Seminar Four: Presentations

Formal vs informal communication style

Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture defines formal as (1) based on or done according to
correct or accepted rules, e.g. of social behaviour or official business, and (2) (of words or a style of writing or
speaking) suitable for official occasions, serious writing, etc., but not for ordinary conversation. It follows that a
formal style is characterized by detachment, accuracy, rigidity, and heaviness, while an informal style is more
flexible, direct, implicit, and involved, but less informative.
A formal style is characterized by some special attention to form, where the formal speaker tries to
approximate as closely as possible the standard form and pronunciation of the language, perhaps the way it is
defined in textbooks. But why would someone want to invest more than the usual amount of attention in the form
of his or her expressions? We assume that language production will in general obey Grices Cooperative
Principle1, which includes requirements of informativeness (quantity), truth (quality), relevance (relation), and the
avoidance of obscurity and ambiguity (manner). In that perspective, speakers would pay more than the normal
attention to form, if they would want to make sure that their expressions are not misunderstood. That would be
necessary in those situations where effective communication is for some reason more difficult or more important
than in ordinary circumstances.
For example, in a court situation, it is essential that no part of the verdict be misinterpreted; on the other
hand, in informal talk among friends, precise understanding is neither difficult to achieve nor very important.
Linguists and communication experts distinguish between two types of formality: (i) surface formality,
characterized by attention to form for the sake of convention or form itself, and (ii) deep formality, that is,
attention to form for the sake of unequivocal understanding of the precise meaning of the expression.
There are both structural and functional characteristics of communication occasions that require more or less
formality.
Task 1
Place the following characteristics in the right column.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

Relationship among the participants

Coordination of routine transactions within groups and organizations
Participants social roles
Effective cooperation and coordination
Nature of the communication setting
Supporting the social functions of groups
Frequency of communication
Communication channel
Coordination in the face of value conflicts and disagreements
Structural characteristics

Functional characteristics

Task 2
Make a rule about how each of the above factors influences the formality of a communicative event.
Example: (Relationship among the participants) Conversations among strangers or among those with highly
unequal status will be more formal than conversations among close friends or among peers.
Formal and informal English
Written English, in the same way as spoken English, may be formal or informal. In general, informal spoken
English contains a number of colloquialisms (conversational expressions) that are inappropriate for formal written
English (e.g. academic, official and business styles). It is important not to mix the styles!
Written formal style will not normally contain the following: (1) phrasal verbs; (2) idioms; (3) contractions;
(4) hesitation fillers (er, um, well, you see, you know, etc); and (5) personal pronouns (see the table below).

The Cooperative Principle (CP) described by Paul Grice in Logic and Conversation (1975) invokes the maxims of quantity,
quality, relation, and manner. These are considered rational and logical requirements that participants in communication are
expected to observe in order to get their meaning across. The principle is intended as a description of peoples normal
behaviour in conversations, not as prescriptive guidelines.

Informal English
to look at
to hold all the cards
didnt; theyve;
I, you, we
Examples:
I think this is an effective plan.
You put the chemicals in the test tube.
We used two different methods of
research.

Formal English
to investigate
to have a very strong advantage
did not; they have
Introductory It, There or passive
tenses
Examples:
It seems that this is an effective plan.
The chemicals are put in the test tube.
There were two different methods of
research.

Task 3
Reformulate the following informal spoken explanations or definitions of economics in the formal written style.
Economics? Yes, well, um ...economics is, I suppose, about people trying to ...let me see...match things that are
scarce you know with things that they want ...oh yes, and how these efforts have an effect on each
other...through exchange, I suppose.
Task 4
Study the following sentences. Are they formal (F) or informal (I)?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

There are a number of reasons why the questionnaire should be revised.

I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long.
The project will be completed next year.
It is not clear why such terrible conditions were tolerated for so long.
Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can be concluded.
It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation.
I showed that his arguments did not hold water.
Hell have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment.
It is possible to consider the results from a different viewpoint.

Task 5
Edit the following sentences from a report by replacing the informal words and phrases with formal ones. Explain
why those changes are necessary.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

To take a look at the problem of declining numbers of visitors to Romania, we decided to do a really big
survey.
We made a questionnaire and handed it out to 2,000 people.
We did this because right now we dont have any hard data on why tourist numbers are declining.
Theres not much information available either on what might bring them back to Romania.
The return rate for the questionnaire was really bad at only 15%, but this figure should provide a firm basis
for talking about why tourist numbers are going down.

