Fold is the number of time common depth point is imaged. During acquisition it is very
important to acquire maximum fold data. Maximum fold data gives higher S/R, which is main
target during acquisition.
2D Fold Formula
F=

N G

2 S

N = Number of active channels

G = Geophone Group Interval
S = Source Interval

F=

N x x

.
2 g s

N = Number of active channels

x = Picket Interval
s = Source Interval

3D Fold Formula
F=F IL F XL
Where,

F IL=

][

No. of Receiver Station

Receiver Station Interval

2
Source Station Interval

and
1
F XL = (No . of Receiver linesRecordingTemplate)
2
Multiplexed Data
Multiplexed data is the data, not stored trace by trace but all the first samples of all traces for
one shot record are stored, then the second samples of all the traces and so on.
Demultiplexed Data
Demultiplexed data is a type in which data is stored in trace sequential form.
Seismic Data Types
There are various data types of seismic data used in oil and gas field but listed below are more
widely used.
SEGD Data
This is a standard which is mostly used in the field, and field tapes delivered to the processing
Centre are usually in this format. The SEGD data is in multiplexed format and it is converted to a
SEGY format, and then other processing steps are performed.
Advantages of SEGD
1: First advantage is that it can deal with multiplexed as well as demultiplexed data. This way of
storing very much links up to how the electronics deals with the data, i.e. how the data is
sampled
2: Second advantage of the SEGD format is that various word lengths are allowed which makes
it possible to make use of less storage space than the conventional 4 bytes
SEGY Data
This is the standard which is most widely and adoptable standard used in oil and gas industry.
SEGY data is in demultiplexed format i.e. has some specific structure. This data types ha three
data block or headers. These are EBCDIC header, Binary header and Trace header.
1: EBCDIC Header (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

It is of 3200 bytes large

In EBCDIC header one can put general information about the data on the tape, such as where
it was shot and when, and by who, and so on

2: Binary Header

This header is 400 byte large

A few positions must be filled e.g. line number, sampling rate, number of samples per trace,
and so on

3: Trace Header

Trace header contains information of the trace itself. Trace header is 240 bytes large
In trace header totally six fields which must be set, trace sequence number in the line, the
original field record number, the trace number within the original field record number, a trace

identification code, the number of samples and sampling interval.

After this header the values of the trace are given in one record, of course as many as given in
the header. After these trace blocks comes the header of the next trace, and then the values of
that next trace, and so on

Static Correction
It is applied to determine TWT from flat plane may be datum plane or sea level. So it is applied
to remove effect of elevation difference between source and receiver and weathering zone
(Velocity and Thickness).

Types of Static Correction

There are three ways of applying static correction;
Elevation Static

Elevation static is calculated on the basis of elevation difference of sources and receivers. It does
not encounter any effect of near surface low velocity weathering layer.
Field Static
Field static is calculated in the field by using Uphole and WZ refraction survey.
Refraction Static
Refraction static is calculated in the processing center by picking first breaks on each shot
record.
Normal Moveout Correction
It is the delay in time due to the distance between source and receiver. As distance between
source and receiver increase, the delay in time will also increase. This effect cause hyperbolic
picture of subsurface reflector. So, we have to remove this effect by applying NMO correction.

Eliminate the effect of variation between slant path and vertical path of the waves
Remove effect of extra time caused by horizontal distance between SP and geophones

Method of computing NMO Correction

From seismic record, by actual measurement of

tx

and

t0

Where, tn1= tx1 - to; tn2= tx2 - to; tn3= tx3 - to; tn4= tx4 - to
Using t formula

x2 2
t= 2 + t 0
v

t0

Dip Moveout (DMO)

It is the delay in time due to dip of the reflector. We are considering that subsurface strata is lying
horizontally but in actual there may dipping reflector. So, we have to encounter this correction as
well.
Digital Processing of Seismic Data
It is a sequence of operations carried out according to a predefined program to extract useful
information from a set of raw data.
Display of raw data
There are four types of displaying seismic data;

Wiggles
Variable area
Wiggle + Variable area
Variable intensity

Seismic Processing Sequence

Optional Processing

True Amplitude Recovery (TAR)

Involves the removal of the following effects by multiplying the trace with the (

Spherical divergence
Inelastic attenuation
The net gain imposed by the recording station
.V avg .t

C . V avg .t . e
F( t )TAR =
G(t)
Where,

C = Scaling constant
V avg= Average Velocity
= Absorption Coefficient

G(t )=

Gain applied

Data Editing

F( t )TAR

).

Some seismic data is harmful on the seismic record, so they have to be removed such as;

Weak data
Dead data
Reverse data

Common Depth Point (CDP) or Common Reflection Point (CRP)

It is a group of wave path that have one common depth point. It is a process of adding all the
seismic traces which return to one common depth, it is always applied after static and dynamic
corrections.

The Importance of CDP Stack

Enhancement of the signal

Attenuate the random noise (Incoherent Noise)
Control the multiples

CDP Gather
After missing all unwanted data, all traces that return to one common depth point are gathered
together to examine the process of data editing.

Muting
It is a kind of data editing by which the non-reflection events are removed, such as;

First part of traces which contained usually refracted data, it is also called (first break

suppression)
Directed waves

Types of Muting

Initial Muting
Surgical Muting

Trace Equalization
It is a process involves the adjacent of the gain of various channels so that their Amplitudes are
comparable.

Coherency
It is a process by which a coherent event (Reflection signal) is enhanced and incoherent events
(Wind noise) are attenuated.

What are Multiples and how these are produced?

Multiples are events seen in seismic sections which have undergone more than one reflection.
They are produced in the data gathering process when the signal doesn't take a direct path from
the source to the geologic event and finally back to the receiver on the surface. This causes the
signal to arrive back at the receiver at an erroneous time, which, in turn, causes false results and
can result in data misinterpretation.
What are the Different Types of Multiples?
There are various kinds of multiples ranging from various long path multiples to short path
multiples. Long path multiples appear as separate events in the seismic record, while short path
multiples add tail to the primary reflection.
How can Multiples be Useful?
Ghosts, which are short path multiples, are useful in the interpretation of seismic data. In marine
seismic surveys for each reflector three individual reflections are recorded. The first wave to
arrive at the receiver is the primary reflection. It is followed by two ghosts that are recorded at
the same time, as they both bounce off the sea surface once. As the sea surface is an almost
perfect reflector, the amount of energy lost during the reflection of both ghosts is negligible.
Therefore the amplitude of these two signals is almost twice as large, as the amplitude of the
primary reflection. Hence, it is this arrival that is commonly used in the interpretation of seismic
data, rather than the primary reflection. A 180 degree phase shift is observed each time a seismic
wave is reflected by the sea surface. This explains the reversal in amplitude. Finally, ghost no.3

