Chapter 2 Notes

English Exploration
. 1497 John Cabot explores NE coast, sponsored by King Henry 7
. Economic motives
* Charters: Muscovy, Levant, Barbary, Guinea, East India Co.
* Mercantilism = driving factor (wealth finite, nation as a whole should participate in economy, goal
of economics is to increase nation’s total wealth, wealth = at expense of others
* Richard Hakluyt argues that colonies = new markets for Eng good, and help
poverty/unemployment by taking extra pop
. Religious motives
* Puritan separatists (Luther  Calvin  Eng Reformation  COE)
 Wanted reforms for COE, to reduce pwr of bishops, to reform clergy
 Wanted the church to be more spiritual, not worldly
. England and Ireland
* Attempted to civilize Irish
“barbaric”, must be suppressedChapter 2 Notes

English Exploration
. 1497 John Cabot explores NE coast, sponsored by King Henry 7
. Economic motives
* Charters: Muscovy, Levant, Barbary, Guinea, East India Co.
* Mercantilism = driving factor (wealth finite, nation as a whole should participate in economy, goal
of economics is to increase nation’s total wealth, wealth = at expense of others
* Richard Hakluyt argues that colonies = new markets for Eng good, and help
poverty/unemployment by taking extra pop
. Religious motives
* Puritan separatists (Luther  Calvin  Eng Reformation  COE)
 Wanted reforms for COE, to reduce pwr of bishops, to reform clergy
 Wanted the church to be more spiritual, not worldly
. England and Ireland
* Attempted to civilize Irish
* “barbaric”, must be suppressed
* Sir Humphrey Gilbert suppressed rebellions, did not consider natives to be humans, not entitled to
decencies
* Led to assumption that Eng settlements must separate from the native pop
* Tried to build completely isolated settlement
. The French and Dutch in America
* Fr forged connections with natives inland
* Jesuits and fur traders
* Trade = alliance with certain tribes, but conflict with Iroquois
* 1609 French attack on Mohawks
* 1609 Henry Hudson est Dutch presence in NW
. First English Settlements
* (Decline of Spanish pwr after Armada, increase in Eng confidence)
* Sir H. Gilbert has permission from Eliz to est land 1578, but lost at sea
* Sir Walter Raleigh also goes abroad, brings Grenville with him to est Roanoke – “Lost Colony”

VIRGINIA
. 1607 London Company sends men to Jamestown in Chesapeake Bay
. Bad location (swampy, humid, disease-ridden), in territory of NA
. Efforts of habitation failed, London Co drained of $
. Problems = disease, too much priority on export and not for growing food, no women sent at first (family
not priority)
. Captain John Smith becomes council president in 1608, est order in the colony
. London Co = Virginia Co
. 1609 sends more people to Jamestown/Virginia, some ships lost at sea, weak by the time they reached the
NW
. Starving Time 1609 – 1610
* Indians antagonized by John Smith’s raids, isolated colonists
. Colonists (old + new) about to leave, but met with supply ship + governor
. Lord De La Warr = first governer of Virginia
* Imposed harsh discipline, not v. effective
* Permitted private ownership of land (personal incentive)
* Virginia expands
. Tobacco
* Major cash crop
* Discovered in 1612 by John Rolfe
* Caused pressure for expansion b/c required large areas of farmland and exhausted the soil
. Headright system
* 50 acre grants of land for settlers, effort to recruit ppl to colony
* Encouraged families (more ppl = more land)
. House of Burgesses
* 1619 delegates meeting
* 1st meeting of elected legislature/representative assembly
. Expansion + NA
* Expansion came at expense of NA
* Sir Thomas Dale led assaults against Powhatan Indians
* Chief’s daughter, Pocahontas, kidnapped  married John Rolfe 1614
* Chief dies, replaced by Opechancanough, attacked 1622, killed JR
. Demise of the Virginia Company
* Faced bankruptcy
* 1624 charter revoked by James 1
* Virginia = under ctrl of crown (royal colony)
. Exchanges of Agricultural Tech btw whites and NA
* Eng settlers learned from the Natives about how to grow food
* Realized value of corn
. Expansion and Development
* Sir William Berkeley arrives 1642, appointed governor
* Allowed Eng expansion
* Negotiated with NA, est border for limits of expansion
* By 1660s Berkeley had become autocrat
 1619 all men could vote
 1670 only landowners could vote
. Bacon’s Rebellion
* 1673 Nathaniel Bacon arrives in VA  est as influential landowner in backwater
* Backwater + tidewater disagreed on issues, especially about NA
* Backwaters in constant danger of attack from NA
* Bacon resents exclusion from inner circle of gov’t, developed grievances  becomes leader of
opposing side
* 1675 NA attack, retaliation by backcountry, etc, escalation of fighting
* Bacon (defies orders from Berkeley) fights NA
* Dismissed from gob’t, proclaimed rebel
 * Bacon leads army to Jamestown, almost took command of VA but died of dysentery
* Berkeley regains ctrl
* Significant b/c…
 part of the struggle to define boundary of NA/white land; also shows bitterness
 Shows bitterness of competition btw east/west landowners
 Shows potential for instability in colony’s large pop

MARYLAND
⋅ Est as retreat for Eng Catholics who were suppressed by Anglican church
⋅ Est by Cecilius Calvert (1st Lord Baltimore), named absolute lords, acknowledge king by paying
fee to crown – proprietary colony
⋅ Named Leonard Calvert as governer, 1634 sent ships to MA
⋅ Befriended NA, no disease, no starving time
⋅ Encouraged immigration of Prot. b/c not enough people
⋅ Prot # > Cath leads to religious toleration
⋅ Still much religious conflict
⋅ Proprietor = absolute auth to distribute land  landed aristocracy in MA
⋅ By 1640 adopts headright system like VA but aristocracy still pwrful

PILGRIMS/MASSACHUSETTS
⋅ Puritan separatists fled Eng  Holland  New World
⋅ Original destination = NY, but landed in Cape Cod
⋅ December 21, 1620 Pilgrims on Plymouth Rock
⋅ Territory = outside London Co’s territory  no legal basis  Mayflower Compact signed
⋅ NA in region weaker b/c disease, less hostility from both parties
⋅ NA = key to survival of Pilgrims  showed survival skills
⋅ 1621 first Thanksgiving
⋅ William Bradford = governor of Plymouth
⋅ Persuaded Council for New England to give them legal permission to live there
⋅ Even though Pilgrims v. poor, believed that God sent them to live Chr life

MASSACHUSETTS
⋅ King Charles 1 oppressed Puritans
⋅ Puritans create Massachusetts Bay Company
⋅ Motives: Mostly economic, also create haven for Puritans
⋅ John Winthrop = governor, organized migration
⋅ 1639: 1,000 people, mostly family, 17 ships set out
⋅ Produced several different settlements (Boston, Charlestown, Roxbury, Concord, etc)
⋅ Soon became colonial government, freemen = all male citizens
⋅ Each town chose own ministers, regulated own affairs  Congregational Church
⋅ John Winthrop: “City upon a hill” = MA sets example for others
⋅ Church + state work together; ministers had great power, tax to support church, MA = theocracy
⋅ Grew more rapidly than other colonies b/c more family/commitment/order, reproduction
⋅ Strong religious/political hierarchy = social stability
⋅ More people = more religious dissent, some leave to start new settlements

CONNECTICUT
⋅ Thomas Hooker defied Mass gov’t and est Hartford 1635
⋅ Est. own colonial gov’t w/ two other towns  Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (gave many men right
to vote and hold office)
 ⋅ New Haven = est b/c impatience w/ religious laxity in Boston
⋅ Fundamental Articles of New Haven (1639) = religious gov’t stricter than Boston
⋅ 1662 royal charter combines New Haven + Hartford = Connecticut

RHODE ISLAND
⋅ Roger Williams, minister who lived in MA
o Argued that the MA church should separate from COE
o Called for complete separation of church/state (to protect church from secular corruption)
o Banished by colonial gov’t
o 1644 est charter in RI  1st colony for freedom of religious practice

Anne Hutchinson
⋅ Came to MA 1634, part of community led by John Cotton
⋅ Believed only elect had religious/political authority
⋅ Must undergo conversion experience to be elect (not just live righteous life)
⋅ Argued that the MA clergy were not elect, had no right to hold office
⋅ Antinomianism = her beliefs and teachings
⋅ Followers = women, and ones who resented the oppressive colonial gov’t
⋅ Accused of heresy, convicted of sedition, banished
⋅ Moved to Rhode Island, later 1643 into NY, died during NA uprising
⋅ As result of unorthodox teachings, clergy began to restrict activities
⋅ Many of her followers migrate out to NH and MI

NEW HAMPSHIRE
⋅ Est 1629 by John Mason/Sir Ferdinando Gorges
⋅ Few settlers until religious disruptions in MA
⋅ 1639 John Wheelwright leads fellow dissenters to NH
⋅ Becomes separate colony 1679

MAINE
⋅ Est 1629 by Mason/Gorges
⋅ Few settlers until religious dissention in MA
⋅ Remained part of MA until 1820

Settlers vs. Natives

⋅ Whites learned agricultural techniques from natives
⋅ Important trading partners and markets
⋅ Usually conflicts and tension (white desire for land)
⋅ Began so see natives as heathens and savages (some wanted to convert them to Chr to civilize)
⋅ 1637 Pequot War
* Whites in CT vs. Pequots over trade with Dutch & friction over land
* Capt John Mason marched against Pequot,  end of war = Pequot tribe almost wiped out
. King Philip’s War 1675
* Wampanoags w/ leader Metacomet resisted Eng incursions into their land
* Convinced that only armed resistance could stop Eng (not so hostile before)
* Armed with guns, raided MA towns for 3 years
* Whites fought back; 1676 MA joins with Mohawks, worked together to crush Wampanoags
. Flintlock rifle
* Gave natives huge advantage over whites’ old clumsy matchlock rifle
* Introduced by Myles Standish

RESTORATION COLONIES
English Civil War
⋅ King Charles 1 dissolves Parl, alienates subjects  calls back Parl due to $ troubles
⋅ 1642 Eng Civil war (result of King Charles 1 ruling as absolute monarch)
⋅ Cavaliers (king) vs. Roundheads (Puritans) fought for 7 yrs  Roundheads won
⋅ Cromwell becomes leader, interregnum
⋅ After his death, Charles II regains the throne (for 25 years)
⋅ Issues new charters (Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania)  Restoration Colonies
⋅ All proprietary ventures
⋅ Goal = permanent settlements, not quick commercial profit

THE CAROLINAS
⋅ From original Virginia grant (like Maryland), charters in 1663-1665 to eight prominent politicians
⋅ Took huge chunks of land for themselves
⋅ Est. headright system, and annual payments from settlers (quitrents)
⋅ Religious and political freedom (representative assembly)
⋅ Failed at first  most gave up but Anthony Ashley Cooper convinced ppl to finance migrations to
Carolina (1st one in 1670)
⋅ Cooper = earl of Shaftesbury
⋅ Founded Charles Town (renamed Charleston later)  1690 becomes colonial capital
⋅ Cooper wants orderly and planned community
⋅ Draws up Fundamental Constitution for Carolina (1669) with John Locke, elaborate systems of land
distribution and social order
⋅ In reality, colony never united in more than name (most unstable colony)
* North settlers were mostly backwoods farmers, no aristocracy
* South had more fertile lands, better economy and more aristocracy, big in trade (esp. rice). Also
developed close ties with Barbados (imp trading partner)
. 1719 colonists seize control after Cooper
. 1729 (10 yrs later) king divides into two royal colonies  North and South Carolina
NEW YORK & NEW JERSEY
⋅ 1664 Charles II gives brother James (duke of York) charter for are btw CT and Delaware
⋅ Already claimed by Dutch in 1624 (New Amsterdam, etc)
⋅ 1664 English fleet sails into New Amsterdam, governor Peter Stuyvesant surrenders
⋅ Articles of Capitulation: Dutch surrenders to British
⋅ Colony renamed New York
⋅ Very diverse, local gov’t, religious toleration
⋅ Power = unequally dispersed among Dutch landowners and English landloards
⋅ James also gave part of charter to Joh Berkeley and George Carteret
⋅ Carteret named it New Jersey
⋅ 1702 New Jersey becomes royal colony
⋅ Very diverse, but no class of large landowners (mostly small farmers), no single important city

Quakers
⋅ Also known as the Society of Friends, mid 17 c
⋅ Rejected predestination and original sin
. Everyone had divinity within (“Inner Light”, can guide to righteousness), cultivate it  salvation
. Sexual equality; women could become preachers
. No church gov’t, no paid clergy, all people were equal
. Pacifists
. Were unpopular in Eng  migrated to the US, not really welcome there either
PENNSYLVANIA
⋅ William Penn was converted to Quakerism, wanted to est state for Quakers
* Inherited father’s claim to large debt from king
* King Charles II paid with large valuable, unknown territory
* Named Pennsylvania, had total auth
. Through advertising, Penn  best known, most cosmopolitan
. Not very profitable
. Created liberal Frame of Gov’t with rep assembly
. 1682 est Philadelphia (rectangular streets sets pattern for later cities)
. Believed land belonged to Indians, reimbursed them for it
* Indians respected Penn as honest white man, colony had no major conflicts with natives

DELAWARE
. Dissenters challenged Penn
. Penn grants Charter of Liberties 1701, allows dissenters to est own rep assembly
. 1703 creates Delware
. Same governor as Pennsylvania until Revolution

Caribbean Islands
⋅ >1/2 English migrants to NW settled on Caribbean islands in 17C
. Had native populations but wiped out by disease by the time Euro settles there
. Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico claimed by Spanish
. Eng settlements targets of attacks by surrounding Spanish, Portuguese, Fr, Dutch, remaining natives
. Economies built on exporting crops
* sugar + rum = most profitable
* Cut down forests, reduced land for growing actual food
* Practice of indentured servants flourishes, mostly black slaves who soon outnumber Eng
. Slave revolts happened often
* All islands had legal codes to regulate relations btw master/slave, gave white people absolute auth
over Africans
* Many slaveowners were not concerned with the welfare and condition of slaves (cheaper to buy
new ones)
. Most whites had focus on getting rich, no long term commitment
. Pop mostly single men, no community with families
. Traded with N America, supplied sugar, rum, slaves, received goods made in colonies/Eng
. Plantation system model for ones on mainland

Southwestern Borderlands
. Spanish colonies north of Mexico  Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California
* Unimportant economically to Spanish empire
* Attracted religious minorities
* New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as
Spanish in Mexico and other denser areas
* Began to colonize Cali when they realized other Euro would also settle in that region
* Killed lots of natives by disease, forced remaining to convert to Cath
* Wanted to create agricultural econ, enlisted native laborers
* Considered Fr and Louisiana to be threat (est 1682)
* Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts,
missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731
 * N. Arizona part of New Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest of it by Sonora
* Cali had Jesuits that wanted to convert natives, little success
* Colonies created to defend from other threats, not to increase wealth of empire

Southeastern Borderlands
⋅ Florida is more direct challenge to Eng
⋅ Spanish built forts, lots of tension and conflicts
⋅ Spanish offered freedom to Eng African slaves if they converted to Cath
⋅ Eng saw this as effort to undermine their economy

GEORGIA
⋅ Founders = group of unpaid trustees (led by General James Oglethorpe)
⋅ Interested in economic success, but mainly for a military barrier against the Spanish, and wanted to provide
refuge for the poor Eng people to begin anew
⋅ 1732 King George II gave Oglethorpe control of the land of Georgia
⋅ Policies limited size of landholdings, excluded Africans (fear of revolt), prohibited rum, regulated trade
with natives, excluded Cath
⋅ Some debtors released from jail to Georgia, but mostly poor artisans and religious refugees (Eng a
minority)
⋅ Strict policies stifled early development, failure of Oglethorpe’s vision
⋅ 1740 limitation on landholdings lifted; 1750 ban on slavery lifted; 1751 ban on rum lifted and ctrl returned
to the kind

Relationship btw whites and natives

⋅ Lived together in most regions, no clear dominance (“middle ground”)
⋅ Had to make concessions to live together
⋅ Euro had to adapt to tribal expectations and vice versa
⋅ Natives wanted whites to help them mediate, offer gifts, etc.
⋅ French very good at this, formed relationships, intermarry
⋅ Eng were not so good, still used raw force, etc
⋅ Newer settlers couldn’t get used to these ways, middle ground quickly lost

Navigation Acts
. Before Nav Acts, 1650/1651 Parl passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of Eng Colonies
. Charles II adopted 3 Nav Acts
* 1660 close colonies to all trade except Eng’s, required colonists to export only to Eng
* 1663 all goods shipped to NW from Euro had to pass through Eng, possible for taxes from Eng
* 1673 response to evasion of first two acts, imposed duties on coastal trade among colonies,
appointed officials to enforce acts
. Encourage colonists to create own shipbuilding industry, develop their own production of needed goods
. Massachusetts esp did not obey, always considered self as independent nation
* Becomes royal colony

