1

, ErrorCorrecting Codes,

(data)

ECC ,

(channel),

ECC , ,

, CD ,

RAM ECC RAM,

, ,

RAM

, ,

(noisy data),

, ,

, ,

? 1948

(magnetic tape)

, ,

(magnetic disk); (com-

pact disk, CD) ,

, ,

, (CD

1948 Claude

player) ,

Shannon A mathemat-

ical theory of communications,

(model) ( 1)

,
,

data

............................................................................

channel

noisy
data

, (channel capac-

..........................................................................

ity), ,
, (code)
1

2 83 12

, ,
,

,
(sets) ABC ( 3.1)

, ,
(information theory),
ECC 1948
40 ,
Shannon
, Shannon ?

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A....................

,
(en-

3.1

coder)( 2)

1, 2, , 7,
data Encoder ................data
................................................................
Channel......................
...
redundancy
...

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good
noisy data
...................data
......................................
Decoder
noisy redundancy
2

,
, (redundant bits),
,

1101, 1, 2, 3, 4
, bits ,
1, 3.2
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A....................

3.2

,
, (decoder),

bits 010,

1101010, ,

.SingleError Correcting(SEC) Codes

,
, 1101010,
6 bit , 1 0, 3.3a

, 3.3b, A 3 1,
..............................
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...............................

3.3a

, B 4 1, , C 3 1,
, A C B C ,
3, ,
bit, 3.3c,
, AB C,
1
, , ,
, single
error correcting (SEC)

.........
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....................................

(7, 4)? 7, 4 bits

, (7, 4)
Hamming code? Hamming 1950
, ? ,
67 bits , 3.4

3.3b

(7, 4) Hamming code,

3.3c
,
1 , A 1,
, C 1, , B

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A...................

3.1
A , B C ,
4 bit,
, , ,
bits ,

3 1, , 6

, , ?

, 0 1,

, ,

, 3 bit,

bits ,

4 83 12

3 bits,

codewords ?

, bits

,
,

1. (7, 4) Hamming Code

(7, 4)Hamming code

, ?

(binary arithmetics), ,

1 1 1 0 1 0 0

H=
1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 ,

C codewords ,
x C xrow vector,
HxT = 0, CH null
space, dimension 7
rank 3, 4, C
24 = 16 codewords
, 4 data bits,

....
...
..
...
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...
.
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.

....
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..
.

0 0

0 0

1 1

1 0

7 bits, 4 bits
, 24 16 , 16
codewords.

1.1 Syndrome
codewords

H null space, ?
codeword x,

1
modulo 2,

e, 4

2
,

x ........................................ Channel

........................................

y =x+e

, :

x1

+ x2 + x3

x1 + x2

x1

+ x5
+ x4

=0
+ x6

+ x3 + x4

=0
+ x7

=0

xi {0, 1}

4
bit , ebit
1, 0, 1 1,
1, 1 0, e

(linear equations),

syndrome, syndrome

, ,
, ,
syndrome ?
HyT , y = x + e,

1 ,

e (0000010),

0
, 15 ,

, HxT + HeT , xcodeword,

, 1 ,

HxT = 0, HeT , syn-

, (1101010)

drome , codeword , syndrome e

, , e,
codeword ,
24 = 16,
? 1 ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
yx , y =
(1101000) = (1101010) + (0000010),
syndrome
sT = Hy T

1 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1

1 0 1 1 0 0

0
0

0
1


0

, syndrome
0 ,
0

1

bit ,
1 ,
1

1

bit
1 , , bit

0 , syndromes ,

1
syndrome
, ,

codeword

, , (7,
4) Hamming code

1.2. Hamming Distance &

Hamming Weight
syndrome ,
Hamming distance
Hamming weight
Hamming distance?

x = (0001011) x

(1101010), Hamming distance

bit 1, H

, dH (x, x ) =

e?

6 83 12

3, 3 bits Ham-

ming weight, 0

, wH (x) = 3, wH (x ) =

4 x x Hamming

distance x + x Hamming

1 1 1 0 1 0 0

H=
1 1 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 1

null space

weight, 0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 1 = 0,

1,

minimum distance minimum

0 bits ,

weight, codeword

bits , Hamming dis-

0 , 1

tance ,

1? ,

minimum distance,

codeword weight 1, H

codewords Ham-

cloumn, 0,

ming distance,

codeword null space ,

minimum distance:

1 2 ,

minimum

distance

weight 2 codeword H,

dmin (C) = min

dH (x, x ).

x,x C

x6=x

minimum weight,
0 codewords, Hamming
weight minimum
weight:
wmin (C) = min wH (x).
xC
x6=0

H column , H
column ,
0, codeword
null space 3?
, weight 3 codeword H
3 columns ,
col
0
0

umn column
0 , 0
1
1
column, codeword

minimum distance minimum

(1100001), weight 3,

weight ,

codewords 7

(linear) , null space

linear subspace, ,

, dmin = wmin = 3
, t,

cordwords codeword,

? minimum distance

codewords Hamming distance

, t, minimum

Hamming weight,

distance 2t + 1, ? 5

, dmin (C) = wmin (C)

columns
..........
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..
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...
...
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...