Listener orientation
What is listening?
Listening is a process of taking what you hear and organizing it into verbal units to which you can apply meaning.
The listening process involves three phases:
Signal processing
Literal processing
Reflective processing
Task 1
Can you explain what happens in each phase?
Task 2
Study the following list of listening skills and decide whether they are engaged in the signal processing (SP) or
the reflective processing stage (RP).
1) Get central theme
2) Judge relevancy
3) Identify speaker attitudes
4) Get main ideas
5) Retain pertinent content
6) Predict what will happen next
7) Judge validity of ideas
8) Resist reactions to emotional language
9) Discriminate between fact and inference
10) Understand imagery implied by words
11) Detect personality profile
12) Follow instructions and directions
13) Detect patterns in thinking style
Task 3
Do you agree with these statements? Explain why/not.
1) Listening is a natural process.
2) Hearing and listening are the same.
3) Message sent = message received.
4) The speaker is primarily responsible for the success of the communication.
Types of listening
Different situations require different types of listening. We may listen to obtain information, improve a
relationship, gain appreciation for something, make discriminations, or engage in a critical evaluation.
Task 4
Match the types of listening (1-5) with their corresponding descriptions (a-e) and the key factors/behaviours (iv) on which the quality of each depends.
1)
Informative listening
2)
Relationship listening
3)
Appreciative listening
4)
Critical listening
5)
Discriminative listening
a)
b)

c)

Its purpose is either to help an individual or to improve the relationship between people.
It may be the most important type, for it is basic to the other four: by being sensitive to changes in the
speakers rate, volume, force, pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener can detect even nuances of
difference in meaning; by sensing the impact of certain responses, relationship listening can be
strengthened; by detecting differences between sounds made by certain instruments in the orchestra, etc.
appreciative listening is enhanced; finally, being sensitive to pauses and other vocal and nonverbal cues
allows listeners to more accurately judge not only the speakers message, but also his/her intentions.
The listeners primary concern is to understand the message; listeners are successful insofar as the
meaning they assign to messages is as close as possible to that which the sender intended.

d)
e)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

It includes listening to music for enjoyment, to speakers because you like their style, to your choices in
theater, television, radio, or film; it is the response of the listener, not the source of the message that
defines it.
This is essential in a democracy: on the job, in the community, at service clubs, in places of worship, and
in the family. Politicians, the media, salesmen, advocates of policies and procedures, and our own
financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual needs require us to place a premium on the
thinking that accompanies it.
presentation (the medium, the setting, the style and personality of the presenter, etc.); perception
(expectations, attitudes); previous experience;
interest in words and language; sensitivity to the context in which words are used; concentration, which
requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of responsibility; memory;
hearing ability; awareness of and attention to the sound structure of the language; integration of
nonverbal cues, which may be the key to understanding the true or intended meaning;
attending (paying attention, nonverbal cues, eye contact); supporting (discretion, belief, patience);
empathizing (feeling and thinking with another person);
ethos: speaker credibility (expertness and trustworthiness); logos: quality of arguments; pathos: the use
of psychological appeals to gain an emotional response from listeners.

Barriers to listening
There are a number of barriers to listening that, if we are aware of them, we can try to counteract. These are:
1)
Word meanings
2)
Physical discomfort
3)
Disconfirming responses (irrelevant, interrupting, tangential, impersonal, or impervious/impenetrable
responses)
4)
Thought speed (Tortoise and Hare factor)
5)
Premature evaluation
6)
Focus on detail
7)
Distractions
8)
Emotional reactions
9)
Prejudice/expectations/perceptions
Task 5
Try to explain how these factors impede listening.
Task 6
Consider the barriers to listening (1-9, above) and think of areas we need to work on in order to develop effective
listening skills.
Task 6
Comment on these quotes.

Effective listeners remember that words have no meaning people have meaning. The assignment of
meaning to a term is an internal process; meaning comes from inside us. And although our experiences,
knowledge and attitudes differ, we often misinterpret each others messages while under the illusion that a
common understanding has been achieved. Larry Barker

It takes two to speak the truth one to speak and another to hear. Thoreau

Much silence makes a powerful noise. African proverb

The wise old owl lived in an oak;

The more he saw the less he spoke;
The less he spoke the more he heard:
Why cant we all be like that bird? Edward H. Richards

An essential part of true listening is the discipline of bracketing, the temporary giving up or setting aside of
ones own prejudices, frames of reference and desires so as to experience as far as possible the speakers
world from the inside, step in inside his or her shoes. This unification of speaker and listener is actually an
extension and enlargement of ourselves, and new knowledge is always gained from this. Moreover, since
true listening involves bracketing, a setting aside of the self, it also temporarily involves a total acceptance
of the other. Sensing this acceptance, the speaker will feel less and less vulnerable and more and more
inclined to open up the inner recesses of his or her mind to the listener. As this happens, speaker and listener

begin to appreciate each other more and more, and the duet dance of love is begun again. M. Scott Peck,
MD