Dominion of New England

. King James II creates in 1686
. Combines gov’t of Mass with the gov’ts of rest of the colonies
. Eliminates existing assemblies, appoints Sir Edmund Andros to supervise the whole region
* Andros enforced Nav Acts, very stern and tactless, unpopular

Glorious Revolution
. James II overthrown in 1688 by William of Orange
. In NW, overthrows Andros
. Dominion of New England abolished
 . 1691 combined MA and Plymouth and made it one royal colony
. Gave crown right to appoint governor, replaced church membership with property ownership as basis for
voting, required Puritan leaders to tolerate Anglicans
. Nicholson = governor of New York from Eng
* Jacob Leisler = leader of dissidents
* 1689 drives Nicholson out and proclaims self head of NY
* Unsuccessful, tried to resists new appointed gov in 1691 but is charged with treason
* Sparks “Leislerians” vs. “anti-Leslerians” politics in NY
. Maryland  ppl assumed that Cath Lord Baltimore was siding with James II
* John Coode starts organization 1689 called “An Association in Arms for the Defense of the
Protestna Religion, and for Asserting the Right of King William and Queen Mary to the Province
of Maryland and all the English Dominions”, drives out Lord Baltimore’s officials
* Petitioned crown for charter as royal colony
* 1691 William/Mary strip Baltimore of auth, est COE as official religion, bans Cath from voting,
holding office, practicing religion
* Becomes proprietary colony again in 1715
. Colonies thwart plan for colonial unification as result of GR
. Idea that colonists had rights in empire
. Not clear demonstration or victory for colonial self-rule
. Uprisings more to do with local and religious division than with the “big picture” (the empire)
*
* Sir Humphrey Gilbert suppressed rebellions, did not consider natives to be humans, not entitled to
decencies
* Led to assumption that Eng settlements must separate from the native pop
* Tried to build completely isolated settlement
. The French and Dutch in America
* Fr forged connections with natives inland
* Jesuits and fur traders
* Trade = alliance with certain tribes, but conflict with Iroquois
* 1609 French attack on Mohawks
* 1609 Henry Hudson est Dutch presence in NW
. First English Settlements
* (Decline of Spanish pwr after Armada, increase in Eng confidence)
* Sir H. Gilbert has permission from Eliz to est land 1578, but lost at sea
* Sir Walter Raleigh also goes abroad, brings Grenville with him to est Roanoke – “Lost Colony”

VIRGINIA
. 1607 London Company sends men to Jamestown in Chesapeake Bay
. Bad location (swampy, humid, disease-ridden), in territory of NA
. Efforts of habitation failed, London Co drained of $
. Problems = disease, too much priority on export and not for growing food, no women sent at first (family
not priority)
. Captain John Smith becomes council president in 1608, est order in the colony
. London Co = Virginia Co
. 1609 sends more people to Jamestown/Virginia, some ships lost at sea, weak by the time they reached the
NW
. Starving Time 1609 – 1610
* Indians antagonized by John Smith’s raids, isolated colonists
. Colonists (old + new) about to leave, but met with supply ship + governor
. Lord De La Warr = first governer of Virginia
* Imposed harsh discipline, not v. effective
* Permitted private ownership of land (personal incentive)
 * Virginia expands
. Tobacco
* Major cash crop
* Discovered in 1612 by John Rolfe
* Caused pressure for expansion b/c required large areas of farmland and exhausted the soil
. Headright system
* 50 acre grants of land for settlers, effort to recruit ppl to colony
* Encouraged families (more ppl = more land)
. House of Burgesses
* 1619 delegates meeting
* 1st meeting of elected legislature/representative assembly
. Expansion + NA
* Expansion came at expense of NA
* Sir Thomas Dale led assaults against Powhatan Indians
* Chief’s daughter, Pocahontas, kidnapped  married John Rolfe 1614
* Chief dies, replaced by Opechancanough, attacked 1622, killed JR
. Demise of the Virginia Company
* Faced bankruptcy
* 1624 charter revoked by James 1
* Virginia = under ctrl of crown (royal colony)
. Exchanges of Agricultural Tech btw whites and NA
* Eng settlers learned from the Natives about how to grow food
* Realized value of corn
. Expansion and Development
* Sir William Berkeley arrives 1642, appointed governor
* Allowed Eng expansion
* Negotiated with NA, est border for limits of expansion
* By 1660s Berkeley had become autocrat
 1619 all men could vote
 1670 only landowners could vote
. Bacon’s Rebellion
* 1673 Nathaniel Bacon arrives in VA  est as influential landowner in backwater
* Backwater + tidewater disagreed on issues, especially about NA
* Backwaters in constant danger of attack from NA
* Bacon resents exclusion from inner circle of gov’t, developed grievances  becomes leader of
opposing side
* 1675 NA attack, retaliation by backcountry, etc, escalation of fighting
* Bacon (defies orders from Berkeley) fights NA
* Dismissed from gob’t, proclaimed rebel
* Bacon leads army to Jamestown, almost took command of VA but died of dysentery
* Berkeley regains ctrl
* Significant b/c…
 part of the struggle to define boundary of NA/white land; also shows bitterness
 Shows bitterness of competition btw east/west landowners
 Shows potential for instability in colony’s large pop

MARYLAND
⋅ Est as retreat for Eng Catholics who were suppressed by Anglican church
⋅ Est by Cecilius Calvert (1st Lord Baltimore), named absolute lords, acknowledge king by paying
fee to crown – proprietary colony
⋅ Named Leonard Calvert as governer, 1634 sent ships to MA
 ⋅ Befriended NA, no disease, no starving time
⋅ Encouraged immigration of Prot. b/c not enough people
⋅ Prot # > Cath leads to religious toleration
⋅ Still much religious conflict
⋅ Proprietor = absolute auth to distribute land  landed aristocracy in MA
⋅ By 1640 adopts headright system like VA but aristocracy still pwrful

PILGRIMS/MASSACHUSETTS
⋅ Puritan separatists fled Eng  Holland  New World
⋅ Original destination = NY, but landed in Cape Cod
⋅ December 21, 1620 Pilgrims on Plymouth Rock
⋅ Territory = outside London Co’s territory  no legal basis  Mayflower Compact signed
⋅ NA in region weaker b/c disease, less hostility from both parties
⋅ NA = key to survival of Pilgrims  showed survival skills
⋅ 1621 first Thanksgiving
⋅ William Bradford = governor of Plymouth
⋅ Persuaded Council for New England to give them legal permission to live there
⋅ Even though Pilgrims v. poor, believed that God sent them to live Chr life

MASSACHUSETTS
⋅ King Charles 1 oppressed Puritans
⋅ Puritans create Massachusetts Bay Company
⋅ Motives: Mostly economic, also create haven for Puritans
⋅ John Winthrop = governor, organized migration
⋅ 1639: 1,000 people, mostly family, 17 ships set out
⋅ Produced several different settlements (Boston, Charlestown, Roxbury, Concord, etc)
⋅ Soon became colonial government, freemen = all male citizens
⋅ Each town chose own ministers, regulated own affairs  Congregational Church
⋅ John Winthrop: “City upon a hill” = MA sets example for others
⋅ Church + state work together; ministers had great power, tax to support church, MA = theocracy
⋅ Grew more rapidly than other colonies b/c more family/commitment/order, reproduction
⋅ Strong religious/political hierarchy = social stability
⋅ More people = more religious dissent, some leave to start new settlements

CONNECTICUT
⋅ Thomas Hooker defied Mass gov’t and est Hartford 1635
⋅ Est. own colonial gov’t w/ two other towns  Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (gave many men right
to vote and hold office)
⋅ New Haven = est b/c impatience w/ religious laxity in Boston
⋅ Fundamental Articles of New Haven (1639) = religious gov’t stricter than Boston
⋅ 1662 royal charter combines New Haven + Hartford = Connecticut

RHODE ISLAND
⋅ Roger Williams, minister who lived in MA
o Argued that the MA church should separate from COE
o Called for complete separation of church/state (to protect church from secular corruption)
o Banished by colonial gov’t
o 1644 est charter in RI  1st colony for freedom of religious practice

Anne Hutchinson
 ⋅ Came to MA 1634, part of community led by John Cotton
⋅ Believed only elect had religious/political authority
⋅ Must undergo conversion experience to be elect (not just live righteous life)
⋅ Argued that the MA clergy were not elect, had no right to hold office
⋅ Antinomianism = her beliefs and teachings
⋅ Followers = women, and ones who resented the oppressive colonial gov’t
⋅ Accused of heresy, convicted of sedition, banished
⋅ Moved to Rhode Island, later 1643 into NY, died during NA uprising
⋅ As result of unorthodox teachings, clergy began to restrict activities
⋅ Many of her followers migrate out to NH and MI

NEW HAMPSHIRE
⋅ Est 1629 by John Mason/Sir Ferdinando Gorges
⋅ Few settlers until religious disruptions in MA
⋅ 1639 John Wheelwright leads fellow dissenters to NH
⋅ Becomes separate colony 1679

MAINE
⋅ Est 1629 by Mason/Gorges
⋅ Few settlers until religious dissention in MA
⋅ Remained part of MA until 1820

Settlers vs. Natives

⋅ Whites learned agricultural techniques from natives
⋅ Important trading partners and markets
⋅ Usually conflicts and tension (white desire for land)
⋅ Began so see natives as heathens and savages (some wanted to convert them to Chr to civilize)
⋅ 1637 Pequot War
* Whites in CT vs. Pequots over trade with Dutch & friction over land
* Capt John Mason marched against Pequot,  end of war = Pequot tribe almost wiped out
. King Philip’s War 1675
* Wampanoags w/ leader Metacomet resisted Eng incursions into their land
* Convinced that only armed resistance could stop Eng (not so hostile before)
* Armed with guns, raided MA towns for 3 years
* Whites fought back; 1676 MA joins with Mohawks, worked together to crush Wampanoags
. Flintlock rifle
* Gave natives huge advantage over whites’ old clumsy matchlock rifle
* Introduced by Myles Standish

RESTORATION COLONIES
English Civil War
⋅ King Charles 1 dissolves Parl, alienates subjects  calls back Parl due to $ troubles
⋅ 1642 Eng Civil war (result of King Charles 1 ruling as absolute monarch)
⋅ Cavaliers (king) vs. Roundheads (Puritans) fought for 7 yrs  Roundheads won
⋅ Cromwell becomes leader, interregnum
⋅ After his death, Charles II regains the throne (for 25 years)
⋅ Issues new charters (Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania)  Restoration Colonies
⋅ All proprietary ventures
⋅ Goal = permanent settlements, not quick commercial profit

THE CAROLINAS
⋅ From original Virginia grant (like Maryland), charters in 1663-1665 to eight prominent politicians
 ⋅ Took huge chunks of land for themselves
⋅ Est. headright system, and annual payments from settlers (quitrents)
⋅ Religious and political freedom (representative assembly)
⋅ Failed at first  most gave up but Anthony Ashley Cooper convinced ppl to finance migrations to
Carolina (1st one in 1670)
⋅ Cooper = earl of Shaftesbury
⋅ Founded Charles Town (renamed Charleston later)  1690 becomes colonial capital
⋅ Cooper wants orderly and planned community
⋅ Draws up Fundamental Constitution for Carolina (1669) with John Locke, elaborate systems of land
distribution and social order
⋅ In reality, colony never united in more than name (most unstable colony)
* North settlers were mostly backwoods farmers, no aristocracy
* South had more fertile lands, better economy and more aristocracy, big in trade (esp. rice). Also
developed close ties with Barbados (imp trading partner)
. 1719 colonists seize control after Cooper
. 1729 (10 yrs later) king divides into two royal colonies  North and South Carolina

NEW YORK & NEW JERSEY

⋅ 1664 Charles II gives brother James (duke of York) charter for are btw CT and Delaware
⋅ Already claimed by Dutch in 1624 (New Amsterdam, etc)
⋅ 1664 English fleet sails into New Amsterdam, governor Peter Stuyvesant surrenders
⋅ Articles of Capitulation: Dutch surrenders to British
⋅ Colony renamed New York
⋅ Very diverse, local gov’t, religious toleration
⋅ Power = unequally dispersed among Dutch landowners and English landloards
⋅ James also gave part of charter to Joh Berkeley and George Carteret
⋅ Carteret named it New Jersey
⋅ 1702 New Jersey becomes royal colony
⋅ Very diverse, but no class of large landowners (mostly small farmers), no single important city

Quakers
⋅ Also known as the Society of Friends, mid 17 c
⋅ Rejected predestination and original sin
. Everyone had divinity within (“Inner Light”, can guide to righteousness), cultivate it  salvation
. Sexual equality; women could become preachers
. No church gov’t, no paid clergy, all people were equal
. Pacifists
. Were unpopular in Eng  migrated to the US, not really welcome there either
PENNSYLVANIA
⋅ William Penn was converted to Quakerism, wanted to est state for Quakers
* Inherited father’s claim to large debt from king
* King Charles II paid with large valuable, unknown territory
* Named Pennsylvania, had total auth
. Through advertising, Penn  best known, most cosmopolitan
. Not very profitable
. Created liberal Frame of Gov’t with rep assembly
. 1682 est Philadelphia (rectangular streets sets pattern for later cities)
. Believed land belonged to Indians, reimbursed them for it
* Indians respected Penn as honest white man, colony had no major conflicts with natives
DELAWARE
. Dissenters challenged Penn
. Penn grants Charter of Liberties 1701, allows dissenters to est own rep assembly
. 1703 creates Delware
. Same governor as Pennsylvania until Revolution

Caribbean Islands
⋅ >1/2 English migrants to NW settled on Caribbean islands in 17C
. Had native populations but wiped out by disease by the time Euro settles there
. Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico claimed by Spanish
. Eng settlements targets of attacks by surrounding Spanish, Portuguese, Fr, Dutch, remaining natives
. Economies built on exporting crops
* sugar + rum = most profitable
* Cut down forests, reduced land for growing actual food
* Practice of indentured servants flourishes, mostly black slaves who soon outnumber Eng
. Slave revolts happened often
* All islands had legal codes to regulate relations btw master/slave, gave white people absolute auth
over Africans
* Many slaveowners were not concerned with the welfare and condition of slaves (cheaper to buy
new ones)
. Most whites had focus on getting rich, no long term commitment
. Pop mostly single men, no community with families
. Traded with N America, supplied sugar, rum, slaves, received goods made in colonies/Eng
. Plantation system model for ones on mainland

Southwestern Borderlands
. Spanish colonies north of Mexico  Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California
* Unimportant economically to Spanish empire
* Attracted religious minorities
* New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as
Spanish in Mexico and other denser areas
* Began to colonize Cali when they realized other Euro would also settle in that region
* Killed lots of natives by disease, forced remaining to convert to Cath
* Wanted to create agricultural econ, enlisted native laborers
* Considered Fr and Louisiana to be threat (est 1682)
* Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts,
missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731
* N. Arizona part of New Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest of it by Sonora
* Cali had Jesuits that wanted to convert natives, little success
* Colonies created to defend from other threats, not to increase wealth of empire

Southeastern Borderlands
⋅ Florida is more direct challenge to Eng
⋅ Spanish built forts, lots of tension and conflicts
⋅ Spanish offered freedom to Eng African slaves if they converted to Cath
⋅ Eng saw this as effort to undermine their economy

GEORGIA
⋅ Founders = group of unpaid trustees (led by General James Oglethorpe)
 ⋅ Interested in economic success, but mainly for a military barrier against the Spanish, and wanted to provide
refuge for the poor Eng people to begin anew
⋅ 1732 King George II gave Oglethorpe control of the land of Georgia
⋅ Policies limited size of landholdings, excluded Africans (fear of revolt), prohibited rum, regulated trade
with natives, excluded Cath
⋅ Some debtors released from jail to Georgia, but mostly poor artisans and religious refugees (Eng a
minority)
⋅ Strict policies stifled early development, failure of Oglethorpe’s vision
⋅ 1740 limitation on landholdings lifted; 1750 ban on slavery lifted; 1751 ban on rum lifted and ctrl returned
to the kind

Relationship btw whites and natives

⋅ Lived together in most regions, no clear dominance (“middle ground”)
⋅ Had to make concessions to live together
⋅ Euro had to adapt to tribal expectations and vice versa
⋅ Natives wanted whites to help them mediate, offer gifts, etc.
⋅ French very good at this, formed relationships, intermarry
⋅ Eng were not so good, still used raw force, etc
⋅ Newer settlers couldn’t get used to these ways, middle ground quickly lost

Navigation Acts
. Before Nav Acts, 1650/1651 Parl passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of Eng Colonies
. Charles II adopted 3 Nav Acts
* 1660 close colonies to all trade except Eng’s, required colonists to export only to Eng
* 1663 all goods shipped to NW from Euro had to pass through Eng, possible for taxes from Eng
* 1673 response to evasion of first two acts, imposed duties on coastal trade among colonies,
appointed officials to enforce acts
. Encourage colonists to create own shipbuilding industry, develop their own production of needed goods
. Massachusetts esp did not obey, always considered self as independent nation
* Becomes royal colony