is recorded, which has the same amplitude and is in phase with the primary reflection, since it
bounced off the sea surface twice.
What Types of Problems can Multiples Cause?
Multiples can present many pitfalls for the interpreter and cause problems in seismic data
interpretation. This is because the features which multiples create may not reflect the true
approximation of the geology of a structure or an area. For instance, multiples can enhance
geologic features such as small anticlines, so that they appear larger than what they truly are.
This is attractive to the oil/gas finder, but can lead to false conclusions concerning the location
and amount of pay.
How can Multiples be attenuated?
There are usually two most commonly used methods for removal of multiples from recorded
seismic data,
1: Common Depth Point Stacking
One of the most common methods of attenuating multiples is by using a stacking method
referred to as common-depth point stacking during data processing. Multiples spend most of
their time in shallower sections, bouncing off the interface at the low velocity zone. This
situation causes an energy decrease in multiples relative to primary reflections of the same travel
time. Thus, they have smaller stacking velocities and don't align on a continuous velocity log.
This makes them relatively easy to identify. Stacking of the data allows the effect of multiples to
be masked, so that a truer geological picture is attained.
2: Predictive Deconvolution
Another possibility for attenuating multiples is by the use of predictive deconvolution.
Deconvolution is the method by which seismic data may be filtered according to the processor's
preference. Knowledge of the arrival time of primary reflectors allows the arrival time of
multiples from the same surface to be predicted. By using the arrival time, the deconvolution
operators can selectively pick multiples out of the data. The shortcoming of this method is that it
primarily works only with simple multiples, as those with more intricate paths have a much
harder to predict travel time.
Deconvolution
With a deconvolution process an undesired distortion on the seismic signals is removed, which is
either caused by the acquisition tools (e.g. air gun bubble effect) or by (the shallow) part of the

earth (e.g. reverberations in a water layer). If this effect can be considered as a convolution effect
on the desired seismic signals, by convolution with a filter with the inverse effect, this distortion
can be removed from the data. In most cases the objective of deconvolution is to increase the
time resolution of the data.
Types of Deconvolution
Two main types of deconvolution are considered i.e. Deterministic and Statistical deconvolution.
Deterministic Deconvolution
In the deterministic deconvolution, the convolutional distortion is known and need be removed in
an optimal way. The deterministic deconvolution can be performed in either the frequency
domain or in the time domain.
Statistical Deconvolution
For the statistical deconvolution the undesired effect is not precisely known, but based on some
statistical assumptions on the data, the effect is reduced. Assumptions that are often used is
uncorrelated rectors, minimum phase behavior of the source signal and repeating patterns within
the signal. Statistical deconvolution, with the aid of prediction error filtering, is always
performed in the time domain. The advantage of applying the deconvolution in the time domain
is that the user has a good control on the time length and possible instability. Often the
deconvolution with a short filter in the time domain gives an optimal stable result, but with a
slight loss in accuracy.
Migration
It is a process that restores the reflection events to their true position or a tool to get an accurate
picture of underground layers. Also it can be defined as geometric repositioning of return signals
to show an event (layer boundary) where it is being hit by the seismic wave rather than where it
is picked up. Migration is an inversion operation involving rearrangement of seismic information
so that reflections are plotted at their true subsurface positions.

Fig: The reflection segment AB moves to segment AB when migrated

It is applied in the following cases;

When the dip is large

When there is a syncline

Main Advantages of Migration

The dip angle of the reflector in the final section is greater than in the time section; thus

migration steepens reflectors (Shown in Fig above)

The length of the reflector is shorter; thus migration shortens reflectors
Migration moves reflectors up dip direction
Collapse diffractions
Enhances seismic spatial resolution
Migration broaden anticline and tighten syncline
Delineate unconformities
Move reflector to their original position
Remove bow-tie effect

Pre Stack Migration

It is the migration before the stacking seismic data

Here all traces are migrated before being moved to zero-offset

The popular form of pre-stack migration is depth migration (PDM)
PDM requires the user to know more about velocities of the layers
Dipping error adjusted through PDM

Application of Pre Stack Migration

When post stacking has failed to resolve the layers or structures

When the layers have complicated velocity profiles with complex geology
Important tool in modeling salt diapers because of their complexity

Post Stack Migration

Rearrangement of seismic Information through stacking so that reflections and diffractions are

plotted at their true locations

Filtering is involved with stacking because of timing errors or wave-shape difference among
the data being stacked

Application of Post Stack Migration

Zero-offset migration is faster and much simpler

Can be represented by spherical surfaces

Such migration gives best results when;

Dip is small
Events with different dips do not interfere on the migrated section

Disadvantages of Zero Offset Migration

It does not give as clear results as pre-stack

It may fail in areas of complex geology due to some broad simplifications in the algorithms.
Practically data collected at offset, then converted to zero-offset data. In doing so, much
information is discarded for simplicity's sake

Why Migrated Depth Section is displayed in Time Units?

The migrated depth section that is most similar to the geologic cross section along the seismic
line is what we want. However, the migrated section is commonly displayed in time.

One reason for this is that velocity estimation based on seismic data is limited in accuracy.

Therefore, depth conversion is not completely accurate

Second reason is that interpreters prefer to evaluate the validity of migrated sections by
comparing them to the unmigrated data which is time domain

Migration Techniques
Important process to move dipping reflector to their true spatial position rather than an assumed
position between source and receiver and also to remove diffraction patterns. There are several

migration techniques which are applied on seismic data. Each and every technique is applied
based on objectives and depending on areal information. As some (depth) migration algorithms
require interval velocities, which may not be known yet, the available information can limit the
number of possibilities.

Kirchhoff time migration

Finite-deference time migration
Stolt Migration
Depth migration, in comparison to time migration

Resolution of Seismic Reflection Data

The ability of a seismic reflection survey to resolve features in both horizontal and vertical
directions is a function of wavelength;
= velocity / frequency
Wavelength increases with depth in the Earth because velocity increases and frequency
decreases. Thus, seismic reflection surveys lose resolution with increasing depth in the Earth.
Vertical Resolution
It refers to the minimum separation (in time or depth) between two interfaces required to show
two separate reflectors. In general, we can distinguish two events vertically depending on,

The separation between the events

The dominant frequency
The signs and magnitudes of the events (reflection coefficients)

Rayleighs criterion states that two wavelets of wavelength (or period of T) can be resolved
only if the separation between them is greater than /4 (or T/4) (Figure)

Tuning/Thin Bed

A thin bed is a bed whose thickness is less than /4 (or T/4)

Tuning is the change in the peak amplitude of two closely spaced wavelets as the separation

between them increases (Figure)

Tuning is important in seismic interpretation and reservoir studies

Horizontal Resolution

It refers to the minimum horizontal distance between two features on an interface required to

distinguish them as two different features on the seismic record

The limiting horizontal resolution on unmigrated sections is the effective Fresnel zone
There is no quantitative measure of horizontal resolution on migrated sections
Horizontal resolution depends on the radius of fresnel zone

Fresnel Zone
We usually consider that wave is reflected from a point in the subsurface but in actual it is not
like this. Infact energy is reflected from an area in the subsurface which is called as Fresnel zone.
So, spatial resolution depends on radius of Fresnel zone.

For a spherical wave, radius of the first fresnel zone is

calculated by;
Rfz =

1
Z
2

For a plane wave, the effective radius of the first fresnel zone is calculated as given below,
Rfz = Z

The smaller the first Fresnel zone the better is the horizontal resolution because properties
within the Fresnel zone are averaged into one reflection

Wavelet and Polarity

The very first issue to resolve when interpreting seismic amplitudes is what kind of wavelet we
have? Essential questions to ask are the following,

What is the defined Polarity?

Are we dealing with a zero-phase or a minimum-phase wavelet?
Is there a phase shift in the data?