.
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...
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...
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......
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...........................

columns , columns
, weight 2
codeword, H, columns
, 0, column
, columns

5
, codeword,
codeword Hamming

, ? rows
bits, columns

distance t (binary

bits data , ,

vectors), t,

rows , columns ,

, , x

, ,

t, x t,

3 rows, columns 7 ,

x, x ,

8 ? 8 ,

t, 1,

column ,
0
0

, xx t + 1 + t =
2t + 1, codewords
2t + 1, minimum distance
2t + 1 , minimum distance 2t + 1,
t,
,

0 , 0 , ,

0
0
,
syndrome

0

0 , , bit

0
, , 3 rows ,

codeword ,

23 1 = 7 columns

t,

? rows m,

codewords,

2m 1 columns,

2t + 1 minimum

, :

distance 3, ,

2. SEC Hamming
Codes
(7, 4) Hamming code
, minimum

distance

3,

H=

1 0

.
..

.
..

1
0
..
.

0 0

..

{z

2m 1

2m 1 bits,
H rows (linearly inde-

8 83 12

pendent), H null space,

m

dimension 2 1 rank m,

, ,
, H

(2m 1, 2m m1) SEC Hm-

SEC

maing code

.Double-Error
Correcting (DEC) Codes

= (1 2 15 ), where 1

0

0

, 2
0

0

, , etc.
1

1
0
,

, 4 rows,

4 1 column vectors, i

, ,
, , ,
, ?

?
, m =

15

15

syndrome,

0

0

.. ,
.

0
column, ,

4,
000000011111111

H =
0

HDEC =

i,

1. SEC DEC

0011110000111
1100110011001

101010101010101

columns , ,
syndromes
, column columns

, i

4 15, column

i, i = f (i ),

, ,

(15, 11) SEC Hamming code, 4 bits

, , f

, 11 bits data,

, ,

4 redundant bits ,
4 bits
, 4 rows,
,

, , i
, ?

2. Finite Fields

, ,

0


0

, ,

? ,

, 0 , Abelian

Abelian group,

0


1

,
, ;
group; ,

0
, 4 1

, field

columns 16 binary vec-

16 field, 16

tors, 16

0, 1, 2, , 9, A, B, C, D, E, F,

field , field

2,

, ,

, ,

, ,

Abelian group, 0

field field

Abelian group, ,

, , field

field, ?