Dominion of New England

. King James II creates in 1686
. Combines gov’t of Mass with the gov’ts of rest of the colonies
. Eliminates existing assemblies, appoints Sir Edmund Andros to supervise the whole region
* Andros enforced Nav Acts, very stern and tactless, unpopular

Glorious Revolution
. James II overthrown in 1688 by William of Orange
. In NW, overthrows Andros
. Dominion of New England abolished
. 1691 combined MA and Plymouth and made it one royal colony
. Gave crown right to appoint governor, replaced church membership with property ownership as basis for
voting, required Puritan leaders to tolerate Anglicans
. Nicholson = governor of New York from Eng
* Jacob Leisler = leader of dissidents
* 1689 drives Nicholson out and proclaims self head of NY
* Unsuccessful, tried to resists new appointed gov in 1691 but is charged with treason
* Sparks “Leislerians” vs. “anti-Leslerians” politics in NY
. Maryland  ppl assumed that Cath Lord Baltimore was siding with James II
* John Coode starts organization 1689 called “An Association in Arms for the Defense of the
Protestna Religion, and for Asserting the Right of King William and Queen Mary to the Province
 of Maryland and all the English Dominions”, drives out Lord Baltimore’s officials
* Petitioned crown for charter as royal colony
* 1691 William/Mary strip Baltimore of auth, est COE as official religion, bans Cath from voting,
holding office, practicing religion
* Becomes proprietary colony again in 1715
. Colonies thwart plan for colonial unification as result of GR
. Idea that colonists had rights in empire
. Not clear demonstration or victory for colonial self-rule
. Uprisings more to do with local and religious division than with the “big picture” (the empire)
Chapter 3

Indentured Servants
. Developed out of existing practices in England
. People would have fixed time of servitude; afterwards, they were free and supposed to be given benefits
and land, but this was not reality
. 1617 shiploads of convicts dumped into America to be sold
* Also POWs, criminals, undesirables, but some were just kidnapped
. Very large part of pop
* Some managed to be successful, most were just floaters
. Practice decreased in popularity around 1700 b/c it was unstable

Birth and Death

⋅ At first, disease and inadequate food wiped out a lot of settlers, but gradually conditions improved
⋅ Immigration biggest factor in growth, also reproduction
⋅ Life spans were equal to modern day (cool climate, disease-free, clean water, no large pop centers)
⋅ In the south morbidity rate was still high
⋅ Sex ratio shifts to balance by late 17c

Medicine
⋅ No understanding of infection/sterilization
⋅ Many people died from childbirth and surgery, or diseases brought by unclean water/garbage
⋅ Easy to anybody to enter medical field b/c not a lot of knowledge
⋅ Midwives were popular, well known (male doctors felt threatened)
⋅ Used theory of “humoralism” (originated from the Greek, four humors must be in balance)

Women and Families in the Chesapeake

⋅ High sex ratio, all women married rather young
⋅ High mortality rates  few families were intact for long periods
⋅ This undermines male authority
⋅ Frequent premarital sexual relationships (indentured servants not allowed to marry until free)
⋅ Women had lots of babies; w/ more men, women could choose more (greater independence)
⋅ Lots of orphans due to high mortality rate
⋅ By 18c everything shifts back to “normal”: balanced sex ratio, less pwr of women, life was easier

Women and Families in New England

⋅ Family structure more stable than in the South
⋅ Women less independent, it was more traditional patriarchal
⋅ Sons and daughters had to have land and dowries, respectively, so marrying was not totally independent
from parents
⋅ Puritanism enforced idea of women as wife and mother, w/ male auth and female weakness

Beginnings of Slavery
⋅ Slave trade at first did not serve NW
 * Tobacco became v. big and Portuguese, Dutch, Fr soon traded with the NW
. Middle Passage: journey of black men from Africa to America to be sold as slaves
* usually awful conditions
* Brazil a much more popular place for trade than N America
* After monopoly of Royal African Co broken (1690s) slave pop grows in N America
. Earlier in the trade, blacks sometimes equal with whites
. Later it was assumed that blacks would remain in servitude, inferiority for people of color
. Slave Codes: passed by colonial assemblies in 18C, limited rights of blacks in law, ensured auth by white
masters
* purely determined by color

Changing Sources of European Immigration

⋅ Less immigrants from England, more from other places
⋅ Huguenots: French Calvinists, fled from Fr
⋅ German Prots also fled, most went to Pennsylvania, became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch b/c of their
name, Deutsch
⋅ Quaker colony also very popular for Germans
⋅ Scott-Irish: Scottish Presbyterians who had settled in N Ireland in early 17C, suppressed Cath natives
* Suppressed by Eng, forced to practice COE, rents skyrocketed, lots of ppl went to America
* Coldly received in NW, would occupy land and claim it
* Ruthless with suppression of natives
. Scottish people in general were significant in NJ and Penn, est Presbyterianism in colonies

Southern Economy
⋅ Tobacco was basis of economy in Chesapeake
⋅ Lots of overproduction
⋅ Rice was basis of SC and GA
* V. hard work, employed Africans b/c they were better at the work and more immune to disease
. Eliza Lucas introduced indigo to SC
. South developed little commercial/industrial economy, trading handled by merchants in London and N
colonies
. Strong agricultural economy

Northern Economy
. Economy had diverse agriculture but conditions were not very favorable for large-scale
. Small farms, lots of growing towns/cities
. Commercial economy was very important
* Large-scale ship building industry began to flourish
. Saugus Ironworks est in 1640s in MA
* 1st effort to est significant metals industry
* Technological success, failed economically
. Peter Hasenclever founded ironworks in NJ 1764, v. successful
. Iron Act of 1750: passed by Parl, restricted metal processing in colonies
. Hat Act 1732 limited manufacture of hats
. Woolen Act 1699 limited manufacture of woolens
. Inadequate labor supply, small domestic market, inadequate transportation facilities and energy supplies
were all obstacles to industrialization
. Fur trade in decline, replaced by lumbering, mining, fishing  help produce commercial class
Extents and Limits of Technology
. Many colonists lacked a lot of technology
. Some farmers didn’t own a plow, some houses owned no pots, half of houses owned guns
 * Too poor/isolated to own
. Most colonists bought what they needed, not self=sufficient

Rise of Commercial Commerce + Consumerism

. No medium of exchange (paper currency, coins)
. Impossibility of imposing order in trade
. Triangular Trade/Columbian exchange aided commerce in colonies
. Resulted in a merchant class
. Growing commercialism  growing appetite for material goods
* Associated possessions with social status
. Societies increasingly divided by class
. Early stages of industrial revolution caused by recognition of divisions in society
. Luxuries (tea, linen, glass, etc) were seen as commonplace materials
. Idea of refinement, “gentleman”, “lady” began to spread

Patterns of Society
. Society differed from England’s deep class system
* In contrast, much land and little people in the colonies
. Aristocracies relied less on landownership than on ctrl of a work force, less secure/pwrful than Eng
. More social mobility
The Plantation
. Distinctive way of life in VA/MA/Chesapeake
. Charles Carroll had 40,000 acres & 285 slaves in Maryland (huge plantations were rare)
. Economy not dependable
. Self-contained communities, highly stratified society
* More wealthy = more powerful
. Slaves lived differently from masters
* Families were strong and had elaborate structure
* Had lots of extended kinship b/c nuclear families were hard to maintain, could be sold
* Gullah: language used by slaves in SC, hybrid of Eng and African tongues
* Religion: mixed Chr with African folklore
. Stono Rebellion 1739
* 100 slaves rebelled w/ weapons, killed several whites, attempted to escape to FL
. Slaves benefited in larger plantations, learned skills to become craftsmen, some bought freedom
Puritan Community
. New settlement = covenant, religious and social commitment binds all residents
. Villages divided up, size/location of family’s property depended on size of family, wealth, social station;
lived close with neighbors, strong sense of community
. Towns bound together by centralized layout of village, pwr of church, by annual town meeting
. Visible saints: residents who could give evidence of being among the elect were admitted to full
membership in church
. Primogeniture: passing of all inherited property to the firstborn son
* Not present in New England
* Father divided up load among all sons; ctrl of this inheritance was pwr for father
. Family held together by rigid patriarchal structure
. As populations grew larger, towns became bigger, quarrels rose
. In addition to sons needing fathers, fathers also needed rest of family to keep farm/house functioning

Witchcraft Phenomenon
. 1680s – 1690s hysteria in New England states
. Biggest case in Salem, MA
* Adolescent girls began to exhibit strange behavior, accused West Indians and prominent people
 * Finally admitted that they made it up
. Accused were often middle-aged, widowed women, low social positions, or women who had inherited lots
of land and challenged gender norms

Cities
. Large colonial cities served as trading centers (large = small town)
. Center of industry, locations of most advanced schools, sophisticated culture, shops w/ imports
. Also had urban social problems (pollution, crime, traffic, epidemics)
. Set up elaborate gov’t and systems
. Cities became place where ideas could be spread and discussed

RELIGION
. Traditional outlook w/ personal God, faith>intellect vs. importance of science and reason, ppl could control
own lives  created much tension and shaped intellectual climate
. Religious toleration flourished b/c of diversity of religions practiced
. COE was official in VA, MA, NY, SC, NC, GA
* Largely ignored except for in VA/MA
. Protestants feared and hated Pope  Catholics viewed with distrust, persecuted
. Jews mainly in NYC, restricted political activity
* Rhode Island = only place to practice openly
. Many Americans troubled by decline in religious piety
* Movement of pop westward = more scattered
* Commercial prosperity = more secular outlook
* Science and free thought from Enlightenment = doubt of traditional beliefs
. Jeremiads: ministers who preached sermons of despair, warning about the waning piety

The Great Awakening

⋅ Began in 1730s, climaxed in 1740s
⋅ First great American revival, stirred great religious fervor
⋅ Appealed to women and younger sons
⋅ Emp potential for everyone to break away from constraints of past, start anew in relationship w/ God
⋅ John and Charles Wesley: founders of Methodism
⋅ George Whitefield: powerful preacher
⋅ Jonathan Edwards: Most inspirational preacher of the GA
o “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”
⋅ Led to division of existing congregation
o “New Light” revivalists vs. “Old Light” traditionalists
⋅ Affected other areas too, esp education

The Enlightenment
⋅ Began in Euro, came to America early 18C
⋅ Influenced some of the great scientific and intellectual discoveries
⋅ Emp power of human reason, sci inquiry, did not always need to turn to God for right/wrong
⋅ Helped undermine the pwr of traditional authority
⋅ Unlike the GA, encouraged ppl to look to themselves, not God, for guidance on how to live

Education
⋅ Even before Enlightenment (which emp education), colonists emp education
⋅ 1647 Massachusetts: law requires every town to support a public school
⋅ Small # of children were educated past primary level but white male Americans were highly literate (> ½
by the Rev)
 ⋅ High literacy rate helped create a market for almanacs
. Six colleges in operation by 1763, but four were founded for religious purposes to train preachers
* Harvard 1636 by General Court of Mass for Puritans
 Had liberal curricula, spread new scientific ideas
* William and Mary College 1693, named for the king/queen est in Virginia by Anglicans to train
clergymen
* Yale 1701 by conservative Congregationalists in CT
* Princeton 1746 est as College of New Jersey out of the Great Awakening
 Jonathan Edwards was one of first presidents
* Columbia 1754 est as King’s College in NY; very secular, no theological faculty
* UPenn 1755 est as Academy/College of Philadelphia inspired by Ben Franklin, secular
 Courses in utilitarian subjects and liberal arts, first med school in America est 1765

Spread of Science
⋅ Increasing interest in sci knowledge as result of Enlightenment
. Ben Franklin experimented w/ electricity, invented lightning rod
* 1752 kite experiment proved lightning and electricity were the same thing
. Cotton Mather infected people with small doses of smallpox to immunize them (inoculation against
smallpox) 1720s

Law and Politics

. Americans believed they were recreating the Old World practices into the New (not true)
. Differences b/c scarcity of Eng-trained lawyers
. Had trial by jury, but pleading was simpler; whipping instead of capital punishment (labor was scarce)
. John Peter Zenger: 1734-1735 trial, NY publisher, defended by Andrew Hamilton
* Verdict was that criticism of the gov’t was not libelious if true  removed some restrictions on
freedom of press
. Some colonists thought that law was reflection of divine will, others as result of natural order (not
expression of pwr of earthly sovereign)
. Created institutions that gave them lots of self-gov’t (actual governors had little influence b/c the “ctrl” was
centralized in Eng, which didn’t do much good either)

Chapter 4

Salutary Neglect
. Parl grows in pwr over monarchs (George I / George II)
. Didn’t want to tighten ctrl b/c depended on merchants/landholders
. Robert Walpole refrained from strict enforcement of Nav Acts (relaxed restrictions = stimulated commerce)
. Administration of colonial affairs = decentralized, inefficient
. Board of Trade and Plantations est 1696 equivalent of colonial office, but had little role
. Privy Council: central administrative agency for gov’t but didn’t really concentrate on colonial affairs
. Weakness of admin auth, policy of neglect, inept royal officials all weakened Eng’s hold
. Pwrful colonial legislatures, came to see themselves as little Parls

. The Colonies Divided

. Considered selves as loyal Eng subjects, stronger ties to Eng than one another
. Postal service helped increase communication
. Faced common threat from French and natives
. Albany Plan: proposed by Ben Franklin, one general gov’t in all colonies but GA and Nova Scotia
* each colony retain own constitution, give new gov’t auth for relations with natives, president
general and legislature
* no one approved it
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
Causes
French
. Louis XIV wants increased world pwr, Fr expands: fur trade, Jesuits, Louisiana
. Seigneuries = large estates este by lords
. Shared territory with native population (middle ground see chapter 3)
. Alliances natives formed were w/ whoever had the best terms
. English could offer better goods, but French offered tolerance, which natives preferred
Iroquois Confederacy
. Five nations: Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida
. Most powerful tribal presence in NE since 1640s
. Forged commercial relationship w/ Eng and Dutch along the coast, also traded w/ Fr
. Avoided too close a relationship w/ either group, played Fr and Eng off against each other
. Maintained uneasy balance of pwr
Ohio Valley
. Main area of conflict
. French claimed it
. Some natives already lived there
. English settlement expanding there
. Iroquois wanted to est trading presence
Anglo-French Conflicts
. William III ascended throne post GR and continued to fight France
. King William’s War (1689 – 1697) = few indecisive battles btw Fr/Eng in New Eng
. Queen Anne’s War (1701 – 1713) = border fighting w/ Spain in South and Fr/natives in North
* Treaty of Utrecht 1713: gave much Fr land to Eng (Nova Scotia, Newfoundland)
. England vs. Spain over trading rights, led to est of Georgia (see chapter 3)
. King George’s War: France/Prussia vs. England/Austria
* Eng vs. Fr in the colonies
* Aftermath = deterioration of relations among Eng, Fr, and Iroquois
More Immediate Causes
. Iroquois begin to grand trading concessions in the interior to Eng
. Fr feared that Eng would use them to expand into Fr lands
. 1749 Fr begin to build forts in Ohio Valley
. Eng saw this as threat, began forts of their own
. 1754 Virginian George Washington is sent into Ohio V to challenge Fr expansion
* Built Fort Necessity near French’s Fort Duquesne
* Staged unsuccessful attack, Fr retaliated and WA surrenders

The War in 3 Phases

Phase 1
. 1754-1756 mostly in N Amer, local, managed by colonists
. Most natives but Iroquois allied with Fr b/c they thought defeat at Fort N was evidence of British weakness
. Iroquois were allied with Eng in name, afraid of antagonizing Fr, very passive
Phase 2
. 1756-1758
. France and England formally declared war
. Becomes international conflict (Seven Years’ War)  Fr/Austria vs. Eng/Prussia, fighting in India, West
Indies, Euro, but main struggle still in Nam
. 1757 William Pitt (Eng secretary of state) brings war under Eng ctrl
* Appoints military commanders, orders colonists around, impressments
 Forcibly enlisted colonists, 1st time
* Some began to seize supplies/equipment from local farmers/tradesmen, made colonists offer
 shelter uncompensated
. Colonists v. resentful (used to self-running affairs), protests, riots
Phase 3
. Pitt relaxes many policies
. Agrees to reimburse colonists, returns ctrl for military recruitment to colonial assemblies, sent large army
to Am
. Fr suffer from outnumbering, poor harvests  tide turns for Eng
. Siege of Quebec  General James Wolfe 1759
* Marked beginning of end of American phase