Polarity has two standards; The American standard defines a black peak as a "positive" event
and a white trough as a "negative" event. On a near-offset stack section a positive event will
correspond to an increase in acoustic impedance with depth, where as a negative event will
correspond to a decrease in acoustic impedance with depth. According to the European standard,
a black peak is a "negative" event, whereas a white trough is a "positive" event.
For optimal quantitative seismic interpretations, we should ensure that our data are zero-phase.
Then the seismic pick should be on the crest of the waveform corresponding with the peak
amplitudes that we desire for quantitative use.
Direct Waves

It is the P-wave, travels directly from the source to the receiver

X
T=
The time distance equation of the direct wave is;
V 1 where, T = One way time from
the source-receiver; X = Offset;

V1

= Velocity of first layer

The direct wave always arrives before the reflected P-wave in the first layer
The direct wave is usually
the first arrival at near
offsets. The head wave

usually becomes the first

arrival on far offsets (after

It is usually attenuated by

the crossover distance)

muting (after NMO) in the

upper part of the record and

by stacking in the rest of the

record because it has a

linear moveout while a

primary has a hyperbolic

moveout (NMO)

Head Waves

Head waves are generated

equals the critical angle

when the angle of incidence

A necessary condition for head wave generation is that the velocity in the refraction medium
must be greater than that in the incident medium

The head wave travels in the refraction medium (with V 2 ) along the interface (Fermats
principle) emitting seismic energy into the incident medium (Huygenss principle) at an angle
equal to the critical angle (Snells law)

The head wave will not be observed at offsets less than the critical distance ( X c =2 H tan c

)
The head wave will become the first arrival (arrive before the direct wave) after the crossover
distance (

Xo

Refractions are usually attenuated by muting (after NMO) in the upper part of the record and
by stacking in the rest of the record because they have linear moveout while primaries have
hyperbolic moveout

Diffraction

Diffraction occurs when the wave front encounters the edge of a reflector or any obstacle

whose size is of the same size as the wavelength

Snells law does not apply in the case of diffraction because the incident wave gets spread out

in all directions
The T-X curve of diffraction is a hyperbola whose apex is located at the projection of the
diffracting point on the seismic profile and has a TWT corresponding to the normal distance

of the diffracting point from the seismic profile

Diffraction moveout (hyperbolic curvature) will vary

depending on the geometry of the source and receiver

The amplitude of diffraction is highest at its apex and
decays rapidly as we get away from the apex. This
property is useful in recognizing diffractions from
reflections only when true amplitudes are preserved

because reflections do not change considerably

Diffractions are attenuated using seismic migration
during seismic data processing

Pitfalls in Final Processed Seismic Section

In the case of very shallow reflections, interference of refractions with reflections is a major
problem. When refractions stack on seismic sections, they usually appear as wavelets whose

frequencies are lower than those of reflections. Refractions must be removed during

processing
Remnants of air wave signals may be present. These show up as very steep dipping signals
with relatively short wavelength and in the time section, a characteristic velocity of 335 m/s.

Dependent on the spread arrangement of the survey they run forward or backward
Surface Waves: if not removed carefully during processing, may stack to reflection like

signals especially in the near surface range

Migration Effects: if velocities higher than the actual medium velocity are used for migration

typical smiles may occur. If we use too low velocities there may be remnants of diffractions
Multiples: that is seismic energy which has been reflected more than once, are identified by
their travel times, and/or may be identified during velocity analysis by their velocity.
Multiples are not a severe problem

GEOPHYSICAL WELL LOGGING

Logging Objectives and Properties

Lack of core (older wells)

Assessment of mechanical rock properties (for well design)
Hole volume and shape estimates
Stratigraphy and lithology identification
Supporting information for structural interpretations
Identification of depositional environments
Assessment of source rock potential
Measurement of acoustic properties (for time/depth relationships)
Samples for lithology, hydrocarbon identification and rock dating
Identification of potential reservoir intervals and for each interval
determining porosity, fluid types, permeability and insitu stress
Location of hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs
Reservoir quality and capacity assessment
Determination of pressure regime

Basic Log Types

Electrical Logs (Resistivity, Conductivity, SP)

Nuclear (Density, Porosity, Natural Radioactivity)
Sonic (Acoustic-porosity, fractures, correlation with seismic section)
Others (Caliper, magnetic, gravity, temperature, flow meter, fluid conductivity logs, etc.)

Drilling mud: The kind of drilling mud are discussed below;

Bentonite- Viscosity control

Barite- Density control
Salt- Retards clay swelling and evaporite dissolution

Drilling Mud Purposes

Lubrication (drill bit and string)

Cuttings removal
Maintain borehole pressure (prevents blowouts, fluid escape, breakouts)
Entrained hydrocarbons in cuttings (mud logging)
Permeable formation identification

Drilling Artifacts that Effect Well Logs

Rugosity- Hole diameter varies with depth
Sloughing- Swelling of clay in the hole
Keyseats- Wider hole where it intersects joints
Borehole Conditions That Effect Logs
The followings are some borehole factors that can affect logs

Salinity of drilling fluid

Mud Cake: layer of mud particle
Permeability & pressure: invasion to the formation
Time: drilling fluid to formation
Temperature: of drilling fluid by circulation (deep hole)
Hole Size: will influence the measurements, smaller holes giving better logs

Wellbore Environment
Mud cake- Deposited by invading fluid
Mud filtrate- Fluid that invades formation
Flushed zone- No formation water left, completely invaded, some hydrocarbons may be left
Transition zone- Mud filtrate and formation fluid
Uninvaded- Virgin formation fluid
Typical porosity of some materials
Unconsolidated deposits

Rocks

Gravel 25-40%
Sand 25-50%
Silt 35-50%
Clay 40-70%

Fractured basalt 5-50%

Karst limestone 5-50%
Sandstone 5-30%
Limestone, dolomite 0-20%
Shale 0-10%
Fractured crystalline rock 0-10%

Introduction to Borehole Geophysics

Borehole geophysics is the science of recording and analyzing measurements of physical
properties made in wells or test holes. Probes that measure different properties are lowered into
the borehole to collect continuous or point data that is graphically displayed as a geophysical log.
Borehole geophysics is used in ground water and environmental investigations to obtain
information on well construction, rock lithology, fractures, permeability, porosity and water
quality. Common geophysical logs are discussed below.
Caliper Logs
Record borehole diameter. Changes in borehole diameter are related to well construction, such as
casing or drilling bit size and fracturing or caving along the borehole wall. Because borehole
diameter commonly affects log response, the caliper log is useful in the analysis of other
geophysical logs.
Gamma Logs

The GR log is a recording of the count rate of at gamma emissions from rock formations
adjacent to the borehole. The gamma emissions result from the decay of naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes such as potassium, uranium and thorium, contained in the formation rock
matrix. The standard GR tool records total radioactivity of rock matrix.
Spectral Gamma Ray
Spectral gamma ray logging permits identification and quantitative analysis of the radioisotopes
that contribute to the gross count rate recorded on the gamma ray log. The spectral gamma ray in
boreholes can provide much more diagnostic information on lithology than a gamma ray log.
Application of GR Log