Hexadecimal field
+
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

1
1
0
3
2
5
4
7
6
9
8
B
A
D
C
F
E

2
2
3
0
1
6
7
4
5
A
B
8
9
E
F
C
D

3
3
2
1
0
7
6
5
4
B
A
9
8
F
E
D
C

4
4
5
6
7
0
1
2
3
C
D
E
F
8
9
A
B

5
5
4
7
6
1
0
3
2
D
C
F
E
9
8
B
A

6
6
7
4
5
2
3
0
1
E
F
C
D
A
B
8
9

7
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
F
E
D
C
B
A
9
8

8
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

9
9
8
B
A
D
C
F
E
1
0
3
2
5
4
7
6

A
A
B
8
9
E
F
C
D
2
3
0
1
6
7
4
5

B
B
A
9
8
F
E
D
C
3
2
1
0
7
6
5
4

C
C
D
E
F
8
9
A
B
4
5
6
7
0
1
2
3

D
D
C
F
E
9
8
B
A
5
4
7
6
1
0
3
2

E
E
F
C
D
A
B
8
9
6
7
4
5
2
3
0
1

F
F
E
D
C
B
A
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

2
0
2
4
6
8
A
C
E
3
1
7
5
B
9
F
D

3
0
3
6
5
C
F
A
9
B
8
D
E
7
4
1
2

4
0
4
8
C
3
7
B
F
6
2
E
A
5
1
D
9

5
0
5
A
F
7
2
D
8
E
B
4
1
9
C
3
6

6
0
6
C
A
B
D
7
1
5
3
9
F
E
8
2
4

7
0
7
E
9
F
8
1
6
D
A
3
4
2
5
C
B

8
0
8
3
B
6
E
5
D
C
4
F
7
A
2
9
1

9
0
9
1
8
2
B
3
A
4
D
5
C
6
F
7
E

A
0
A
7
D
E
4
9
3
F
5
8
2
1
B
6
C

B
0
B
5
E
A
1
F
4
7
C
2
9
D
6
8
3

C
0
C
B
7
5
9
E
2
A
6
1
D
F
3
4
8

D
0
D
9
4
1
C
8
5
2
F
B
6
3
E
A
7

E
0
E
F
1
D
3
2
C
9
7
6
8
4
A
B
5

F
0
F
D
2
9
6
4
B
1
E
C
3
8
7
5
A

2
p, Zp = {0, 1, 2, ,
p 1}, arithmetics modulo p

field field
? , p

10 83 12

, 1, , p 1,

a(x), a(x)m irreducible

? Euclid s algorithm,

polynomial, irreducible polynomial

, finite field,

, modulo a(x)

field,

field , Zp

, irreducible polyno-

10 field?

, finite

mial

field ,

, 2 16

10 , 10

field, a(x) = x4 + x + 1, bi-

field, 16 = 24 ,

nary polynomial ,

4 = 2 , ,

x4 + 1, (x2 + 1)2 ,

Z4 , 4,

x4 + x2 + x2 + 1, x2 + x2 = 0,

field, ,

x4 + 1,

2 , modulo 4

, 1,

x4 + x + 1,

, 4

irreducible polynomial

field, , 16

2 0, 1, 2, , F binary , 0

, Z16 , field,

0000, 1 0001, 2 0010, 3

, ?

0011, , F 1111, poly-

, finite field

nomials 0 0, 1 1, 2 x, 3

, pm

x + 1, , F x3 + x2 + x + 1,

finite field, GF (pm ),

, A1010, C1100, A+C = 0110,

Galois, fi-

6, 2 A + C = 6

nite field ,

, A C =? Ax3 + x, C

20

x3 + x2 , A C = x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 ,

pm finite field,

3, modulo

, Zp ,

x4 + x + 1, 1,

0p 1, m,

2, A C = 1,

m 1, m,

pm finite fields

0 p 1, p, pm,

, pm fields

field isomorphic,

Zp, modulo

, ,

isomorphic , finite field

m

11

bits , (15, 7)

, GF (p )

BCH code, BCH

, BC code, Bose

finite field ,

RayChaudhuri 1960

, ,

, 1959

, fi-

Hocquenghem,

nite field multiplier,

, BCH code

minimum distance

(basis)

5, ,

, ,

? , ,

H, codeword
0, He,

3. BCH Codes

8 1, 4 1

, H

DEC
0

columns

,

1

0


0

4 1GF (16)
!
s
1
,
s1 s3 , sT = HeT =
s3
syndrome ,
!
x
+
, xy bits, sT =
x3
!
!
!
s1
x+y
y
, ,
=
=
s3
x3 + y 3
y3
x + y = s1 x3 + y 3 = s3 ,
, s31 = (x + y)3 = x3 +

1
1, 2, 3, , F , columns

x2 y + xy 2 + y 3 , s3 , s31 + s3 =

, ,

x2 y + xy 2 = xy(x + y), s1,

C 3 = (C C) C = F C = 8,

3
s1 s+s
= xy, s1 s3 ,
1

x + y xy, 1 = x +

y, 2 = xy, x + yxyxy



1 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 ABC DEF
HDEC =
,
1 8F C A11AF F C 8 A 8 C

(15, 7) , 15 col-

, ,
,
:

umns, 8 rows, 8

2 + 1 + 2 = 0,

, dimension= 15

xy ,

8 = 7, 7 bits data, 8

? ,

12 83 12

x, y, s3 = s31 , s31 + s3 = 0,

2 = 0, 0,

algorithm , decoding algo-

, ,

rithm, BerlekampMassey al-

gorithm, Shannon

MIT ,

8
3

!,
!

s1 3 +s3
s1

s1
s3

83 +3
8

syndrome sT =

, 1 = s1 = 8, 2 =
=

A+3
8

9
8

= 9 81 =

9 F = E, + 8 + E = 0
,
2, ?

2
b 2ab 4ac ,

, 2a

0 , ,
Try and Error,

? field ,
16 , ,

Euclid s algorithm

, ?
3, ?
? 5
, 7 , ,
, t, 2t1
, columns
, 3, 5 , ,
, BCH
code

15 , GF (28 ),

.Reed-Solomon Codes

255, 255

, 255 ,

= 1, 1 + 8 + E = 7,

, Reed,

, 2, 4 + 3 + E = 9, , 3,

Solomon, ReedSolomon code

5 + B + E = 0, , 3,

nonbinary code, 1960

8 ,

Reed Solomon ,

3 + 8 = B, 3 B,

MIT Lincoln Laboratory,

2, 3 bit 11

, ,

bit,

DEC BCH code ,

, (n, k) code,

, x + y

minimum distance n k + 1,

xy,

binary ,

, ,

, bit binary,

symbol finite field

13

, , m
bits( 6) finite field GF (2m )

, ,

,
,
10010101
| {z } 01010011
| {z }
m bits
m bits
6

? ( 7)
m

...