Peace and Aftermath

Peace of Paris 1763
. Ends Seven Years’ War & Fr/Ind War
. Fr gives Eng some West Indian islands, most land in India
. Canada + land E of Mississippi (except New Orleans)  Eng; New Orleans + lands W of Miss  Spain
(basically French surrender all land in N America)
. Expanded Eng’s land in NW but increased Eng debt
. Resentment towards Americans from Eng
* Thought colonists were militarily inept
* Mad that the colonists made few financial contributions
* Mad that some merchants had been selling goods to the French
* Persuaded Eng to increase ctrl over colonies
. First time colonists acted as a whole
. Confirmed illegitimacy of Eng interference in local affairs
. Natives that allied w/ Fr earned enmity of Eng
. Iroquois were seen as duplicitous b/c of passivity
* Began to crumble, divided/outnumbered, never again equal w/ whites

End of Salutary Neglect

. Eng changed mindset from colonial = trade to land = value
. England in huge debt after war
. George III takes throne
* Determined to be active/responsible
* Removed Whigs and created his own party through bribes (unstable)
* Was insane and immature
* Made George Grenville prime minister 1763
 Grenville was brother-in-law of Pitt but was not sympathetic with colonists
. Pontiac: Ottowa native chief, lived in Ohio Valley, retaliated against expansion attempts
. As a result, Proclamation of 1763 was passed
* Forbade settlers to advance beyond Appalachian Mountains
* Would allow Eng to control westward expansion
* Order and less conflict w/ natives
* Would also slow colonial exodus from coast where the markets were
* Unsettled land also there for land speculation and fur trading
* Little effect
. Sugar Act 1764
* Raised duty on sugar and lowered it on molasses
* Wanted to stop illegal sugar trade btw colonies/West Indies
* Est courts to try accused smugglers
. Currency Act 1764
* Required colonies to stop issuing paper money, to retire the money in circulation
. Stamp Act 1765
 * Tax on most printed docs in the colonies (newspaper, almanac, pamphlet, etc)
. Was effort to reapply mercantilism, was v effective
. Colonists found hard to resist b/c colonies were divided amongst themselves
. Paxton Boys went to Philadelphia w/ demands for relief from colonial taxes and for money to help for
defense against Indians
. Regulator Movement: N Cali, regulators = farmers from Carolina
* Against the local taxes, but since they were badly represented nobody listened
* Began resisting tax collections with arms
* Governor William Tryon suppressed revolt at Battle of Alamance
. However, after those acts, colonists united b/c the acts harmed everyone
* Restrictions also came at time of depression
* Felt that Eng was challenging basis of colonial power (ctrl over public finance)

Stirrings of Revolt
Effects of Stamp Act
. Not actually a lot of tax
. Could only see as direct attempt by Eng to raise revenue w/o consent of colonial assemblies
. Patrick Henry gave speech at House of Burgesses 1765,
* Said that Americans possessed same rights as Eng (esp tax w/ own reps)
* Virginians should pay no taxes except those by VA assembly
* Anyone for Parl’s taxes = enemy to colony
* Printed/circulated as “Virginia Resolves”
. James Otis calls for Stamp Act Congress 1765 in MA
* Petitioned King and Parliament
* Said that Americans owed Parl subordination but no tax except through own assembly
. Sons of Liberty
* Terrorized stamp agents, burned stamps
* Intimidated people into boycott of goods and stamps
. Marquis of Rockingham (succeeded Grenville 1765) convinced king to repeal Stamp Act 1766
* Parl also passed Declaratory Act, asserts Parl’s auth over colonies in all cases
 To appease those against repeal (said that colonists would become more disobedient)
 Ignored by Americans b/c happy about repeal of Stamp Act
. King dismisses Rockingham b/c people in Eng were protesting
. Calls back William Pitt, but too old
. Actual leadership = Charles Townshend
* Mutiny Act 1765
 Eng had stationed British troops permanently in the colonies
 Required colonists to assist in maintaining the army
 Eng considered reasonable b/c troops protected colonists
 Colonists resented the mandatory enforcement, tax w/o consent
* 1767 disbanded NY Assembly until colonists agreed to obey Mutiny Act (thought he would single
out NY so not to anger all colonies at once)
* Townshend Duties: on lead, paint, paper, tea
 Though was acceptable b/c it was external
* Colonists still resisted, believed was internal/tax w/o rep
* Ended smuggling in Boston only by est board of customs commissioners
* Colonists boycotted Eng goods, began producing goods at home
. New PM Lord North repeals all but tea tax in 1770

Boston Massacre
. Before news of repeal of TS Duties reached colonies the massacre broke out
. British soldiers placed all over the city, often arrogant and provocative, frequent clashes btw them and
 colonists
. March 6, 1770  soldiers shot into crowd and killed five people (Crispus Attucks one of them)
. Panic/confusion, but made into the “Boston Massacre”
. Paul Revere made engraving, portray massacre as organized/calculated
. Samuel Adams: effective radical in colonies, stirred up outrage over Massacre and Eng oppression
. John Adams: lawyer for BM trials, fair to the soldiers
Philosophy of Revolt
. Ideas came from religious (Puritan), political exp of colonies
. Abroad (Whigs, Scots, considered oppressive), influenced by Locke
. Considered Eng constitution perfect example for checks/balances
* Worried that this was in danger b/c king and Parl had so much pwr
* Also general sense, not written down, unlike written colonial charters
. “No taxation w/o representation”
* Eng thought this was ridic b/c members of Parl represented interests of whole nation/empire
* Virtual rep (Eng) vs. actual rep (colonies)
* Colonies wanted division of auth, Eng believed in single, ultimate auth

The Tea Excitement

. 1772 RI sets fire to Gaspee
. Tea Act 1773
* Saved East India Co from bankruptcy by exempting it from tea taxes (would help monopoly)
* Merchants feared bankruptcy
* Citizens angered about the exemption (unconstitutional tax)
* Boycott included large segments of pop
 Women significant in boycott
. Boston Tea Party
* 1773 threw tea chests of East India Co overboard ships
* Refused to pay for damage
. Coercive/Intolerable Acts 1774
* Parl’s response to Boston’s defiance
* Closed all ports, reduced self-gov’t pwrs, allowed royal officers to be tried in Eng, forced
colonists to quarter troops
* Made MA a martyr to other colonies
. Quebec Act
* Wanted to provide civil gov’t for French-speaking Roman Cath of Canada/Illinois
* Extended limits of Quebec to include Fr communities btw Ohio/Mississippi Rivers
* Granted political rights to Roman Cath, recognized legality of Roman Cath church
* Tolerant, long overdue but considered a threat by colonies
 Alarmed by rumors that COE wanted to appoint Anglican bishop for America
Meetings of Colonies
. Samuel Adams 1772 in MA: first intercolonial committees of correspondence, made cooperation among
colonies possible
. Sons of Liberty became powerful
. First Continental Congress
* Called by Virginia 774
* All colonies sent delegates but Georgia
* Decided five things
 Rejected colonial union under British auth (like Albany Plan)
 Endorsed statement of grievances, wanted repeal of all oppressive legislation passed
since 1763
 Approved resolutions by MA recommending that colonists make military preparations for
defense against possible attack by British in Boston
  Agreed to stop trade with Eng, formed Continental Association
 Agreed to meet again next spring
Start of War
. Lord North approved Conciliatory Propositions 1775, proposed that colonies would tax themselves at
Parl’s demand
* Too little too late, did not reach the colonies until war had started
. Lexington & Concord
* Townspeople of MA had been training as “minutemen” (prepared to fight @ minute’s notice)
* Thomas Gage of Eng considered army too small to do anything
 Heard that minutemen had large supply of gunpowder at Concord
 1775 sent out soldiers to L/C, seize illegal supplies w/o bloodshed
* Colonists knew, sent Paul Revere/William Dawes to warn villages
 Shots fired at Lexington btw prepared minutemen and British (“shots heard round the
world”)
* British advanced to Concord, found most of gunpowder removed
 Along road back to Boston, British harassed by colonists
* Many did not realize this was war, thought of as local conflict
Chapter 5 Notes

Differing War Aims

. Group led by John/Sam Adams favored complete independence from Great Britain
. Other groups (led by John Dickinson of Penn) wanted modest reforms
. Many tried to find middle ground btw these two opposites
. Olive Branch Petition conciliatory appeal to King
. Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775)
* Said Eng gov’t gave colonists two choices: submission to tyranny or resistance by force
. Many people thought it wasn’t war for total independence
* Costs of war too high
* Eng began to recruit natives/slaves/foreign mercenaries to fight
 Hessians = German mercenaries
* Eng gov’t rejected Olive Branch Petition, enacted Prohibitory Act, closed all colonies to overseas
trade, no concessions to American demands
. Common Sense
* By Thomas Paine 1776
* Revolutionary propaganda
* Changed American outlook to war
 Root of problem = Eng constitution that was at fault
 Common sense for Americans to break completely with such a gov’t
. Declaration of Independence
* 1776 by Congress
* Thomas Jefferson of Virginia wrote most of Declaration w/ Ben Franklin and John Adams
* Borrowed from other local decl of independence and already-voiced ideas
* Restated John Locke’s theory (gov’t formed to protect rights of life, liberty, property), listed
crimes of king (violated contract with colonists, forfeited claim to their loyalty)
* “All men are created equal”
* Helped inspire French Rev’s Declaration of the Rights of Man & other revolutionary movements
in Europe

Responses to Independence
. Some rejoiced but many disapproved of war b/c they were still loyal to king
. Loyal to king  called themselves Loyalists, called Tories by supporters of independence
. Most colonies (now calling themselves states) had written constitutions by 1781 for republican gov’t
 . Considered individual states real centers of auth, forming national gov’t less successful
. Articles of Confederation 1777
* confirmed weak/decentralized system already in operation
* Continental Congress would remain chief coordinating pwr of war effort
* Limited pwr over states

Mobilizing for War

. No trade/access to Eng markets  shortage of supplies
. Congress had no auth to tax ppl, had to ask for funds from state gov’t, none gave a lot of money
. Issues paper money  inflation
. Few volunteered for military service  persuasion w/ money and drafting by force
. 1775 Continental army created w/ single commander, George Washington

Revolutionary War
. Advantages seemed to be w/ Eng
* Best army/navy, access to resources, structure of command
. However, US fighting on own ground, deeply committed, had aid of other Euro countries
* Eng lost b/c of mistakes

Phase 1 (1775 – 1776)

. Eng thought it was local conflict
. Bunker Hill 1775, Patriots lost but inflicted heavy damages on British
. British left Boston for Nova Scotia 1776 b/c decided MA was not good place to fight
. 1776 Patriots crushed Loyalist uprising in NC, discouraged British plan to invade S states
. Invasion of Canada
* Benedict Arnold/Richard Montgomery tried to siege Quebec but in vain
* Failed to win allegiance of Canada to become part of new nation
. British realize that war is large conflict

Phase 2 (1776 – 1778)

. Eng in good position to win, but made blunders
. Was traditional war
. Sent navy w/ William Howe to NY harbors
* Howe wanted to awe colonists into submission rather than fight
* Offers Congress choice btw submission w/ pardon and battle
* Congress rejects offer, quickly defeated
. Eng settles down for winter, but GW crosses Delaware River and occupies Princeton/Trenton, but unable to
hold cities
. 1777 Eng want to cut US in two (Howe from N, John Burgoyne from south) but abandoned by Howe
* Decided to assault Philadelphia
* Continental Congress reassembles at York, PN
* Burgoyne had to carry out campaign alone in N
 Seized Fort Ticonderoga
 Caused US to remove General Philip Schuyler from command, replace w/ Horatio Gates
* Burgoyne defeated at Oriskany, NY on August 6th, and then at Bennington, Vermont on 8/16
 Burgoyne retreats to Saratoga, surrounded by Gates, surrenders Oct 17, 1777
* Battle of Saratoga (10/17/1777) = major turning pt of war
 led directly to alliance btw US and Fr
 Mistake of British (Howe abandoned plan, didn’t attack the weak Continental army)
. Setback for Iroquois, who wanted Eng victory to stop white exp onto tribal lands
* Declared neutral but some natives had role
* Joseph & Mary Brant persuaded Mohawks, Seneca, Cayuga to join Eng
 * Sign of divisions within Iroquois (Noeida/Tuscarora w/ US)
* Retaliation by Patriots after defeats = devastating
. Aid From Abroad
* Early American reps abroad = “militia diplomats”
 Little exp w/ old world diplomacy, had to make decisions by themselves b/c
communication was slow
* Fr = major ally
 Supplied Americans w/ lots of supplies
 No diplomatic recognition for US until Ben Franklin went to Fr & victory at Saratoga
* Also allied w/ Spain and Netherlands

Phase 3 (1778 – 1781)

. Different from other phases
. Eng’s conflict not full-scale struggle, wanted help of loyal Americans
. Decided to go to the S colonies b/c thought there were many Loyalists there
* Overestimated, 3rd phase = failure for Eng
* Lots of Patriots, Loyalists sometimes refused to help b/c afraid of Patriots
* Encouraged slaves to desert their owners for freedom; lost loyalty of many
* Eng = in hostile territory, could not blend in
. Made war “revolutionary”, mobilized large groups of pop who had before been uninvolved
. In N, fighting = stalemate
* Henry Clinton replaces Howe 1778, moves army back to NY
. Benedict Arnold  traitor; thinks US cause hopeless, betrayed Patriot stronghold at West Point
* Plan failed, fled to safety of Eng camp
. In S, Eng captures Savannah 1778, Charleston 1780
. New guerilla warfare harasses Eng
. 1780 after US defeat by Cornwallis (Eng general in S), Congress replaces Gate w/ Nathanel Greene in S
* Quaker and former blacksmith from RI, v. able general
. Patriots hinder Eng forces 1780, Greene also attacks
* 1781 Cornwallis abandons Carolina campaign, withdraws to NC
* Retreats to Yorktown, builds fortifications
. GW, Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau (Fr army commander), Grasse (Fr navy commander) set out to
trap Cornwallis
* Caught Cornwallis btw land/sea
* Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown October 17, 1781
. War still not definitively over at this pt
. Lord N resigns as PM, succeeded by Shelburne
. US fears that alliance w/ Fr might keep them at war indefinitely
. Franklin/Jay/Adams sign treaty w/ Eng (w/o telling FR) in 1782
. Treaty of Paris 1783
* Spain & France agree to end hostilities
* Grants independence + large and ambiguous cession of land (from S border of Canada to N border
of Florida, from Atlantic to Mississippi)

Social Effects of the War

Loyalists / Minorities
⋅ At least 1/5 of pop loyal to Eng (some officeholders, merchants, isolated ppl, minorities who feared
insufficient protection, some feared social instability, some thought Eng would win war)
⋅ Harrassed, many fled country
. Left land & imp positions  new opportunities for Patriots
 . Anglicans (many were Loyalists) had church disest in some states, weakened
. Quakers unpopular b/c pacifism, also suffered
. Roman Cath gained strength b/c Cath supported Patriots, and some Fr troops were Cath
* Father John Carroll of Maryland became first American bishop
Slavery
. Some slaves got freedom from Eng
. Exposure to concept of liberty, new desire
. Thomas Jeremiah executed 1775 in SC, accused of conspiring to smuggle British guns to SC slaves
. SC/Georgia = ambivalence about revolution
* Slaveowners didn’t want freedom for slaves, but feared rev would form slave rebellions
* Same fear also w/ Caribbean island colonists (did not join in revolt)
. White southerners believed slavery was best way to ensure liberty for whites
* w/o slaves, white workforce would be necessary (“unequal”)
Native Americans
. Most tribes remained neutral
. The ones who fought joined Eng b/c they trusted and b/c Eng wanted to limit exp of white settlements
* Cherokee led by Dragging Canoe attacked settlements in Carolinas and Virginia 1776
* Retaliation by Patriots forced Cherokee to flee, the ones who remained signed a treaty for more
ceding of land
. White attitudes towards tribes after the war = worse; treated as conquered people or savages
. Rev divided tribes even more
* Shawnee Indians’ 1774 uprising in west VA = almost no support
* Cherokee = little support
* Iroquois = little support b/c many resented their long domination
. Conflicts btw natives and whites continued to happen
Women
. Men in armies = women at home, in charge of farms, businesses, some v. successful
. Some went to join male relatives/spouses at army camps
* Men worried over violation of traditional gender role
* But they increased army morale and did “women” work: cooking, laundry, nursing
. Some fought in battle
* Molly Pitcher replaced fallen husband’s place
. After war, called some assumptions about women into question
* Abigail Adams wanted husband John to be more favorable to women when writing laws
* Ben Franklin, Benjamin Rush supported education of women and other reforms
. Before war, unmarried women had some rights, but married women had none
* After war, some states allowed women to vote, and divorce was easier
* Some states took back widows’ rights to regain dowries
. Rev strengthened patriarchal structure but women’s ideas/interests/roles began to have more respect and
reevalutaion
Economy
. No protection by navy, no more access to Eng markets
. Strengthened economy
* US ships developed to be faster, lighter, more maneuverable
* New commerce in Caribbean/S America, Asia, and with each other
* Began to have homemade goods, esp cloth (not large domestic industry but beginnings)