Determination of reservoir thickness

Lithology indicator
Correlation between wells
Estimation of shale volume

Spontaneous Potential Logs

Record potentials or voltages developed between the borehole fluid and surrounding rock and
fluids. SP log measures the natural or spontaneous potential difference between the borehole and
the surface without any applied current. The SP log records the difference between the electrical
potential of a movable electrode in the borehole and the electrical potential of a fixed surface
electrode.
Conductive fluids are necessary in bore hole to create a SP response, so the SP log cannot be
used in nonconductive drilling muds (oil-based mud) or air filled holes. Generally if the ionic
concentration of the well bore fluid is greater than the formation fluid then the deflection of the
SP curve will be negative (and usually to the left). If the ionic concentration of borehole fluids is
less than the formation fluids then deflection will be positive (and usually to the right). The SP
curve is usually 'flat' opposite shale formations because there is no ion exchange due to the low
permeability, low porosity properties thus creating a baseline. Tight rocks e.g. tight sandstones,
tight carbonate will also result in poor or no response on the SP curve because of no ion
exchange.
Applications of SP Log

Correlation of formations in other wells

Determination of reservoir thickness
Permeability indicator
Estimation of formation water resistivity

Limitations of SP

Resistivities in the formation bed and the adjacent formations

The depth of invasion by the drilling mud into the formation
Wellbore diameter
Formation bed thickness

Electric Logs
The present day conventional electric log consists of the SP curve along with two or more
resistivity curves of varying depths of investigation into the wall of the borehole, often
implemented by several distinct types of electrode arrangements.
The electric log is an excellent correlation tool. This means that the electric log gives a good
indication of the general type of material of which each bed is composed (sand, clay, limestone,
etc.) as well as exactly where they are located in depth relative to some point at the surface. This,
in turn, allows many beds to be recognized by some commonly-used name and to be fitted into
the known geologic sequence in the area.
Induction Log
The Induction Electric Log measures conductivity from high frequency alternating currents that
are induced into the formation. It is very accurate for medium to low resistivity values (less than
50 ohm-meters) and where the ratio of resistivity of the mud filtrates to the resistivity of the
formation water is 2.5 or greater. The IEL produces its best results in medium to high porosity
formations drilled with fresh mud, or air drilled (dry) holes.
Normal Resistivity Logs
Record the electrical resistivity of the borehole environment and surrounding rocks and water as
measured by variably spaced potential electrodes on the logging probe. Typical spacing for
potential electrodes is 16 inches for short-normal resistivity and 64 inches for long-normal
resistivity. Normal-resistivity logs are affected by bed thickness, borehole diameter, and borehole
fluid and can only be collected in water- or mud-filled open holes.
Single Point Resistance Log
Record the electrical resistance from points within the borehole to an electrical ground at land
surface. In general, resistance increases with increasing grain size and decreases with increasing
borehole diameter, fracture density, and dissolved-solids concentration of the water. Single-point
resistance logs are useful in the determination of lithology, water quality, and location of fracture
zones.

Electromagnetic Induction Logs

Record the electrical conductivity or resistivity of the rocks and water surrounding the borehole.
Electrical conductivity and resistivity are affected by the porosity, permeability, and clay content
of the rocks and by the dissolved-solids concentration of the water within the rocks. The
electromagnetic-induction probe is designed to maximize vertical resolution and depth of
investigation and to minimize the effects of the borehole fluid.
Sonic Logs
The sonic tool is designed to measure the time it takes for a pulsed compressional sound wave to
travel one foot (interval transit time) through formation in the well. The interval transit time for a
formation depends on the elastic properties of the formation which are related to lithology and
porosity. In general, waves travel faster through denser formations. Therefore, an increasing
travel time for a given type of material indicates increased porosity.
Cycle Skipping
The returning signal is a wave train and not a sharp pulse, so the detectors are only activated at a
certain signal threshold. Sometimes, both detectors wont be activated by the same peak (or
trough) and the next peak (or trough) wave will activate one of them instead. This type of error is
called cycle skipping and is easily identified because the time difference is equal to the time
interval between successive pulse cycles.
Application of Sonic Log

Porosity determination
Lithology indicator
Seismic velocity calibration

Density Log
A radioactive source and detector are lowered down the borehole and the source emits mediumenergy gamma rays into the formation. These gamma rays interact with electrons in the
formation and are scattered in an interaction known as Compton scattering. The number of
scattered gamma rays that reach the detector, placed at a set distance from the emitter, is related
to the formation's electron density, which itself is related to the formation's bulk density. This
bulk density can then be used to determine porosity. In geology, bulk density is a function of the
density of the minerals forming a rock (matrix) and the fluid enclosed in the pore spaces.
Neutron Log

A neutron source emits fast, high energy neutrons into the formation and monitors the population
of neutrons at some distance from the source which have been slowed down to thermal energy
levels during passage through the formation. The neutrons are slowed down primarily through
collision with hydrogen atoms (which have almost the same mass as a neutron) and are captured.
The remaining thermal neutron population (sampled by the tool) can be related to the amount of
hydrogen in the formation. Hydrogen is mainly present as water (or hydrocarbon) in the pore
spaces, so the neutron population can be interpreted in terms of the formation porosity.
Application of Neutron Log

Porosity determination
Lithology and gas indicator

Temperature Logs
Record the water temperature in the borehole. Temperature logs are useful for delineating waterbearing zones and identifying vertical flow in the borehole between zones of differing hydraulic
head penetrated by wells. Borehole flow between zones is indicated by temperature gradients
that are less than the regional geothermal gradient, which is about 1 degree Fahrenheit per 100
feet of depth.
Flowmeter Logs
Record the direction and rate of vertical flow in the borehole. Borehole-flow rates can be
calculated from down hole-velocity measurements and borehole diameter recorded by the caliper
log. Flowmeter logs can be collected under non-pumping and (or) pumping conditions. Impeller
flow meters are the most widely used but they generally cannot resolve velocities of less than 5
ft/min. Heat-pulse and electromagnetic flow meters can resolve velocities of less than 0.1 ft/min.

Acoustic Televiewer Logs

Record a magnetically oriented, photographic image of the acoustic reflectivity of the borehole
wall. Tele viewer logs indicate the location and strike and dip of fractures and lithological
contacts. Collection of Tele viewer logs is limited to water- or mud-filled open holes.
Cement Bond Log
With the increasing demand for water wells to be sealed from contaminated surface runoff water,
the sonic log presentations have become quite useful and reliable. A cement bond log presents

information as to the quality and volume of cement, which has been placed in the annular space
between the well casing and the wall of the borehole.
Directional Log
Directional surveys can be used for several different reasons; in water wells they are normally
run to insure that the production pumping equipment will be properly aligned. Boreholes drilled
in harder fractured material can be quite deviated depending on the dip and strike of the
formations. In mining and mineral exploration borings may intentionally be drilled at some angle
to intersect the pay zone at right angles for accurate ore analysis. Oil and gas wells may be
highly angled from a multiple completion site such as an offshore platform and whipstocked
out in a known direction and angle to intersect a production zone at some horizontal distance
from the well head. All of these industries use and benefit from the use of accurate directional
survey results.
There are two distinct types of directional survey equipment, Gyroscopic and Magnetic. Each will
give the same results but are used in different conditions. The object is to record for further
analysis the measured depth, the direction the bottom of the tool is in relation to the top of the
tool and the angle or inclination of the hole.
Image Log
Image logs use a rotating transducer to measure acoustic impedance across the entire borehole
wall. This can then be used to identify the presence and direction of rock fractures, as well as
understanding the dip direction of the stratigraphy.
Logging While Drilling
This technique provides similar well information to conventional wireline logging but instead of
sensors being lowered into the well at the end of wireline cable, the sensors are integrated into
the drill string and the measurements are made in real-time, whilst the well is being drilled. This
allows drilling engineers and geologists to quickly obtain information such as porosity,
resistivity, hole direction and weight-on-bit and they can use this information to make immediate
decisions about the future of the well and the direction of drilling. In LWD, measured data is
transmitted to the surface in real time via pressure pulses in the well's mud fluid column.
Coring