...
....
...
.......
.
.......
........
.......
...
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
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........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

15.
12.5

GF (2 ) ,

10.

, ,

7.5

, finite field

5.

? Reed

2.5

Solomon :

5.9

3.6

, ,
1, 2, ,
,
, ,

...
...
.....
...
......
.
.........
........
..........
...
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
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...
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..
..........
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.
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.
.
.
.....
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..
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........
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.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.....
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...
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.
.........
.
.
.
........
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.
......
...
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...
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...
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.
.
.
.
.
.
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...
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.
.
.
.
..
.
.
..
.......
.......
... ............
.........
...
..
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................

12.8

12.5

, ,

10.

(8), , min-

7.5

imum distance 5,

5.

minimum distance n k + 1,

2.5

n k + 1 = 5, n k = 4, n k

15.1

15.

10.5

8.2

5.9

3.6

, ,

, 3, 4, 5, 6
, ,
, 9
, ,

...
...
...
.
........
........
...
....
...
.
........
........
...
...
...
........
..
........
...
...
...
.........
.
........
...
...
...
..
........
...
...
.........
.........
...
.
........
...
...
...
...
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................

10.6

10.
7.5

, ,

5.

10 , ,

2.5

, ,

12.8

12.5

, ,

15.1

15.

8.2

3.6

3.6

14 83 12
...
...
...
......
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.
..........
........
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...
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
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..
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.
.
...
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.
.
.
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..
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
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......
...
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......
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....
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.
...
...
....... ..
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
...
.
........
....
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
. ..........
...
...
.....
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
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....
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.....
.
.
.
...
.
.
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...
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.
.......
........
.......
... .............
.........
...
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

15.1

15.

12.8

12.5

10.6

10.

8.2

7.5

5.

13

3.6

3.6

2.5

40
30
20
10

1.2 2.2

,
()( 12),
, (13),
data ,
,
data, ,
, ,
1,
1, ,
, t, 2t
,
finite field, fi-

11

...
...
.
...
...
.
...
..
......
...
..
.
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
.
..
...
.....
...
...
...
...
...
..
.
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
.
...
.
.
..
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.. .....
...
...
...
....
..
...
.
.
......
.
....
........
....
.... ..........
.....
.....
.....
...
.....
......
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
........
.....
...
...........
..........
......... .
...
.............
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

40

parabola

30

bits, ( 11),

10

...
...
...
.
.....
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
.....
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
......
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
......
...
...
...
...
...
.......
...
.......
...
..
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.6

data, m

nite field , ,
, ,

20
10

3.6

1.2 2.2

...
...
...
...
..
.
........
.....
...
..
.
.
...
..
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
..
.
..
...
.....
...
...
..
...
..
.
.
...
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...
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...
.
.
...
.....
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
.
.
...
........
...
....
...
...
.
....
.
.
......
.
.
........
....
.....
.... .........
........
.....
...
.......
......
.....
.
...
.
........
.
.
.
...
...........
.....
..........
............
.........
....
...............
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

40.2

40
30

25.6

20

14.4

3.6

6.6

1.2 2.2

Compact Disk
Digital Audio System,

12

10

. Compact Disk Digital Audio System

(digital) , ,
, , 0
1, ,
(analog) disk
12, ,
74 , 1.5 106 bits/sec,
74 6 109 bits ,
,

15

, track ,

, CD

, 3.5 , track

8mm ,

0.5 106 ,

CD

, ,

CrossInterleaved Reed

Solomon Codes, CIRC,

ReedSolomon Codes, (32,

28), (28, 24), symbol

8 bits, (32, 28), redundancy 4, , (28,
24) ,
,
cross interleaving
? 32 bits 28
bits , 2824 bits ,
28
32

24
28

= 43 , 34 ,

CD 6 109 bits ,
2 109 bits
4000 bits
, 2.5mm track,
8mm track, (detect)
, ,
, , ,
,

1. E. R. Berlekamp, ed., Key Papers in the

Development of Coding Theory. New
York: IEEE Press, 1974.
2. R. E. Blahut, Theory and Practice of
Error-Control Codes. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley, 1983.
3. S. Lin and D. J. Costello, Jr., Error Control Coding, Fundamentals and
Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1983.
4. R. J. McEliece, The Theory of Information and Coding. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley, 1977.
5. R. J. McEliece, Finite Fields for
Computer Scientists and Engineers.
Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987.