GOVERNMENTS
State Gov’t
Establishing
. Agreed for republican gov’t, ideal of small independent landowner instead of a lot of aristocrats
. Talent, not position at birth, would determine role in society (success = earned)
 * Equality of opportunity, not condition
. Reality, not totally true but still set model
. CT and RI already had republican gov’ts before war, adopted 1st constitutions
. Two decisions: constitutions must be written, and executive pwr must be limited, forbade exec officer to
hold seat in legislature = two completely separate branches
. No direct popular rule
. Georgia and Penn had one elected house, in every other state was upper and lower chamber
Revising
. Gov’t instable, divisive, didn’t accomplish much
. Beliefs that problem was too much democracy
. Massachusett’s and later constitutions changed in two ways
* Created const convention, special assembly of people that would meet only to write const
* Strengthened executive (MA = governor directly elected, fixed salary, appointment/veto pwrs)
. By late 1780s every state had revised/drawn up new, more stable constitution
Toleration + Slavery
. Statute of Religious Liberty 1786 by Virginia  complete separation of church and state
. New Eng and Penn (Quakers opposed slavery) abolished slavery
. Slavery survived in S and border states (racism, economic investments, “what would happen to blacks?”/no
alternative)
National Gov’t
. Congress was central institution in nat auth
* Pwr to conduct wars/foreign relations/borrow, issue, appropriate money
* No pwr to regulate trade, draft troops, levy direct taxes (had to ask state legislatures, often
rejected)
. Ratifying Articles of Confederation was problem
* smaller states wanted equal state rep, larger wanted based on pop (smaller states won)
* States w/ western lands wanted to keep, rest of them wanted it to be property of gov’t
 NY/VA had to give up western claims
* Articles in effect starting 1781
* Confederation 1781 – 1789
. Eng still refused to evacuate American territory (sign of low standing of American gov’t)
. Americans recognized Spanish land in N America, S states blocked ratification b/c they’d have to give up
some access of Mississippi, further weakening gov’t standing
. Ordinance of 1784 based on Thomas Jefferson’s proposal
* Divides western territory into ten self-governing districts, could petition for statehood when pop =
# free inhabitants of smallest existing state
. Ordinance of 1785
* System for surveying/selling western lands
* Divided territory N of Ohio River into rectangular plots of land
. Northwest Ordinance 1787
* Abandoned 10 districts created in 1784, created single NW territory out of lands
* Territory could be divided into 3-5 territories
* Pop of 60,000 required as min for statehood, guaranteed freedom of religion and right to trial by
jury to residents of NW, prohibited slavery
. The western lands received less attention from Congress, chaotic development
Dealing with the Natives
. Problem with land ordinances: Natives lived there
. Iroquois and other tribes never really accepted treaties offered to them, resisted white movement
. Group of tribes led by Miami’s Little Turtle defeated US near Ohio (1791, greatest native victory)
. Battle of Fallen Timbers
* 1794 General Anthony Wayne led soldiers into Ohio Valley, defeated Indians
* Resumed negotiations for white settlement (forbade by Little Turtle in 1791)
 . Treaty of Greenville
* Signed by Miami
* Ceded land to US (now operating under Constitution of 1789)

Problems with Debt and Taxes

. Depression 1784 – 1787 (inadequate money supply)
. Confederation had no pwr to tax, no money to repay debt
. Morris, Hamilton, Madison called for continental impost (5% duty on imported goods by Congress)
* Many feared that this would give too much pwr to Morris
* Failed to approve in 1781 and 1783
* Caused angry nationalists to stop active involvement with Confederation
. States had war debts also, used increased taxes to pay
* Farmers considered this unfair, demanded state gov’t issue paper money
. Shay’s Rebellion
* Daniel Shays, former captain in Continental army
* Issued demands for paper money, tax relief, moratorium on debts, relocation of state capital from
Boston to interior, abolition of imprisonment for debt
* 1786 Shaysites actively rebelled
* In Boston, people like Samuel Adams called Shays rebel/traitor
* 1787 army of state militia set out, defeated rebels when they tried to advance
* Gave some concessions but more importantly added urgency to form new national constitution
Chapter 6 Notes

Advocacy of Centralization Begins

. Confederation was v. weak, but had satisfied colonists for a while
. Some began to support national government, esp for economic problems
. Society of the Cincinnati est 1783 by Rev army officers
* Unhappy w/ refusal of Congress to fund their pensions
* Newburgh Conspiracy 1783, idea of military dictatorship (GW blocks potential rebellion)
. Many people wanted uniform policies/taxes instead of differing state ones
. Alexander Hamilton
* NY lawyer, unhappy w/ Articles of Conf & weak central gov’t
* Called for national convention to rewrite document
* Ally = James Madison, persuaded Virginia leg to hold conference
* Only five states sent delegates to Maryland 1786 but approved proposal that Congress call
convention of delegates from all states to be in Phil the next year
* GW supports this new idea after Shay’s Rebellion, gives meeting credibility

The Convention is Called

. All states but Rhode Island went to convention in Philadelphia 1787
* Delegates = Founding Fathers
* Well educated, feared too much democracy but had suspicion of concentrated pwr
* Chose Washington to preside over sessions
* James Madison = leader
. Virginia Plan
* By Madison, submitted by Edmund Randolph
* Called for nat gov’t w/ Legislative, Exec, and Judiciary
 Different from Confederation
 Approved quickly
* Called for new national legislature w/ two houses
 Lower house, states rep in proportion to pop
 Upper house, elected by lower house, no system of rep so some states might not have any
 members in upper house
 Faced opposition from small states
. New Jersey Plan
* By William Paterson – federal, not nat gov’t
* Preserved one-house legislature, gave Congress pwr to tax and regulate commerce
* Virginia Plan still remained as basis for discussion
. Eventually conceded for VA plan: Members for upper house elected by state leg (each state would always
have at least one member in upper house)
* Large states w/ slave pop wanted slaves to be persons for rep but property for tax
* States w/ little or no slavery wanted slaves to be tax but not rep
. The Great Compromise
* Committee created w/ single delegate from each state, presided by B Franklin
* Lower houses = rep on basis of pop, slave = 3/5 of normal person in rep and tax
* Upper house, states each have two members
* 1787 convention accepted compromise
. Convention also agreed that the new leg not allowed to tax exports, Congress couldn’t impose duty of >$10
a head for imported slaves, and no auth to stop slave trade for 20 yrs
. No def of citizenship, absence of list of individual rights
. James Madison
* Ally of Hamilton, created Virginia Plan, oversaw convention, did most of drafting of Constitution
* Helped resolved the question of sovereignty and limiting pwr
. Question of sovereignty: all pwr from ppl, no one was sovereign
. Constitution/nat gov’t = supreme law, no state could defy
. Federal gov’t had pwr to tax, regulate commerce, ctrl currency, pass laws
. Many assumed small republic was effective, Madison argued that large republic had many factions so no
domination/tyranny
. Separation of pwr/checks and balances among leg, exec, judicial branches
. Protected both from tyranny of ruler and of people (too much democracy)
. 1787 delegates signed Constitution, specified that Const would come into effect when 9/13 states ratify (all
states but RI elected delegates to discuss ratifying)

Federalists vs. Anti-federalists

. Federalists: supporters of Constitution
* Support of Franklin, Washington, Hamilton, Madison, Jay
* Federalist Papers: Hamilton/Madison/Jay wrote essays under name Publius explaining
meaning/virtues of Constitution
* Feared anarchy, pwr of masses
. Antifederalists: anti-Constitution
* Believed Const would est a strong maybe tyrannical center of pwr, betray “true principles of the
Revolution”
* Complained that const lacked bill of rights
* Feared concentrated pwr, b/c placed obstacles for direct democracy
. Delaware ratifies 1st, NJ/GA follow, then Penn/MA, and NH in 1788 (9th state!)
* MA, VA, NY ratify assuming that a bill of rights will be added
* NC wanted to wait until amendments
* RI didn’t even call a convention (v. anti-Const)
. George Washington = 1st president 1789
* John Adams = VP
. Bill of Rights (1791)
* 10 amendments to Constitution
* Forbade Congress to interfere w/ basic rights (freedom of religion, speech, press, immunity from
arbitrary arrest, trial by jury, gave states all pwrs except those specifically withheld from them or
 delegated to the federal gov’t, etc)
. Judiciary Act of 1789
* Congress est Supreme Court of 6 members
* Gives SC pwr to make final decision in cases w/ constitutionality of state laws
. The Cabinet
* State/treasury/war departments, offices of attorney general and postmaster general
* Alexander Hamilton: secretary of treasury
* Henry Knox: secretary of War
* Edmund Randolph: attorney general
* Thomas Jefferson: secretary of state

Federalists and Republicans

. Caused resentment b/c Const did not solve any disagreements, just had vague compromises
Federalists: believed America needed strong national gov’t, centralized auth
. Ctrled gov’t for 12 yrs since WA and Hamilton were such pwrful figures
. Numerous in commercial centers of NE and S seaports
. Led by Alexander Hamilton
* Believed that a stable/effective gov’t needed enlightened ruling class
* Hamilton proposed that the gov’t take responsibility for existing public debt, and fed gov’t assume
state debt
 Wanted to est permanent national debt  creditors want to see the gov’t survive
* Wanted to create national bank
* Proposed two new kinds of taxes: paid by distillers of alcohol, and tariff on imports in “Report on
Manufactures” 1791
. Bill for national debt passed, state debts would be passed if capital was moved
. Bank of United States est 1791
. Expressed horror at French Rev
Republicans: wanted modest central gov’t, felt Federalists were creating tyrannical structure of pwr
. America should be rural/agrarian, pwr in states/ppl
. Led by James Madison + Thomas Jefferson (more prominent spokesman)
. Numerous in rural S and W
. NOT direct ancestor of modern Republican Party
. “First party system” but neither side admitted they were acting as a party
. Jefferson wanted decentralized society, dominated by small property owners in agrarian activities
. Applauded democratic French Rev spirit

Establishing National Sovereignty

. Western lands still failed to be tied firmly to gov’t even w/ NW Ordinance
. Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
* farmers of W Penn refused to pay whiskey excise tax, terrorized tax collectors
* WA led troops into Penn, resistance collapsed
. Accepted frontier territory as new states in Union
. NC 1789 and RI 1790 ratified Const after Bill of Rights had been added
. Vermont became 14th state 1791
. Kentucky 1792
. Tennesee 1796

Natives
. Still challenged white expansion
. Const had not resolved the place of the Indian nations
. Recognized tribes as legal entities, but tribes had no direct rep in new gov’t
. No guide to who ctrled what land
Maintaining Neutrality
. Wanted to remain neutral in Euro conflicts
. Edmond Genet
* First French diplomatic rep
* Didn’t go see the president, instead disembarked at Charleston and made plans to use US ports for
French warships, ignored WA’s policies, violating Neutrality Act
* Granted political asylum in US
. 1794 Eng Navy began seizing US ships in trade w/ French West Indies
* Anti-British feelings
* Hamilton persuaded WA to name John Jay as special commissioner to Eng
* Jay’s Treaty 1794
 Settled conflict w/ Britain, helped prevent war
 Est US sovereignty over NW
 Produced commercial relationship w/ Britain
 Heavily resisted (Jay burned in effigy a lot) but ratified
. Pinckney’s Treaty 1795
* Thomas Pinckney went to Spain as negotiator
* Spain recognized rights of US to nav the Mississippi, N limit of florida at 31st parallel, required
Spanish auth to prevent Indians in Florida from attacking across border

Downfall of the Federalists

. Federalists, having chosen stability > individual liberties, never won election after 1796
. Washington’s Farewell Address
* Washington retires from office 1797
* Letter published in Phil newsletter, denounced Republicans
. Jefferson = Republican’s candidate
. John Adams = Federalist’s (Hamilton had too many enemies)
* Many Federalists liked Adam’s running mate, Thomas Pinckney, divided votes
. John Adams = president (Fed), Jefferson = VP (Repub) - awkward
* 12th Amendment 1804 reformed electoral system to prevent this situation
* Adams really bad at being a politician
. Quasi War with France
* Fr capture US ships and imprisoned crew
* Charles Pinckney (brother of Thomas) arrives in Fr, gov’t refuses to receive him as rep of US
* Some favored war (esp Secretary of State, Thomas Pickering), but Hamilton wanted conciliation,
Adams agreed
. XYZ Affair
* Appointed bipartisan commission (Charles P, Marshall, Gerry) to negotiate w/ France
* 1797, three agents of Fr foreign minister demands loan for Fr and bribe before negotiations could
be reached
* Adams denounces Fr insults, urges war
* Gives report of the commissioners to Congress, deletes names of Fr agents, calls them XY&Z
 Widespread outrage at Fr
* Undeclared war w/ Fr  cut off trade, take back treaties of 1778, auth US to capture Fr ships
* Department of the Navy est 1798, won battles w/ Fr and captured 85 ships
* US cooperates w/ Eng
* 1800 Napoleon agrees to treaty w/ US
 nulls agreement of 1778, est new commercial arrangements
 US frees itself from perpetual alliance w/ Fr created during the Rev
* Conflict helps Federalists increase influence, consider ways to crush Republicans
. Alien Act
 * New obstacles for foreigners who wanted to be US citizens
* Strengthened president’s influence in that process
* Discouraged immigration, caused some foreigners to leave
. Sedition Act
* Allowed gov’t to prosecute those who engaged in “sedition” against gov’t
* Only libelous/treasonous activities, but since broad def  any opposition
* Helped admin arrest ten Republican newspaper editors w/ trivial crimes
. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
* Republican’s rxn to Acts
* Kentucky written anonymously by Jefferson, VA by Madison
* Used ideas of John Locke, argued that federal gov’t had been formed by contract  undelegated
pwrs = void acts
* The states had right to nullify those laws
* Only VA and Kentucky declared those acts void
* Elevated conflict to national level
. Revolution of 1800
* Election of 1800 = ugly
* Federalists accused Jefferson of being a dangerous radical
* Republicans potrayed Adams as a tyrant
* In NY, Aaron Burr organized Tammany Society  Republican political machine
* Jefferson was apparently elected, but Constitution called for each elector to vote by ballot for 2 ppl
 Jefferson and Burr tied
 House of rep had to choose, each state = single vote
 Federalist Congress decided to elect Jefferson
* Judiciary branch only branch left w/ Federalists
* Rev = Jefferson’s name for his election, believed Republicans had effectively defeated Federalists
. Judiciary Act 1801 & Midnight Judges
* Federalists reduced # of SC justiceships by one, increased # of federal judgeships
* Appointed Federalists to these positions
* Stayed up until midnight of last day in office to sign judges’ commission  “midnight
appointments”

Chapter 7 Notes

Education
⋅ Republicans wanted virtuous/enlightened citizens
. Wanted nationwide sys of public schools
* Males should get free education
. States endorsed principle of public schools but none made sys of free schools as late as 1815 (mostly
private before then)
. In South = religiously ctrled, North = secular, modeled on schools like Exeter and Philips
. Many aristocratic, few schools open to poor
. Only males in many schools
. MA required public schools serve females also, 1789; some other states followed
* Wanted women to be enlightened mothers
. Judith Sargent Murray: 1784 published essay defending women’s rights to edu, women = men in
intellect/potential, should have same opportunities
* Inspired later generations, didn’t have much support during her life
. Spurred interest in Indian education (civilize and tame “savages”)
* Missionaries/mission schools = abundant
. Almost no one thought that African Americans should have education
. Number of colleges increased to 22 by 1800 but none were really public
 . Curriculum = v. limited (classics, theology)

Medicine and Science

. Medicine began to have new scientific teachings, but was still v backward
. Benjamin Rush: advocated new/”scientific” bleeding/purging, many of his patients died
. Used new commitment to “scientific” method to justify expanding ctrl
* Decline of midwifery  physicians wanted to do deliveries themselves
* Restricted childbirth care for women b/c physicians were more expensive
* Limited opportunities for women

Cultural Aspirations
. Wanted to form own culture to rival Eng’s
* Obstacles: few opportunities, expensive
. Jedidiah Morse: MA geographer, Geography Made Easy (1784)
* Said country must have own textbooks to prevent Eng’s aristocratic ideas
. Noah Webster: argued that US students should be educated as patriots, with nationalism
* Wanted Americanized system of spelling
* American Spelling Book published 1783
* An American Dictionary of the English Language 1828
. John Barlow’s poem The Columbiad 1807 encouraged other native writers
. Charles Brockden Brown: liked the novel, tried to convey American themes, works had horror/deviant
behavior, novels weren’t very popular
. Washington Irving: lived in NY, wrote satirical histories of early American life, fables of society,
recounted folk tales
. Mercy Otis Warren: influential playwright/agitator during 1770s
* Wrote History of the Revolution 1805, emp heroism of US struggle
. Mason Weems: Anglican clergyman, Life of Washington 1806, not v. historically accurate (invited the
cherry tree story)