Coring is the process of obtaining an actual sample of a rock formation from the borehole. There
are two main types of coring; 'full coring', in which a sample of rock is obtained using a
specialized drill-bit as the borehole is first penetrating the formation and 'sidewall coring', in which
multiple samples are obtained from the side of the borehole after it has penetrated through a
formation. The main advantage of sidewall coring over full coring are that it is cheaper (drilling
doesn't have to be stopped) and multiple samples can be easily acquired, with the main
disadvantages being that there can be uncertainty in the depth at which the sample was acquired
and the tool can fail to acquire the sample.
Mud Logging
Mud logs are well logs prepared by describing rock or soil cuttings brought to the surface by
mud circulating in the borehole. The current oil industry standard mud log normally includes
real-time drilling parameters such as rate of penetration (ROP), lithology, gas hydrocarbons, flow
line temperature (temperature of the drilling fluid) and chlorides but may also include mud
weight, estimated pore pressure and corrected d-exponent (corrected drilling exponent) for a
pressure pack log. Other information that is normally notated on a mud log include directional
data (deviation surveys), weight on bit, rotary speed, pump pressure, pump rate, viscosity, drill
bit info, casing shoe depths, formation tops, mud pump info, to name just a few.
Production Logging
Production Logging evolved within the oil industry as it became necessary for the well operator
to obtain detailed knowledge of the nature and behavior of fluids during production cycles.
Gradually, many of these tools, techniques and purposes of Production Logging have been
adapted to the water industry. Some potential benefits are,

Early Evaluation of Completion Efficiency

Early Detection of disturbances which are not clearly revealed by measurements at the surface
Detailed information on zones of production
Detailed information on the extent of contamination within the aquifer

Drill Stem Test

It provides Information about permeability and productive capacity of a geological formation after
the drilling of a well. This test is an important measurement of pressure behavior at the drill stem
and is a valuable way of obtaining information on the formation fluid and establishing whether a
well has found a commercial hydrocarbon reservoir or not. The data obtained from DST is the
pressure vs. time.

Applications of DST

Measure the average reservoir and static reservoir pressure

Can get information about well productivity

Detect the reservoir boundaries if any

Average reservoir permeability

Calculate the reservoir heterogeneity

Check Shot and Vertical Seismic Profiling Survey

Both check shot and VSP are borehole techniques to find the exact time and depth of subsurface
horizons within the well. VSP is the new or latest version of check shot survey. Basic principle of
both borehole survey is same but geometry and technique is different.
Check Shot Survey
A type of borehole seismic data designed to measure the seismic travel time from the surface to a
known depth. P-wave velocity of the formations encountered in a wellbore can be measured
directly by lowering a geophone to each formation of interest, sending out a source of energy
from the surface of the Earth, and recording the resultant signal. From this survey, we will have
velocity & depth, we estimate the time & plot result in Time/Depth Scale.
Vertical Seismic Profiling
Vertical seismic profile is a borehole seismic recording technique that measures the behavior of
seismic wave fields as they propagate through the subsurface. In conventional VSP, we position
the seismic receiver deep in the earth, rather than on the surface as in traditional seismic surveys.
In VSP surveys, the receiver is therefore much closer to the subsurface target. Because the VSP
recording geometry shortens the target to receiver path, the losses due to absorption are lower
and so the frequency content is generally higher. In VSP, both the down going and up going
wave fields are measured because the receivers are located deep in the subsurface.
The VSP Measurement Procedure
In conventional vertical seismic profiling, we activate a seismic energy at or near the earth's
surface and record the down going and up going wave fields with receivers positioned at closely
spaced depths in a well. The recording geometry involved in a typical onshore VSP is essentially

the same as offshore except that we can use a wider variety of energy sources for onshore. For
onshore vertical seismic profiling, we can record VSP data in a cased well after the drilling rig
has moved away.
Purpose of VSP

To match or tie with surface seismic for accurate horizon picking

Accurate velocity model estimations near well point
When an improved image of the subsurface geology required near VSP well
By using frequency losses to judge which portions of the seismic frequency band are

most diagnostic of subsurface geological conditions

Provide an improved image of the stratigraphy near well
To provide as much reservoir information as possible
Identify primary seismic reflectors and interbed multiples
Identify dip of reflectors accurately within the well
Provide an alternative to the synthetic seismogram
Estimate structural dip, faults away from the well
Predict conditions ahead of the bit
Create high resolution images of the subsurface
For log calibration

Types of Vertical Seismic Profiling

VSP technique is categorized on the basis of geometry of source and
receiver used. The most widely used VSP types are discussed below.
Zero Offset VSP

The original acquisition geometry, with no offset between

source and wellbore, creates a zero offset VSP. Seismic
waves travel essentially vertically down to a reflector and up

to the receiver array

In most cases; unless formation dips are very high, this

survey acquires reflections from a narrow window around the borehole

The standard output from a zero-offset VSP is a corridor stack, created by summing the
VSP signals that immediately follow the first arrivals into a single seismic trace. That
trace is duplicated several times for clarity and comparison with surface seismic images.

Processing yields velocities of formations at different depths, which can be tied to well

log properties and interpreted for detection and prediction of overpressure zones
The velocity model can also be used to generate synthetics to identify multiples in surface
seismic processing.

Walk Above VSP

It is also known as a deviated-well, walk above, or vertical-

incidence VSP
It is designed to ensure that the source is always directly above

receivers deployed in a deviated or horizontal wellbore

In addition to formation velocities and image for correlation
with surface seismic data, benefits of a walk above VSP are
good lateral coverage and fault and dip identification beneath the
well

Offset VSP

Offset VSPs are acquired using a source placed at a horizontal

distance from the wellbore

The offset increases the volume of subsurface imaged and maps
reflectors at a distance from the borehole that is related to the offset
and subsurface velocities. The added volume of illumination
enhances the usefulness of the image for correlation with surface
seismic images, and for identification of faulting and dip laterally

away from the borehole

In addition, because the conversion of P-waves to S-waves increases
with offset, an offset VSP allows S-wave, AVO and anisotropy
analysis. The degree to which P-waves convert to S-waves depends
on offset and on interface rock properties

Walkaway VSP

Walkaway VSPs are similar to offset VSPs in that the source is

offset from vertical incidence, but the acquisition geometry is

somewhat reversed
The borehole receiver array remains stationary while the source

moves away from it, at a range of offsets

The range of offsets acquired in a walkaway VSP is particularly
useful for studying shear-wave, AVO and anisotropy effects. And,
because they can illuminate a large volume of subsurface, offset
and walkaway VSPs are useful elements in the design of surface
seismic surveys

3D VSP

3D VSPs can be acquired on land or offshore. Acquisition of 3D marine VSPs is similar to

that of 3D marine surface seismic surveys and can follow parallel lines or concentric circles

around a borehole. On land, source positions typically are laid out in a grid
3D VSPs deliver high-resolution subsurface imaging for exploration and development
applications, and require detailed

prejob modeling and planning

In addition to producing images at
higher resolution than surface
seismic methods, 3D VSPs can fill
in areas that cannot be aged by
surface seismic surveys because of
interfering surface infrastructure or
difficult
such

as

subsurface
shallow

conditions,
gas,

which

disrupts propagation of P-waves.