Religious Skepticism
. Weakened traditional religion b/c church was separate + individual liberty and reason were emp
. Deism: originated during Enlightement
* God created the universe but doesn’t directly involve himself with humans
. Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason, 1794-1796, attacked religious superstitions
. Universalism/Unitarianism: emerged as dissenting views within New Eng church
* Rejected predestination, salvation for all
* Jesus was only great religious teacher, not Son gof God
* Created schism with Congregationalist
* James Murray founded Universalist Church in MA 1779
* Unitarian Church est in Boston 1782
. Some believed that rationalism was end of traditional religion, but not true  strong religious beliefs but
not as much commitment to organized churches/denominations

Second Great Awakening

⋅ Against spread of religious rationalism, churches wanted to revitalize themselves
⋅ Many denominations wanted people to join their faith
* Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists especially
. Cane Ridge: 1801, group of ministers organized a religious revival, first of many that followed
. Peter Cartwright: Methodist, traveled to convince people to join the Methodism church
. 2nd GA stressed 1. readmitting God into daily lives, 2. being actively pious, 3. rejecting skeptical
rationalism that threatened traditional beliefs
* No predestination, now salvation through faith/good works
 * Did not revive strength of old religious institutions or old religious ideas
* Helped growth of diff sects/denominations
. Drew many women to religion
. Also drew many blacks, who wanted equality and salvation for all
. Drew Indians
* Handsome Lake: Seneca prophet, “rebirthed” after alcoholism
 Argued that white society had penetrated tribal life, do not follow roles of the white man
(many gave up whiskey/gambling, etc)
 But he also encouraged Chr missionaries to be active in tribe, urged Iroquois men to
abandon hunter role and be farmers, and women would be more domestic
. Freethinkers were victims of the GA, were skeptical

Industrialism and Technology

. Got many tech advances from Eng
. Immigrants came w/ knowledge of Eng tech (Eng wanted to prevent this)
. Samuel Slater: built spinning mill for Moses Brown in RI 1790, first modern factory
. Oliver Evans: from Delaware, invented automated flour mill, card-making machine, etc.
* Also published first textbook for mech engineering (The Young Mill-Wright’s and Miller’s
Guide)
. Eli Whitney: from MA, invented a machine to standardize gun parts, and he also invented the cotton gin,
which effectively and quickly cleaned seeds from cotton
* Increased practice of slavery, esp in south
* Gave people in New Eng incentive to develop domestic textile industry
* North = more and more industrial and manufacturing, led to Civil War b/c industrial and
agricultural divisions, helped Union victory

Transportation
. Wanted to solve problem of small US market, looked for customers overseas
* Tariff bills giving pref to US ships in US ports, helped expansion of domestic shipping
* Also, war in 1790s in Euro allowed US vessels to take over trade btw Euro and W Hemi
* Also wanted to improve trade btw coast and interior
. Steamboats = solution for river transportation
* Oliver Evans: developed high-pressure engine which used steam to power boats
* Robert Fulton: perfected steamboat, made it popular
 Clermont: His ship, sailed up Hudson 1807 to show practicability of steamboats
. Turnpike Era
* 1792 toll road constructed from Phil to Lancaster
* V successful, other turnpikes built
* Ran through populous areas and were short, because they had to make profit, so no such road into
interior (had to be financed by state/federal gov’t)

Thomas Jefferson’s Presidency

⋅ Wanted to minimize differences btw two parties
⋅ Capital = Washington DC
* City designed by Pierre L’Enfant, French architect
* Wanted to be a great city, but was a pretty small town
* Jefferson, even though he had aristocratic background, wanted to be one of the people, walked
around, did not have dinner etiquette, didn’t always dress up
. Eliminated aura of majesty surrounding presidency but also wanted to exert influence as leader of
Republicans  v. shrewd politician
. Est many Repubs in offices
 . Won again in 1804, defeated Charles C. Pinckney, the Federalist nominee
. Wanted to reverse Hamilton’s debt and taxes
* Congress abolished all internal taxes 1802, reduced gov’t spending, cut debt in half
. Reduced armed forces, but also est West Point Military Academy (est 1802)
. Trouble w/ Barbary pirates, but solved when J ended US tributes to Tripoli and paid ransom for release of
US prisoners
Judicial System
. Repealed Judiciary Act of 1801, eliminates the Federalist judges
. Judicial review: auth of Supreme Court to nullify acts of Congress for being unconstitutional
* Supported by Federalists, but not secure until an actual case came up
Marbury v. Madison
. William Marbury = one of the midnight judges
. Commission not delivered until Adams was out of office
. James Madison (secretary of state) refused to give commission
. 1803, Marbury applies to SC to order Madison to commission him
. Ruling: Marbury had right to commission but Court had no auth to order Madison to deliver
. Court had pwr to compel execs to act in cases like delivering commissions in Judiciary Act of 1789 (like
Marbury)
. Ruled that Congress had exceeded auth in creating that law
* Constitution had defined pwrs of judiciary, leg had no right to expant hem
* Therefore, the 1789 act was void
. Pwr to force delivery of a commission = gone, but the pwr to nullify act of Congress was created
. John Marshall: Federalist and prominent Virginia Lawyer, was secretary of state w/ Adams
* Est himself as dominant figure in Court, shaped lots of rulings like M v M
* Struggled to est judiciary as an equal branch w/ exec and leg
Removing the Federalist Threat
. Jeffersion recognized the threat that the judiciary could pose for his policies
. Urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges
. Samuel Chase: Federlist Justice, very partisan but had no crime
* House wanted to impeach him for political reasons
* Failed, est that impeachment would not be purely political weapon, must have legit reasoning

Getting More Land

⋅ Napoleon wanted to regain Spanish lands W of Mississippi
⋅ Treaty of San Ildefonso: 1800, secret treaty btw Fr and Spanish
* French regain Louisiana (all of Mississippi Valley W of river), and New Orleans
. Fr still owned West Indian islands (Guadeloupe, Martinique, Santo Domingo)
. Unrest among slaves, revolt/created republic of their own
* Toussaint L’Ouverture: black leader of revolts
 Supported by Eng and by Adams administration, but not by Jefferson
* Napoleon crushed revolts but are early sign of problems
. Robert R. Livingston: minister sent to Paris by Jefferson
. After Jefferson heard of the secret treaty, he began to reconsider his positive attitude to Fr
* Considered New Orleans (outlet for exports) v crucial spot, Fr can’t have it
. Spanish forbade US ships to deposit cargo in New Orleans for transfer to oceangoing boats (was originally
allowed in Pinckney Treaty of 1795)
. Jefferson told Livingston to negotiate purchase of New Orleans
* On his own, Livingston asks Fr to sell Louisiana as well
. Jefferson gets money to expand army/river fleet, gave impression that US might attack New Orleans and
that the US might ally w/ Eng
* Napoleon gives in, gives US Louisiana Territory
. 1803 Livingston and James Monroe (sent to Paris to help in negotiations) sign Louisiana Purchase w/o
 consulting Jefferson
* $15 million to Fr, grant some exclusive commercial privileges to Fr in New Orleans, incorporate
residents of Louisiana into Union w/ rights of citizens
* Borders of treaty not clearly defined
. Jefferson was uncertain if the US had auth to accept it b/c he said that federal gov’t could only exercise
pwrs explicitly assigned to it (Const did not say anything about getting new land), but agreed anyways
. Louisiana admitted to Union 1812
Other Explorers
. Lewis and Clark
* 1804 went up Missouri River, crossed Rocky Mtns, went down Columbia Rivers and on Pacific
Coast w/ Sacajawea, came back w/ records and diaries
. Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike
* 1805 St Louis  upper Mississippi Valley, went to Colorado, said that the land btw Missouri
River and Rockies were inhabitable, best left to Indians

The Burr Conspiracy

⋅ Some New Eng federalists against new land
* Argued that the more land, the less pwr the Federalists would have
. Essex Junto: group of most extreme Fed, felt that the only option was for New Eng to secede from Union
and form separate “Northern Confederacy”, would also have to include NY/NJ
* Alexander Hamilton (leading Fed in NY) refused to support
. Feds in NY turned to Hamilton’s rival, Aaron Burr
* He became candidate for governor of NY in 1804, rumored to support secession plans
* Hamilton accused Burr of treason  Burr lost election, challenged Hamilton to duel
* Hamilton accepted, but killed
* Burr flees NY, plans w/ James Wilkinson (gov of Louisiana) to lead an expedition to capture
Mexico from Spanish
 Rumored to want to separate SW from US and create western empire (not true)
 Jefferson believed these rumors
. Burr leads armed group down Ohio River 1806
* Reports that he would attack New Orleans by Wilkinson, who had turned on Burr
* Jefferson arrested Burr as traitor
* Jefferson wanted to convict them, but Marshall limited the evidence the gov coult present and
acquitted Burr
. Represented the instability of legitimacy of gov and US b/c central gov was still weak and US nominally
ctrled lots of land

Expansion and War

. Napoleonic Wars started 1803, Eng and Fr wanted the US to stop trading with each other
. Expansion conflicts with natives, who allied w/ Eng and Spanish
. US ships were very good at maritime trading
. Battle of Trafalgar: 1805, Eng navy beats Fr navy
* Napoleon est Continental Sys b/c Fr can no longer challenge Eng on seas
* Barred Eng ships from trading w/ Euro port that Fr/Fr allies ctrled
* US ships in dilemma: risked seizure by Eng or Fr
. British impressed many sailors into their service, so many deserted to the US
* Eng claimed right to stop/search US merchant ships and reimpresss deserters
. Chesapeake-Leopard Incident: 1807, Eng’s Leopard opened fire on US’s Chesapeake b/c captain James
Barron refused to allow searching, but Eng took four men anyways
* Met with outrage, Jefferson and Madison tried to maintain peace
 Jefferson expelled Eng warships from US waters, and demanded that Eng renounce
impressments
 Eng did everything but that
 The Embargo
. To avoid future incidents that might bring nation to brink of war
. Passed 1807, prohibited US ships from leaving the US to any foreign port in the world
. Congress gave gov’t pwr to enforce
. Widely evaded, but created depression, esp w/ Federalist merchants/shipowners in NE
* Convinced that Jefferson was acting unconstitutionally
. Election of 1808 came in the middle, James Madison won, Embargo = political liability
* Jefferson approved bill ending it
. Non-Intercourse Act
* Passed just before Madison took office
* Reopened trade w/ all nations but GB and Fr
. Macon’s Bill No. 2
* Replaced Non-Intercourse Act which expired in 1810
* Reopened commercial relations w/ Eng/Fr but auth president to prohibit commerce if one violates
neutral shipping after the other stops
. Napoleon announced that Fr would not interfere w/ US shipping; Madison announced that embargo w/ Eng
would pas 1811 unless Eng renounced restrictions on US shipping
* Eventually repealed, too late to prevent war (this conflict one of motivations for war)

Indians and the British

⋅ After war crisis of Chesapeake-Leopard incident, conflict btw natives/settlers revived
⋅ William Henry Harrison: Virginia-born
* Went to DC as rep from NW Territory in 1799
* Wanted growth/development in western lands
* Responsible for Harrison Land Law in 1800, made it easier for white settlers to acquire farms
from the public domain
* 1801 appointed governor of Indiana Territory to give Indians ultimatum
 Convert to settled farmers and assimilate into white society, or migrate to W of
Mississippi (either way they would give up claims to tribal lands in NW)
 Uses threats, bribes, trickery to convince tribes
. Eng wanted to renew relations w/ Indians b/c they feared US invasion of Canada
. The Prophet: Tenskwatawa, Native American leader, religious leader/orator
* Experienced mystical awakening while recovering from alcoholism, freed himself from evils of
white culture
* Spoke to people about superior virtues of Indian civilization + sinfulness/corruption of whites
* Inspired religious revival among tribes and united them
* As Indians had common religious exp, they also considered joining political/military efforts
. Tecumseh: chief of Shawnees, The Prophet’s brother, leader of these more secular efforts ^
* Understood that tribes could only resist whites if united
* Started in 1809 to unite all Indians of Mississippi Valley to halt white expansion
* 1811 Tecumseh traveled down to visit tribes of the South
* Harrison started Battle of Tippecanoe in Tecumseh’s absence, drove off Indians
 Disillusions many of Tecumseh’s followers
. Harrison and other whites wanted to drive out Eng of Canada and annex it to US to make West “safe”
. In the S wanted to get Spanish Florida
* Was threat to whites b/c of slaves escaping and Indians attacking
* Also b/c it had rivers w/ valuable ports on Gulf of Mexico
. 1810 white settlers in W Florida seized Spanish fort at Baton Rouge, asked fed gov’t to annex territory
* President Madison agreed, palnned to annex the rest
* Desire for Florida = motivation for war w/ Britain b/c Spain was Eng’s ally
. War Hawks: reps from both parties who wanted to war w/ Eng
* Nationalists like Henry Clay and John Calhoun and ppl who wanted to defend Repub values
 * Clay becomes speaker of the House in 1811, appointed Calhoun to Committee on Foreign Affairs
 Aimed for conquest of Canada
 Madison gives in to pressure, declares war against Eng 1812

War of 1812
. After Napoleon is weakened in 1812 in Russia, Eng focuses on US
. US invades Canada 1812, but failed and had to retreat; Fort Dearborn fell in Indian attack
. Also had defeats at sea
. Put-In-Bay: 1813 victory by US when Oliver Hazard Perry dispersed Eng fleet, allowed US to ctrl Lake
Erie
* Makes another invasion of Canada possible
* Henry Harrison pushes into upper Canada, won 1813 in Battle of the Thames
 Tecumseh as general in Eng army dies in this battle
 Weakened natives, diminished ability to defend claims
. Andrew Jackson pursues the Creek natives who were attacking white settlers near FL border
. Battle of Horseshoe Bend 1814, Jackson’s men revenged on the Creek tribe
* Tribe agreed to ceded most of its land to US, retreated more W into interior
* Gave Jackson commission as major general in US army
* Seized Spanish fort at Pensacola 1814
⋅ Eng invades DC 1814, set fire to White House, proceeded to Baltimore
* Baltimore/Fort McHenry was prepared and fought off British
* Francis Scott Key: WA lawyer watched the US bombard the Eng, wrote Star=Spangled Banner
(became national anthem in 1931)
. US repelled Eng invasion in N NY @ Battle of Plattsburgh 1814, secured N border of US
. In S, Battle of New Orleans: 1815 Jackson forces Eng to retreat w/ many casualties
* Later, news reached N Amer that US/Eng had signed peace treaty several weeks before
⋅ US had many failures btw 1812 and 1815  faced opposition
* Daniel Webster: congressman from NH, leader of Federalist opposition, embarrassed
administration at any opportunity
⋅ Federalist minority in US but majority in New Eng, talked about secession
⋅ Hartford Convention: 1814, delegates from New Eng met in Hartford, CT to discuss grievances
* Ppl in favor of secession were outnumbered
* Reasserted right of nullification, proposed 7 amendments to Const designed to protect New Eng
from influence of S/W
* Assumed that Repub would have to agree b/c the war was going badly + gov = desperate
* When victory at New Orleans + peace treaty reached them, the Convention/Fed seemed futile,
irrelevant, treasonous
* “Death blow” to Fed Party

Peace Settlement
. Treaty of Ghent: 1814 btw US (John Quincy Adams, Clay, Albert Gallatin) and Eng
* Demands were extravagant, but the treaty only ended fighting
* Eng exhausted/in debt from conflict w/ Fr, wanted to settle lesser dispute
* Us realized that w/ defeat of Napoleon, Eng had no incentive to interfere w/ US commerce
* Required US to restore lands seized by whites in fighting to natives, but never enforced
⋅ Rush-Bagot Agreement
* 1817, demilitarized the Great Lakes and the Canadian-American border
. Natives were severely weakened
* Tecumseh was dead
* The Eng, who were imp allies, were gone from the NW
* End of war spurred more white settlers deeper into the interior
Chapter 8 Notes
Economy after the War of 1812
⋅ Postwar boom but then brief bust in 1819
⋅ War created chaos in shipping/banking, exposed inadequacy of existing transportation/financial sys
⋅ Issues w/ re-est Bank of US (had expired in 1811, Congress had not renewed), protecting new industries, &
creating nationwide network of roads/waterways
⋅ US bank charter expires  state banks could not redeem the many notes they issued (value depended on
reputation of bank), no common currency
⋅ Second Bank of the US: chartered 1816
* More capital than Hamilton’s bank
* Could not forbid state banks from issuing their currency but dominated them
. Textile industry flourished
* Francis Cabot Lowell: developed power loom, organized Boston Manufacturing Co in 1813, and
founded first mill in US in MA to do both spinning/weaving in single building  shaped character
of early industrial work force
. Eng ships started selling refined goods in US ports, dominated US “baby” industries
. 1816 protective tariff that limited competition from abroad on items like cotton cloth
* Agricultural ppl objected b/c they would have to pay more $