VSP While Drilling

To help reduce uncertainty in time depth correlation when we have

no VSP in or nearby field, then to avoid large uncertainties in TD
estimated from surface seismic, a seismic technique called seismic
while drilling is introduced

This technology uses a conventional seismic source at the surface,

an LWD tool containing seismic sensors in the drill string, and a
high-speed mud-pulse telemetry system to transmit information to
the surface is used

Availability of real-time seismic waveforms allows operators to look

thousands of feet ahead of the bit to safely guide the well to TD

Walk Around VSP

The walk around VSP is designed to characterize the direction and magnitude of anisotropy
that arises from aligned natural fractures

In this survey, offset source locations span a large circular arc to probe the formation from a
wide range of azimuths

Cross Well VSP

Propagating seismic signals between wells creates yet another type of borehole seismic
profile, known as a cross well seismic survey

In these surveys, downhole seismic sources, such as

downhole vibrators, are deployed at selected depths in
one borehole, shooting to a receiver array in another
borehole

Because the direction from source to receiver is

subparallel to layer boundaries, most ray paths
propagate without reflecting. Recorded data are
processed to extract information about the velocities in
the interwell region

Since cross well data do not contain much information

about reflectors, layer boundaries in the initial velocity
model used to process the cross well data typically come from sonic logs or standard VSPs

A limitation of the cross well method is the maximum allowable distance between boreholesa few thousand feet is typical which varies with rock type, attenuation, and source strength
and frequency content

Difference between VSP and Check Shot

A VSP is a much more detailed survey than a check-shot survey because the geophones
are more closely spaced, typically on the order of 25 m whereas a check-shot survey

might include measurements of intervals hundreds of meters apart.

A VSP uses the reflected energy contained in the recorded trace at each receiver position
as well as the first direct path from source to receiver. The check-shot survey uses only

the direct path travel time

In addition to tying well data to seismic data, the vertical seismic profile also enables
converting seismic data to zero phase data and distinguishing primary reflections from
multiples

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAHY
The analysis of sedimentary response to changes in base level, and the depositional trends that
emerge from the interplay of accommodation (space available for sediments to fill) and
sedimentation.
What is Sequence?
A group of relatively confirmable strata that represents a cycle of deposition and is bounded by
unconformities or correlative conformities. Sequence is a fundamental unit of interpretation in
the sequence stratigraphy.
Parasequence
Relatively confirmable depositional unit bounded by two marine flooded surfaces is called
Parasequence.
Sequence Boundary
A surface that separates older sequence from the younger one, a sequence boundary is an erosion
surface that separates cycles of deposition.
Depositional Environments
The area in which and physical condition under which sediments are deposited, including
sediment source, depositional processes location and climate.
Depositional Energy
The relative kinetic energy of the environment. Depositional energy is not simply the velocity
e.g. although glacier do not move quickly, they are capable of carrying large boulders.
Depositional System
The 3-Dimensional array of sediments that fills the basin, depositional system vary according to
the types of sediments available for deposition and depositional process and environment in
which they deposit e.g. Alluvial, fluvial system (deposit the sediments by river or running water),
deltaic, eoline system (deposit the sediments by wind), lacustrine (deposit the sediments in lake),
marine (deposit the sediments by sea or ocean water), glacial (deposit the sediments by glaciers).

Shelf, Slope, Turbidity currents and turbidities

Shelf
0

It is shallow submarine Plateform at the edge of continents inclined gently (< 1

) toward sea.

Water depth over shelf increases regularly as move away from land to deep Ocean. It is covered
by sediments (course sediments) that were deposited during a time of low sea level.
Slope
It is relatively steep part which is generally inclined at an angle

4 0 - 50 . Slope is separated

from shelf at point called shelf slope break.

Continental Rise
This is wedge of sediments that extend from lower part of continental slope and ends in the flat
abyssal plane (this is flat region normally continent extends 200 km into the sea there is a low
depositional energy) in deep sea ocean.

Accommodation Space (AS)

It is space available for the sediments to accumulate or deposit. Shelf is almost constant but
water depth changes.
AS= Shelf * Water Depth
Continental Margin
These are the places where continental crust meets with oceanic crust. There are two types of
margin. The line along which continent and ocean meet is called shore line.

Passive Margins
Active Margins

Passive Margins
These margins occurs where continental crust and oceanic crust are firmly joined together
because this margin is not associated with plate boundary, so there is no or little tectonic activity.
Active Margins
These are continental margins that coincides either transform or convergent plate boundaries. So
these margins are seismologically active. These are subduction zone where oceanic lithospheric
plates sink down the continents, so trenches are formed. These margins usually lack continental
rise and abyssal plane.
Eustatic sea level
The sea level measured from fixed datum that is basically center of the earth is called Eustatic
sea level.
Relative Sea Level
It is the sea level when measured from local
datum. Usually basement is used as local datum.
Off lap Break
If we traces the end of each episode (one bed we
get a line) called off lap break.
Transgression and Regression
If shore line migrates towards continents (proximal
side) then sea level increases this is called transgression. Due to transgression Retrogradation
occurs. If shore line migrates towards ocean (distal side). Then sea level decrease this is called
regression.

Gradual changes are observed when we moves from

proximal to distal side, coarse grain sand sediments
deposited at shelf area, fine grains sediments at abyssal
plane usually sand stone is deposited at shelf. Regression
is of following two types

Normal Regression
Force Regression

Normal Regression
Progradation driven by sediment supply. Sedimentation rates outpace the rates of base-level rise
at the coastline. Depositional trend is Progradation with
aggradation.
Force Regression
Progradation driven by base level fall. The coastline is
forced to regress, irrespective of sediment supply.
Depositional trend is Progradation to down stepping.

Topset, Forests and Bottom sets

0

Top set is flat area which is inclined at an angle < 1

horizontal to sub horizontal.
Foreset is area which is inclined at an angle >
10 . It is relatively steep than the topset. Mostly
silt and clay is deposited here.
Bottom sets are relatively flat portion in deep sea.

from horizontal. So it is almost

Onlaping
When almost horizontal marine flooded surfaces terminates on an
inclined plane (termination above the surface) this is called onlap.
Down lap
When the inclined marine flooded surfaces truncates on a horizontal
surface (termination above the surface) this is called down lap.
Top lap
The truncation or termination inside the Topset (termination below
the surface) this is called top lap.
Unconformity
A gap in deposition is called unconformity. A small gap in deposition is called Hiatus. An
unconformity can also be defined as, a geological surface separating older rocks from younger
rocks and representing the gap in geological record.
Recognition of unconformity

Difference in structure
Fossil record
Environment or time gap
Rock type changes

Disconformity
A

disconformity

is

an

unconformity

between

parallel layers of sedimentary rocks which represents a

period of erosion or non-deposition.
Paraconformity
A paraconformity is a type of unconformity in which
strata are parallel; there is little apparent erosion and the
unconformity surface resembles a simple bedding plane.
It is also known as nondepositional unconformity or
pseudoconformity.

Angular Unconformity
Angular unconformity
horizontally

is

parallel strata of

an

unconformity

sedimentary

where

rock

are

deposited on tilted and eroded layers, producing an

angular discordance with the overlying horizontal layers.

Nonconformity
Nonconformity

exists

between

sedimentary

rock

and metamorphic or igneous rocks when the sedimentary

rock lies above and was deposited on the pre-existing and
eroded metamorphic or igneous rock. Namely, if the rock
below the break is igneous or has lost its bedding by metamorphism, the plane of juncture is
nonconformity.

System Tract
Subdivision of sequences that consist of discrete depositional units that differ in geometry from
other system tract and have distinct boundaries on seismic data. OR
The system is 3-dimensional unit of deposition. Tract mosaic of different deposition of pattern
joined with one another. Different system tract represents different phases of Eustatic changes.

Aggradation
The process in which various sedimentary facies stacked over each other. This occurs when,
Accommodation space = Sedimentary facies
When aggradation occurred topset and Foreset have equal thickness, offlap break is straight; sea
level is neither decreases nor increases.

Retrogradation
The process in which sedimentary facies migrates towards proximal side (continental side). This
is due to transgression.
Accommodation space > sedimentary inflex
When Retrogradation occurred topset area becomes thick than that of Foreset/clinoform, offlap
break is trending towards proximal side.

Progradation
The process in which sedimentary facies migrates towards the distal side (sea side). This is due
to regression.

Accommodation space < sedimentary inflex

When Progradation occurred topset is thin but Foreset/clinoform becomes thick, offlap break is
trending towards distal side.

Transgressive Surface
Transgressive surface is a surface over which maximum onlap truncated also the maximum onlap
surface. It occurs at the top of the low stand system tract.

Maximum Flooded Surface

A surface which is passes from the top of transgressive system tract and passes through
sediments striation zone called the maximum flooding surface after it sea level again fall.

Sediments Striation Zone

It is the area of clinoform where less sediment approaches. There is no erosion or deposition.

Low Stand System Tracts

Low stand system tract is the oldest system tracts of type-1 sequence in which facies moves
towards distal side. Fans and prograding wedge are the main features of the low stand system
tract.

Transgressive system Tract

Transgressive system tract develop when the sea level again rise and facies moves toward
proximal side, accommodation space becomes more than the sedimentary inflex. Hence the
topset become thick.

High Stand System Tracts

High stand system tract is the youngest system tracts of type-1 sequence in which facies moves
towards distal side. Maximum flooding surface is the lower boundary of the high system tract
and sequence boundary is the upper boundary of high stand system tract.

PLAY ANALYSIS
Introduction
A play is a group of geologically related prospects having similar conditions of source, reservoir
and trap. Through play analysis, we try to answer,

What types of hydrocarbon traps are we likely to encounter in this basin?

What are the source and reservoir units?
Are there suitable migration pathways present between source and reservoir?

Play Elements
In order to effectively analyze a play, the seven play elements we must consider,

Source
Maturation
Migration
Reservoir
Seal
Trap
Timing

Source
Our primary concern with source rock is its ability to generate petroleum. The amount and type
of organic matter present in the source rock dictate not only whether petroleum is generated, but
also the amount and type of petroleum. We have to answer,

Does the source rock exist?

Does it have sufficient organic content i.e. greater than approximately 0.5%?
What type of organic matter does it contain?
How mature is the source?

In order to evaluate the source potential of a given rock, we must have both quantitative and
qualitative measures of organic content.
Maturation
Our next step is to determine the maturity of the source. We must consider such questions as, is
the source immature, mature, or over-mature and at what time did the source rock enter the oil
window and the gas window. The organic material in sedimentary rocks matures and passes
through several stages on its path to generating hydrocarbons.
Diagenesis
Diagenesis transforms plant and animal organic matter into kerogen, through biological,
chemical, and thermal processes.

Catagenesis
Catagenesis kerogen matures into bitumen, the direct precursor to petroleum. This stage is
followed by metagenesis, the intense thermal alteration of kerogen, bitumen, and petroleum into
methane and pyrobitumen (solid bitumen).
Two important aspects of maturation we must investigate are,

The organic matter/kerogen type present in the source rock

The temperature/pressure conditions to which the source has been subjected

Different kerogen types produce different hydrocarbons during catagenesis. We classify kerogens
by the type of organic material from which they are derived.
Kerogen Classification Systems
Type I kerogen (Alginite)
Is usually produced in lacustrine systems and is derived from organic material very high in algal
content. During catagenesis alginite converts into bitumen with efficiencies of up to 80 percent.
Type I kerogen is primarily oil-generative.
Type II kerogen (Exinite)
Is derived primarily from the remains of plankton deposited in marine systems and during
catagenesis generates both oil and gas at efficiencies up to 60 percent.
Type III kerogen (Vitrinite)
Is the product of woody vegetation debris and generates small amounts of bitumen during
catagenesis. Type III kerogen yields primarily gas although oil has been generated from some
coal units.
Type IV kerogen (Inertinite)
Is essentially non-generative consists of recycled or oxidized organic material that can occur in
any environment.
Oil and Gas Windows w.r.t to Depth and Temperature
In most sedimentary basins catagenesis begins at depths between 1-2 km. Oil generation takes
place primarily between 2-5 km, the oil window depending on geothermal gradients and duration
of burial. Gas is cogenerated with oil but continues below the oil floor to depths possibly as great
as 7 km in very cool basins, below which source rocks cease generating hydrocarbons. Oil
generation begins at temperatures above 60-100 degrees C. Condensates form between about

100-175 C. Kerogens generate only gas between about 175-225 C and previously formed
hydrocarbons will continue to crack into gas up to about 315 C.
Reservoir
We can often predict reservoir characteristics based on depositional systems models. When
evaluating the reservoir element in a play analysis, we must answer such questions as,

Porosity and permeability of our potential reservoirs

Thickness, laterally extension and continuity of reservoir units
Are the reservoirs closely associated with the source rocks?

A majority of petroleum reserves are found in clastic or carbonate reservoirs that retain primary
or diagenetic porosity and permeability. Sometimes, however, fine-grained clastic and carbonate
rocks can also serve as reservoirs. Fractured limestones, chalks, and shales can be prolific
reservoirs with very high production rates, which make them very attractive targets because of
rapid payout for drilling investments. Occasionally, heavily fractured metamorphic or igneous
rocks can also serve as reservoirs
Seal
A seal usually consists of an impermeable unit that overlies or surrounds a reservoir preventing
vertical or lateral movement of reservoir petroleum. Even with ideal source and reservoir units,
our play will fail without an effective seal. So, we must ask ourselves,

How laterally extensive are the seals

How thick are they
Do the seals have the optimal structural geometry to be effective

Typical seals are fine-grained clastic such as shales, fine-grained limestones, or anhydrite and
other evaporites. Course-grained rocks cemented with silica, calcite, halite, and asphalt also act
as seals. Fault surfaces can also be seals.
Trap
After petroleum has been generated and has migrated into a reservoir unit it will continue to
migrate through that unit unless it encounters a seal and is trapped in some way. When
considering the trap element, we must consider

Traps are according to structural style of basin?