Transportation
. Very pressing issue  manufacturers need raw materials and to send goods to market
* Should fed gov’t help finance roads/other internal improvements? = old issue
. Ohio enters Union 1803, gov’t agreed that profit from sale of land should finance road construction
* 1807 Albert Gallatin, Jefferson’s secretary of treasury, proposed that revenues should help finance
a National Road from Potomac River to Ohio River
* Approved  construction begins 1811, reached destination by 1818
 Tolls but worth it to people
. Steamboats = v effective and popular, stimulated agri econ of W/S
* Provided more access to markets for cheaper, allowed E to send finished goods W
. Eng blockade cuts of Atlantic shipping, coastal roads = crowded w/ N-S traffic
* Shortage of goods that usually came by sea, high prices
. 1815 Madison emp imp of est roads/canals
. John Calhoun introduces bill that would use gov’t funds to finance internal improvements
* Passed by Congress but vetoed by Madison 1817 b/c he believed Congress lacked auth to fund
improvements w/o const amendment

Expansion
⋅ Reasons
* Population / economic pressures
* Availability of new lands
* Decline of Indian resistance
. The factor system
* Gov’t factors (agents) supplied tribes w/ goods at cost
 Drove out Canadian traders, created natives’ dependency
. Erie Canal complete 1825
. Old NW = present Midwest
* Rough, domestic life for settlers but had strong sense of community and small families
* Agriculture emphasized (grain/livestock)
* Very mobile, often settling, then selling and moving
. Plantation System
* Main crop = cotton
 In Old South, much soil was unfertile
  Planters = like aristocracy
. Indiana 1816, Mississippi 1817, Illinois 1818, Alabama 1819 admitted to Union

Trade & Trapping

. Started trading w/ Mexico in SW, like Texas, NM, Cali
. Some displaced Indian traders & even Mexican traders themselves
. William Becknell: Missouri trader, offered US goods at lower price, had est trade from Mexico to US
. Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company: had Astoria (in Oregon) as trading post before 1812War
* When the war hit, he sold interests to NW Fur Company (Eng one operating out of Canada)
* After war, operations = Great Lakes area, and then to Rockies
. Fur traders used to purchase pelts from Indians, but now began to hunt beaver on their own
. “Mountain Men”: trappers who began trading/trapping themselves in the West
* First part of the white mvmnt into those lands
* Developed relationships w/ Indians/Mexicans
* Altered character of society  married the other women there
* Rocky Mountain Fur Company: est 1822 by Andrew and William Ashley, recruited white trappers
to move to Rockies to look for furs
* Closely bound w/ market economy (salary, credit, sold for cash, etc.)
. Jedediah S. Smith: trapper, later became Ashley partner, est own fur co in 1826 in Rockies
* Led ppl into Mexican territory, conflict w/ natives
* Attacked on trip to Oregon 1827
* Killed in New Mexico by Comanches

Eastern Images of the West

. Ppl like Smith = object of dramatic stories
. Explorers increased E awareness
. Stephen H. Long: led expedition to find sources of Red River 1819/1820, went through Nebraska, E
Colorado, Kansas
* Did not find headwaters but wrote report assessing potential for future settlement
 Echoed Zebulon Pike (unhabitable)

The “Era of Good Feelings”

⋅ The Virginia Dynasty
* Jefferson, Madison, James Monroe all from Virginia
. President James Monroe
* Elected in 1816, 61 yrs old
* Party had no serious opposition, peace after war of 1812
* Wanted to be really impartial to parties and factions
 Secretary of State = John Quincy Adams, Federalist
• New Englander, predecessors of office had all gone on to become president 
end of Virginia Dynasty?
 Secretary of war: John C. Calhoun
 Included people from all over, geographically and politically
* Made goodwill tour around country, which no one since WA had done
* Reelected 1820

John Quincy Adams & Florida

* Great diplomat, committed nationalist
* US wanted to annex rest of FL (already had W)
* 1817 began negotiations w/ Luis de Onis
* Seminole War: Andrew Jackson invades FL w/ pretense to stop raids by Seminole Indians
* Adams urges gov’t to assume responsibility, tells Spanish they have right to defend themselves,
 shows pwr of nation
* Adams-Onis Treaty: 1819, Spain FL  US, gives up land N of 42nd parallel in PNW

Panic of 1819
. Economic crisis
* Foreign demand for US farm goods  high prices for farmers  land price up easy credit
* National bank starts tightening credits  failures by state banks  financial panic
 Many blamed national bank
 6 yrs of depression
. Some saw it as boom and bust, warning that rapid econ growh + land exp would destabilize nation

The Missouri Compromise

⋅ Missouri applied for admission to Union in 1819 (slave state)
* Tallmadge Amendment: to Missouri statehood bill prohibiting further intro of slaves & gradual
emancipation of existing ones
. Maine wanted admission too (free state)
* If Missouri couldn’t enter as slave state, Maine couldn’t enter
. Senate agrees to admit Maine as free state & Missouri as slave state
. Thomas Amendment: prohibits slavery in land north of the S boundary of Missouri (36°30’ parallel)
John Marshall & the Court
. John Marshall: chief justice 1801 – 1835
* Dominated Court, strengthened judicial branch & fed gov’t
* Defended inviolability of contracts
 Fletcher v. Peck: 1810, land frauds in GA
• Court decided land grant was valid, could not be repealed even if corrupt
. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)
* Repubs wanted to convert Dartmouth into state university
* Ruled that Dartmouth charter (by King George 3) was contract and inviolable
* Placed restrictions on ability of state gov’t to ctrl corporations
* Gave themselves right to override state court decisions, but often challenged
. Cohens v. Virginia (1821)
* Affirmed constitutionality of federal review of state court decisions
* States gave up part of sovereignty in ratifying Const, courts must submit to federal
. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
* states tried to drive national bank out by prohibition/ taxes
* Could Congress charter a bank, and could states ban/tax it?
* Confirmed implied pwrs of Congress by upholding constitutionality of Bank
* Pwr to tax = pwr to destroy
. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824):
* NY gave Fulton/Livingston’s steamboat co right to carry ppl on Hudson River to NY; F/L gave
Ogden the business, but Gibbons began competing w/ Ogden
* Congress’s pwr of giving Gibbons license for ferry > NY’s pwr to give Ogden a monopoly?
* Pwr of Congress to regulate interstate commerce (and nav) was complete
 Ogden’s state-granted monopoly was void
* Strengthened Congress’s pwr to regulate interstate commerce
. Marshall Court est Federal gov’t > states in regulating economy
* Protected corporations/other institutions from local gov’t interference
* V. nationalistic to promote growth of strong, econ developed US

Court & Tribes

 ⋅ Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)
* Illinois/Pinakeshaw tribes sold land to whites but ceded territory to fed gov’t w/ same land
* Tribes had basic right to land, > US law
* Only fed gov’t, not individuals, could buy/take land from tribes
. Worcester v Georgia aka Cherokee cases (1831/1832)
* Court invalidated Georgia laws that attempted to regulate access by US citizens to Cherokee
* Only fed gov’t could do that (fed auth over states & tribes)
* Tribes were sovereign entities, free from state gov’t auth
. Marshall decisions defined place for tribes in US political systems
* Had basic property rights, sovereign entities, but fed gov’t had ultimate auth

Latin American Revolution & Monroe Doctrine

. Revolution in Latin America
* 1815 US declares neutrality in wars btw Spain and its colonies
 Implies partial recognition of colonies as nations
 Sold ships/supplies to colonies, so not really neutral at all
* 1822 US first to recognize Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico
. Monroe Doctrine 1823
* US considers any foreign challenge to sovereignty of US nations an unfriendly act
* Remained neutral in Euro conflicts
* Feared that Spain’s Euro allies (esp Fr) would try to retake lost colonies
* Feared that Eng wanted Cuba (US wanted to keep Cuba until it became US)
* Est idea of US as dominant pwr in W Hemisphere

Revival of Opposition
⋅ Federalist Party dies 1816
⋅ New divisions emerge 1820s
⋅ Controversy = how to expand, not whether to
⋅ End of Caucus System
* Pres candidates nominated by caucuses of 2 parties in Congress until 1820
* 1824 Repub nominated Crawford, but other cands received nominations from states
. Election of 1824
* John Q Adams (Sec of State, imp position) was cold and unpopular
* Henry Clay (speaker of house) had definite program and popular
 “American System”: raise tariff, strengthen nat bank, finance internal improvements
* Andrew Jackson was military hero
* Jackson had more votes but not majority
* 12th amendment: House of Rep to choose among the 3 candidates w/ most electoral votes
* Crawford = sick, Clay = out of the running, but supported Adams
* Adams wins w/ Clay’s endorsement, names Clay as sec of state
* Outraged Jacksonians b/c Sec of State usually  president so it was like naming own successor
 “corrupt bargain”
 Haunts most of Adams’s presidency

President John Quincy Adams

. Proposed nationalist program like Clay’s Amer Sys, but rejected by Jacksonians
. Appointed delegates to int conference called in Panama 1826 by Simon Bolivar
* Southerners in Congress did not want to mingle w/ black delegates from Haiti
. Pwned in contest w/ GA (wanted to remove Creek/Cherokee Indians from state to get land for cotton)
* 1791 treaty gives lands to Creeks, 1825 new treaty btw GA and McIntosh (leader of one tribe
faction, wanted Indian cooperation w/ US)
* Adams believed new treaty had no legal force, refused to enforce, sets up conflict w/ state
 * GA governor defies pres, proceeds w/ Indian removal plan
. Tariff of Abominations 1828
* New tariff on imported goods
* MA and RI woolen manu complained that Eng were selling at low $
* To win support from other states, the admin had to accept duties on other items
* Antagonized original New Eng supporters of bill (benefits from protection from foreign
competition vs. paying more for raw materials)

Jackson Triumphant
⋅ By 1828 pres election, new 2-party sys emerged
⋅ National Republicans
* Supporters of JQ Adams
* Supported economic nationalism of preceding years
* Support of remaining Federalists
. Democratic Republicans
* Supporters of Andrew Jackson
* Called for assault on privilege & widening of opportunity
* Appealed to a broad group who opposed “economic aristocracy”
. Adams accused of waste/extravagance
. Jackson accused of murderer (he had killed in 1812War)
. Jackson won, but Adams got a lot of votes in New Eng + Mid-Atlantic
* However, Jacksonians considered this as important as 1800 election
* “Era of the common man”
Chapter 9 Notes

Alexis de Tocqueville
. Fr aristocrat, visited US 1831, commented on equality among ppl (no rigid distinction in rank)
. Democracy in America, wrote that demo gave political rights to everyone
. Wondered how long it could survive w/ industrialism (would create large class of dependent workers &
small group of new aristocrats)
Andrew Jackson
. 1829 inauguration attended by masses
. Presidency did not advance economic quality but did extend right to vote to wide groups
* Ohio & states in West gave all adult white males voting, & voters right to hold public office
* Older states also gave rights to citizens
* MA held convention 1820, many like Daniel Webster opposed demo changes
 Reformed rules of rep in state senate & got rid of property requirements for voting; also
required that every voter = taxpayer
* NY 1821 abolished property qualification
* Rhode Island demo efforts met with conflict
 Thomas W. Dorr: forms “People’s party” 1840, drafted new constitution
• Leg refused to accept, but Dorrites had set up new gov’t w/ own const
• 1842  2 governors claim legitimacy in RI
• Dorr Rebellion failed when state gov’t began to imprison them
• Result  expanded suffrage b/c drafted new const
* Blacks could not vote anywhere
 Penn strips black of rights to vote in 1838
* Women could not vote
* Despite limitations, # of voters grew
Legitimization of the Party
. NY: Martin Van Buren leads dissident political faction called Albany Regency, challenged est political
leadership led by governor De Witt Clinton
 * Argued that only institutionalized party could ensure true demo
* Loyalty to party itself = imp
* Preservation of party as institution = goal
* Party must have permanent opposition to survive
. This Second-Party system spread, began on national level in 1830s
* Whigs = anti-Jackson; Democrats = Jackson followers (instead of Demo Repub)
 the Democratic Party had no clear ideological position
. Jackson believed all white male citizens = equal protection/benefits that has no favor to region/class
. Also believed blacks, Indians, and women had to be subjugated to preserve white demo
. Spoils System
* Targeted entrenched officeholders, believed offices belonged to the people
* Removed lots of federal officeholders, est right of elected officials to appoint their own followers
to public office
. Also wanted to change the process w/ which the pres won nomination of party (caucus)
* 1832 party convention to renominate Jackson for pres
. Limited pwr of permanent officeholders & exclusive party caucus
* But did not transfer pwr to ppl

Calhoun & Nullification

. Home state of SC believed tariff of abominations was responsible for stagnation of econ
. Theory of nullification
* Influenced from Virginia/Kentucky Resolutions (1798-1799) and 10th amendment
* Since fed gov’t created the states, the states were final judges of const’y of federal laws
 Could declare unconst law null
* Popular in SC b/c they wanted to null 1828 tariff

The Rise of Van Buren

. Martin Van Buren: NY gov 1828, also secretary of state to Jackson
. Est himself as member of official cabinet & “Kitchen Cabinet” (pres’s unofficial political allies)
. Jackson made John Eaton secretary of war
* Rest of admin wives, led by Mrs. Calhoun, refused to accept Eaton’s wife, O’Neale, b/c she was
married but had an affair w/ Eaton (when her husband died, she married Eaton)
* Jackson demands that the cabinet accept her
* Calhoun refuses w/ pressure from wife
* Van Buren befriended Eatons, gets on good side of Jackson

Webster-Hayne Debate
. In 1830 senate meeting, a CT senator suggested that all land sales/surveys be temp discontinued
. Robert Hayne: SC senator
* Retorts that slowing down the growth of West was way for East to retain political/econ pwr
* Had no interest in W lands but hoped he would attract support from Westerners to lower tariff
* Argued that both S & W were victims of NE tyranny, hinted that S/W might fight together
. Daniel Webster: MA senator, nationalistic Whig
* Denounced Hayne/Calhoun for challenge to integrity of Union
* Challenged Hayne to debate about states’ rights vs. national pwr
. Hayne responded w/ defense on theory of nullification
. Webster delivers “second reply to Hayne” that lasts 2 days
. Jackson agrees w/ Webster, thinks Union must be preserved, so now he against Calhoun

The Nullification Crisis

. 1832 SC angrily protest a tariff bill that offers no relief from 1828 tariff of abominations
. State convention votes to nullify tariffs of 1828/1832 and to forbid collection of duties in state
 . Elected Hayne as governor and Calhoun as senator
. Jackson said nullification = treason
. Proposed force bill that would auth pres to use military to enforce acts of Congress
. No state came to SC’s support
. Henry Clay came up with a compromise
* Tariff to be lowered gradually; by 1842 it would be at the same level as in 1816
. Compromise & force bill passed in 1833
. SC repealed nullification of tariffs but also nullified force act (only symbolic)

Removal of the Indians

. White Americans had changing attitudes
* From “noble savages”/paternalistic  hostile, uncivilizable
* Belief that whites should not live so closely to Indians, and Indian culture/society = no respect
. Favored removal b/c of conflict, and b/c wanted land
. The Black Hawk War
* Battle 1831-1832 btw IL white settlers & Sauk/Fox Indians under command of Black Hawk
* Black Hawk refused to recognize legality of agreement that ceded tribal lands in IL to US b/c rival
tribe had signed it
* Defeated by white leaders in IL, pursued and many were killed
. “Five Civilized Tribes”
* In W GA, Alabama, Mississippi, and FL
* Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw
 Had successful agricultural societies
* Cherokees had own written language & formal const (1827) that created independent nation
* Some whites even argued that the Cherokees should keep land b/c they were so westernized
 Men farmed, women were domestic
. Indian Removal Act
* Passed in 1830 by Congress, gave money to finance federal negotiations w/ southern tribes to
relocate to West
* Many tribes caved under pressure from state/fed gov’t
. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)
* Cherokees tried to stop white encroachments in GA, appealed to SC
* Decided by Worchester v. Georgia trials, (chapter 8)
* Jackson v against this
* 1835 fed gov’t extracted treaty from minority faction of Cherokee that cedes land to GA for $5 mil
and a reservation W of Mississippi
 Majority of Cherokees did not recognize legitimacy of treaty, refused to leave
. Trail of Tears
* Jack sent army under General Winfield Scott to round them up and drive them west
* 1000 fled to NC and currently live in Smoky Mtn reservation
* Indian Intercourse Act 1834, Congress creates “Indian territory”
 Territory thought to be undesirable, and on eastern edge of “Great American Desert”
 Thought unlikely that whites would expand beyond that point
* Most of them made long trek to “Indian Territory” (OK state) beginning winter 1838
* Thousands died b/c harsh conditions
* Jackson claims that removal was way to protect tribes
* 1830 – 1838 all “5 Civilized Tribes” expelled and forced to relocate
* Choctaws (MS/W AL) in 1830, Creeks (E AL/W GA) 1836, Chickasaw (N MS) 1837
 Seminoles resisted
• Ceded lands in 1832/1833 Payne’s Landing treaties, but some refused to leave,
staged uprising 1835 (Seminole War)
• After war, some still remained in FL
 . Alternatives to Removal
* Could live together peacefully (had worked in the past)
 Later, whites believed that natives could not be partners in creating new societies
 Justified harsh policies that they believed would drive out the natives