How are these traps sourced?
What sort of mechanisms do we require to source the traps?
To seal the traps?

Trap size and geometry also determine the effectiveness of a trap. There are four major types of
traps: structural, stratigraphic, hydrodynamic, and combination
Structural Traps
Traps which are created by either folding or faulting. Common fold traps are created by
compressional folding due to thrusting or wrenching. Fault traps require a sealing fault or an
impermeable section across the fault from the reservoir unit. Growth faults create several
trapping configurations.
Stratigraphic Traps
Adjacent to unconformities are also subdivided into two classes. Those that occur above an
unconformity include Onlaping sands and sands that fill channels cut into an unconformity.
Those that occur below the unconformity are called truncation traps. In both cases, overlying
shale is the typical seal, and often the source as well.
Hydrodynamic Traps
Rely on downward moving water within a reservoir unit to restrict upward movement of
petroleum. This type of trap is rare.
Combination Traps
For example, a stratigraphic trap may be enhanced by structural folding or tilting. A truncation at
an unconformity may be tilted by faulting to form traps. Diapirism can also lead to several types
of traps.

What three factors determine the kind and amount of petroleum generated from an
organic-rich rock?

Organic matter type

Organic matter content
Level of maturation

Distinguish between primary and secondary migration.

Primary migration involves the movement of petroleum from the source bed into a porous

carrier bed
Secondary migration involves the movement of petroleum through the carrier bed into
reservoir rocks in a trap

Chance of Success
An estimate of the chance of all the elements within a prospect working, described as a
probability. High risk prospects have a less than 10% chance of working; medium risk prospects
10-20%, low risk prospects over 20%.
Dry Hole
A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon In-place
Amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect. This is calculated using the
volumetric equation,
GRV x N/G x Porosity x Sh x FVF GRV
Gross Rock Volume
Amount of rock in the trap above the hydrocarbon water contact.
Net/Gross Ratio
Proportion of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock (range is 0 to 1).
Hydrocarbon Saturation
Some of the pore space is filled with water - this must be discounted.
Formation Volume Factor
Oil shrinks and gas expands when brought to the surface. The FVF converts volumes at reservoir
conditions (high pressure and high temperature) to storage and sale conditions.
Lead
Potential accumulation is currently poorly defined and requires more data acquisition and/or
evaluation in order to be classified as a prospect.
Play
An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur.
Prospect
A lead which has been more fully evaluated.
Recoverable hydrocarbons
Amount of hydrocarbon likely to be recovered during production. This is typically 10-50% in an
oil field and 50-80% in a gas field.

Brute Stack
A processed seismic record that contains traces from a common midpoint that have been added
together but has undergone only cursory velocity analysis, so the NMO correction is a first
attempt. Typically, no static corrections are made before the brute stack.
Wavelet
A one-dimensional pulse and usually the basic response from a single reflector. Its key attributes
are its amplitude, frequency and phase. The wavelet originates as a packet of energy from the
source point, having a specific origin in time and is returned to the receivers as a series of events
distributed in time and energy. Wavelets also decay due to the loss of energy as heat during
propagation.
Synthetic Seismogram
A synthetic seismogram, commonly called a synthetic, is a direct one-dimensional model of
acoustic energy traveling through the layers of the Earth. The synthetic seismogram is generated
by convolving the reflectivity derived from digitized acoustic and density logs with the wavelet
derived from seismic data. By comparing marker beds or other correlation points picked on well
logs with major reflections on the seismic section, interpretations of the data can be improved.
The quality of the match between a synthetic seismogram depends on well log quality, seismic
data processing quality and the ability to extract a representative wavelet from seismic data. The
acoustic log is generally calibrated with check-shot or vertical seismic profile (VSP) first-arrival
information before combining with the density log to produce acoustic impedance.
Trace
A trace is a recording of the Earth's response to seismic energy passing from the source, through
subsurface layers, and back to the receiver.
Hydrocarbon Indicators
1. Bright Spot (Due to presence of gas)
In reflection seismology, a bright spot is a local high amplitude seismic attribute anomaly that
can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons and is therefore known as a direct hydrocarbon
indicator.
Theory
Bright spots result from large changes in acoustic impedance and tuning effect, such as when a
gas-sand underlies shale, but can also be caused by phenomena other than the presence of

hydrocarbons, such as a change in lithology. The effect decreases with depth because compaction
for sands and shales occurs at different rates and the acoustic impedance relationship stated
above will not hold after a certain depth/age. Below this depth, there will be a crossover of shale
and sand acoustic impedances and a dim spot is more useful to hydrocarbon exploration.
Caution
During seismic exploration of hydrocarbons bright spots are usually the first type of DHI, one
looks for. However there have been several cases where bright-spot anomalies have been drilled
and turned out not to be hydrocarbons. Some common "false bright sport" includes,

Volcanic intrusions and volcanic ash layers

Highly cemented sands often calcite cement in thin pinch-out zones
Low-porosity heterolithic sands
Over pressured sands or shales
Coal beds
Top of salt diapers

2. Dim Spot (Due to presence of oil)

In reflection seismology, a dim spot is a local low amplitude seismic attribute anomaly that can
indicate the presence of hydrocarbons and is therefore known as a direct hydrocarbon indicator.
It primarily results from the decrease in acoustic impedance contrast when a hydrocarbon (with a
low acoustic impedance) replaces the brine-saturated zone (with a high acoustic impedance) that
underlies a shale (with the lowest acoustic impedance of the three) decreasing the reflection
coefficient.
Occurrence
For a dim spot to occur the shale has to have a lower acoustic impedance than both the water
sand and the oil/gas sand, which is the opposite situation required for a bright spot to occur. This
is possible because compaction causes the acoustic impedances of sands and shales to increase
with age and depth but it does not happen uniformly younger shales have higher acoustic
impedance than younger sands, but this reverses at depth, with older shales having lower
acoustic impedance than older sands.
3. Flat Spot (Due to presence of gas-water, oil-water or gas-oil contact)
Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section; flat due to gravity. A flat
spot is a seismic attribute anomaly that appears as a horizontal reflector cutting across the

stratigraphy elsewhere present on the seismic image. Its appearance can indicate the presence of
hydrocarbons. Therefore it is known as a direct hydrocarbon indicator.
Theory
A flat spot can result from the increase in acoustic impedance when a gas-filled porous rock
(with lower acoustic impedance) overlies a liquid-filled porous rock (with higher acoustic
impedance). It may stand out on a seismic image because it is flat and will contrast with
surrounding dipping reflections.
Caution
There are a number of other possible reasons for there being a flat spot on a seismic image. It
could be representative of a mineralogical change in the subsurface or an unresolved shallower
multiple. Additionally, the interpretation of a flat spot should be attempted after depth conversion
to confirm that the anomaly is actually flat.
Zero Offset and Non Zero Offset Data
Seismic data acquired with no horizontal distance between the source and receiver. Stacking
seismic data acquired with separated sources and receivers gives the data the appearance of zerooffset data. Zero-offset data is important to a geophysicist because the migration operation is
much simpler, and can be represented by spherical surfaces. When data is acquired at non-zero
offsets, the sphere becomes an ellipsoid and is much more complex to represent both
geometrically, as well as computationally.