The Bank War

. Jackson was opposed to concentrating economic pwr in fed gov’t or associated aristocratic institutions
* E.g. 1830 vetoed subsidy to Maysville Road in Kentucky
* Argued that it was unconst b/c road was in KT and not part of interstate commerce
. Nicholas Biddle: president of bank starting 1823
* Est bank as sound/prosperous, but Jackson was determined to destroy it
* Phil aristocrat, unused to politics
* Granted financial favors to influential men in effort to preserve bank, esp Daniel Webster
* Named Webster Bank’s legal counsel/director of Boston branch
* Webster helped win support of Clay for Biddle
. Opposition to the bank
* Soft Money
 wanted more currency in circulation, issuing bank notes unsupported by bullion was best
way to circulate more
 Mostly state bankers
 Objected to bank b/c it prevented the state banks from issuing notes freely
 Believed in rapid econ growth/speculation
* Hard Money
 Believed that bullion was only basis for money
 Condemned all banks that issued bank notes, including Bank of US
 Embraced “public virtue”, suspicious of expansion/speculation
 Supported by Jackson, but also sensitive to complaints of soft-money in W/S
. Jackson does not favor renewing charter of the Bank of US, due to expire in 1836
. Biddle applies 1832 to renew charter to make bank big issue in 1832 elections
* Vetoed by Jackson
. 1832 elections, Clay = National Republicans’ choice
* But bank war does not give him winning edge, Jackson wins again
. Removed gov’t deposits from Bank
* Fired two secretaries who refused to comply w/ orders
* Roger B. Taney = third secretary
 Began to place gov’t deposits in state banks
• Called ‘pet banks” by enemies of Jackson
* Biddle raised interest rates & called in loans
 Hoped for a short recession to persuade Congress to recharter Bank
* Biddle begins to use unwise tactics to achieve this goal, loses popularity, Jackson wins
. Bank of US dies in 1836, US left w/ fragmented/unstable banking system

The Taney Court

. Roger B. Taney appointed chief justice 1835 after Marshall’s death
* Taney gradually modifies Marshall’s nationalism
. Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837)
* Btw 2 MA companies over right to build a bridge across Charles River
* One company had charter from state to operate toll bridge, claims monopoly of bridge traffic
* Other company had applied to leg for auth to construct a second toll-free bridge that would lower
value of 1st company’s charters
* 1st company said that the second charter was breach of contract
* Taney supports MA’s right to award 2nd charter
  Object of gov’t = promote happiness, > rights of contract/property
 1st company benefiting from unjustifiable privilege
 Reflects Jacksonian values: key to demo was expansion of econ opportunity

Democrats vs. Whigs

. Whigs: opposition to Jackson, named after the party in Eng that worked to limit pwr of king
* Liked expanding pwr of fed gov’t, ind/commercial development, consolidated conomic system,
material progress, modernizing institutions like
* Disliked W expansion (rapid land growth = instability)
* Wanted US to be great commercial/manufacturing pwr
* Supporters = merchants/manufacturers of NE, and wealthy planters of S, and farmers/rising
commercial class of W advocated internal improvements, expanding trade, rapid econ progress
* Usually wealthier than Democrats, more aristocratic, more commercially ambitious
* Attracted Evangelical Protestants b/c of constant development/improvement
. Democrats wanted more econ/poli opportunities for white males
* Believed gov’t role should be limited, but should make effort to remove obstacles to opportunity
* = defend Union & attack corrupt privilege
* Locofos: v. radical Democrats, mainly workingmen/small businessmen in the NE, wanted assault
on monopoly and privilege
* Smaller merchants/workingmen of NE, planters suspicious of ind growth in S, and westerners w/
S roots who wanted agrarian econ, opposed pwrful econ inst in region
* Also attracted Irish/German Catholics (largest of recent immigrant groups) b/c didn’t like
commercial development/entrepreneurial progress, and was family/community-centered
. Both thought winning elections > maintaining their philosophy  adjustments to policies to attract voters
. Anti-Masonry: movement that emerged in 1820s are response to resentment against secret, exclusive,
‘undemocratic’ Society of Freemasons
* Former Mason William Morgan disappeared 1826 before he was going to publish a book to
expose secrets of Freemasonry, caused frenzy
* Whigs took advantage to attack Jason/Van Buren, both Freemasons
 Implied that Democrats were part of antidemocratic conspiracy
 presented themselves as opponents of aristocracy/exclusivity
. The Great Triumvirate: Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John Calhoun all had divided loyalty of Whigs
* Clay b/c of American System, but also unpopular b/c identification w/ West
* Webster b/c was passionate orator and defended Const/Union, but close connection w/ Bank of
US/tariff, and reliance on rich men for support, and alcoholism
* Calhoun never considered himself true Whig, identification w/ nullification
 Prevented the three men from winning national presidency
 All three men disliked Jackson
. Election of 1836
* Democrats  Martin Van Buren (Jackson’s choice also)
* Whigs could not agree on single candidate, ran several
 Webster = New Eng, Hugh Lawson White of TN = S, Harrison from OH = middle/West
 Hoped that the three would draw votes from Van Buren, but Van Buren won

Martin Van Buren & Panic of 1837

. Never as popular as Jackson, admin had economic difficulties
. Success in election was result of nationwide econ boom
. 1835 – 1837 gov’t was out of debt w/ surplus (1st and only time)
* What to do? Could not reduce tariff, wanted to return fed surplus to states
. Distribution Act 1836, required fed gov’t to pay surplus funds to states each year as loans (no one expected
them to be repaid)
* States spent $ quickly, esp on construction of highways, railroads, canals
 * Distribution of surplus gave stimulus to boom
* Withdrawal of fed funds strained state/”pet” banks
. Specie Circular 1836
* Many ppl were speculating lots of land in West
 Jackson unhappy that land was exchanged for state bank notes that weren’t worth much
* In payment for public lands, gov’t would only accept gold/silver or currency backed by g/s
* Did not cure speculative fever  actually produced financial panic
. Panic of 1837
* Started at beginning of Van Buren’s presidency
* Lasted 5 years, poli disaster for Van Buren/Democrats
* Possible Causes
 Distribution of Treasury surplus (had weakened state banks) = fault of Whigs
 Also from Euro  had own panics, so Euro withdrew funds from US  more strain on
US banks
 Crop failures required more imports of food, more $
 Specie Circular
* Occurred during Democratic admin, Van Buren opposed gov’t intervention so helped little
 May have made things worse, like borrowing $ to pay gov debts and following the specie
 Bills giving settlers rights to buy gov’t land and to lower price of land failed in Congress
 Van Buren est 10-hr workday on all fed projects, but had few leg achievements
• New financial sys to replace Bank of US  “independent treasury”
o Gov’t to place funds in ind treasury at WA and in subtreasuries in other
cities  no private bank would have gov money to use in speculation
o Failed in 1837, passed in 1840
Log Cabin Campaign 1840
. Whigs held first national nominating convention in Penn 1839
* William Henry Harrison: lived in NW, nominee for pres, popular
* John Tyler: nominee for VP
. Democrats nominated Van Buren, but did not nominate VP candidate
. “Penny press”: carried news of candidates to everyone, first emerged in 1840
* Newspapers such as The New York Sun and New York Herald sold for only a penny
 Origins of current newspapers, paid reporters  fostered journalism as profession
 New technology = cheap newspapers, not produced by upper class anymore
* Whigs presented themselves as party of common ppl (so did Democrats)
* Both used techniques of mass voter appeal
* Whigs showed Harrison as simple man who loved log cabins, Van Buren of being aristocrat
* Harrison wins
Frustration of the Whigs
. Harrison dies in office one month after taking office (of pneumonia)
. Tyler succeeds him, weakly tied to Whigs
* Former Democrat, had left the party b/c disliked Jackson’s policies, but still had some Demo
* Agreed to bills abolishing independent treasury
* Refused to recharter Bank of US
* Vetoed some internal improvement bills
*  Whigs vote Tyler out of the party
* Cabinet members resign, former Democrats & Calhoun replace them
* Tyler/band of conservative southern Whigs were preparing to rejoin Democrats

Whig Diplomacy
. The Caroline Affair
* 1837 E Canada rebels against Eng, charter US’s Caroline to ship supplies to them
  Eng seize the Caroline in Canada, kills 1 US
 Gov’t refused to disavow attack or give compensation
* NY authorities arrested Canadian Alexander McLeod, charges him with murder of the killed
American
 Eng insist that McLeod could not be accused b/c acted under official orders
 Release of McLeod or war
• Could not release b/c under NY jurisdiction & had to be tried
* NY acquits McLeod, defuses crisis
. Aroostook War
* 1838 btw groups of Americans and Canadians
* They began moving into Aroostook River region, which was disputed area btw Canada/Maine
since Treaty of 1783  violent brawl
. The Creole
* 1841 US ship sailed to New Orleans w/ slaves on board
* Slaves mutinied en route, took ship to Bahamas
* Eng officials declared slaves free  US furious
. Webster-Ashburton Treaty 1842
* 1842 Eng sends Lord Ashburton to negotiate agreement on matters like Maine boundary
* Negotiations w/ Webster (Sec of State) results in treaty
* Est N boundary btw US/Canada along Maine-New Brunswick border
 Gives US more than ½ of the previously disputed territory
* Protected trade routes in N US/S Canada
* Expressed regret for Caroline/Creole affairs, promises no further interference
* Improved Anglo-American relations
. Treaty of Wang Hya 1844
* First diplomatic relations w/ China
* 1842 Eng forced China to open some ports to foreign trade
* US sends commissioner (Caleb Cushing) to China to negotiate treaty to give US part in trade
* Treaty gives US same privileges as Eng
* Gives US right of “extraterritoriality”  right of US accused of crimes in China to be tried by
American officials

Chapter 10

Population
. Increased, a lot in industrial centers of NE/NW  labor force
. Pop increasing, migrating W, and moving to towns/cities
. b/c improvements in public health, higher birth rate
. immigration more in 1830s (b/c less transportation $ & more eco opportunities)
. More Irish Catholic & German immigrants
* Germany = poverty & collapse of revolution
* Ireland = Eng oppression & potato famine
* Irish  E cities, unskilled labor b/c no money, & mostly young women
* German  NW cities, farmers/business b/c some money & family/men
. NYC was largest city by 1810 (partly b/c Eerie Canal
. Rapid urbanization in W b/c good agri econ (good w/ trade b/c on rivers)
. Nativism
* Response to # of immigrants
* Defense of native-born, desire to stop/slow immigration
* Some result of racism  inferior, viewed w/ same as blacks, socially unfit
* Stealing jobs from native labor force
 * Church or Rome “gaining foothold in US gov” (Irish Cath)
* Most voted Demo, outraged Whigs
. Native American Party
* Formed to combat “alien menace”
* 1845 convention in Philadelphia
* Combined w/ other nativist groups to form Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner in 1850
* Endorsed banning Cath/foreign-born from office, restrictive naturalization laws, and literary tests
for voting
* Strict code of secrecy
 Code = “I know nothing”, members = Know-Nothings
. The Know-Nothings
* Created the American Party after 1852
* Won ctrl of state gov in MA
* Contributed to collapse of Whigs-Demos and creation of new nat poli

Transportation, Communications, Technology

The Canal Age
. 1790 – 1820’s = Turnpike era
. Beginning in 1820s/1830s
. Steamboat: corn/wheat of NW & cotton/tobacco of SW  New O, then to E ports
. But farmers/merchants wanted to have more direct way to transport
. Canal building mostly for states, too expensive for private
. The Eerie Canal
* Huge construction project, completed 1825
* NY  Great Lakes, = direct access to W like Chicago
 NY could replace New O as destinations for agri of W
* Ohio/Indiana made canals connecting them to NY
 Led to more whites in NW
* Other states tried but failed mostly due to geo (Boston, Phil, Baltimore)
* MD started Chesapeake/Ohio Canal 1828 but only DC  Cumberland
. Canals not successful for anyone except for NY, turned to RR

Railroads
. Combo of innovations: tracks, steam-powered locomotives, railroad cars for both passengers/cargo
. John Stevens ran locomotive around track on NJ estate 1820
. Stockton/Darlington RR in Eng became first to carry general traffic 1825
. Baltimore/Ohio opened 13-mi track in 1830, NY 1831
. Did not link RR to another, mostly to connect water routes
. Competition btw RR and canals, RR slowly prevailed
. After 1840 RR > canals
. Trend to consolidate short lines into long lines
Communications
. Samuel F. B. Morse: transmitted news of Polk’s nomination for pres from Baltimore  WA by telegraph
. Western Union Telegraph Co = big co for telegraphs
. Richard Hoe: invented steam cylinder rotary press 1846, made it possible to print newspapers fast/cheap
. Associated Press: newspaper publishers formed 1846 to promote co-op news gathering by wire
. Fed sectional discord (most major magazines/newspapers in N)
* Growing awareness of other sections & differences

Commerce & Industry

. Business grew 1820s/1830s partly b/c entrepreneurs
 . Retail distribution of goods  more systematic/efficient
. More corporations rather than individual merchant capitalist, who had sole ownership of enterprises
* MC declined by mid 19C b/c Eng stole a lot of US export trade, & they discovered more
opportunities in manu than trade
. Corporations could get charter by paying a fee
. Limited liability: individual stockholders risked losing only value of their own investment if corporation
failed, not liable for larger losses (different from past)
. Inadequate credit = problem
. Bank notes: banks issued lots, not v stable, bank failures/insecure bank deposits
Emergence of the Factory
. Factory system: entrepreneurs began to make use of machines to bring operations under single roof (instead
of individually/private places)
. NE: v industrial (had few but large plants, produced >2/3 of manu goods of US)
Advances in Technology
. Turret lathe: cut screws/other metal parts, developed by armory in MA
. Universal milling machine: replaced hand chiseling of complicated parts w/ machine, = identical parts, also
developed by armory in MA
. Precision grinding machine: designed 1850s, helped produce standardized rifle parts, later critical to
construction of sewing machines
. Interchangeable parts: result of better machine tools, by Eli Whitney
. Coal replacing wood/water pwr for fuel in many factories
. Many more patents
. Charles Goodyear: discovered method of vulcanizing (treating to give more strength/elasticity) rubber 1839
* Created major US rubber industry (major econ change)
. Elias Howe: constructed sewing machine 1846
* Isaac Singer improved it, was soon used in manu of clothing
Recruiting a Labor Force
⋅ New agri areas b/c able to import  farmers in unproductive areas moved to factories
⋅ Lowell/Waltham System: young women were enlisted in factory (MA)
* Work for several years, and then often took up domestic roles
* Maintained good environ b/c though employing women = immoral (paternalistic)
* Declined: boom/bust = difficult to maintain high living standards/working conditions
* Factory Girls Association: est 1834 by mill workers in Lowell, stage strike to protest wage cut,
again In 1836
 Failed, destroyed in 1837 by recession
* Female Labor Reform Association: est 1845, led by Sarah Bagley
 Wanted 10-hr day/better conditions, asked state gov’t for leg investigation of conditions
Immigrant Work Force
. Large & inexpensive, performed heavy/unskilled work in bad conditions, low wages
Factories & Artisans
. Factories displacing artisans’ work, couldn’t compete with cheaper prices
. Cordwainers: makers of high-quality boots and shoes, suffered from shoe factories
. They and other artisans began to make first workingmens’ political parties/labor unions
. Unions weakened by Panic of 1837 (dramatic financial collapse, caused recession)
Fighting for Control
. Law passed in NH (1847) and PN (1848) passed 10-hr laws
. Express contract: would make workers spend more time on the job, often were required to sign anyways
. Commonwealth v. Hunt 1842: Massachusetts declared unions = lawful organizations, strike = lawful
weapon
. Early craft unions excluded women, so they made their own

Patterns of Industrial Society

 . More inequality btw rich and poor
. Many free blacks were worst victims of poverty, along w/ widows, orphans, victims of native prejudice,
mentally ill
. Lots of mobility within working class
. Middle class was expanding v fast
* Cast-iron stove invented, replaced fireplaces
. Farms began to hire farmhands, women there = more domestic and lower econ status than E
. Decline in birth rates (more calculations about future, children = important decision)
Women & “Cult of Domesticity”
. Oberlin University: first college to accept female students, 1837
. Still had role of mothers & wives, consumers, developed distinctive female culture
. Came to regard work by women outside household to be of lower classes
Leisure Activities
. Few vacations
. Popular activities like theaters, minstrel shows (whites that ridiculed black culture)
. P.T. Barnum: opened American Museum in NY 1842, was a freakshow (not museum), exploited public
taste for wild/exotic

The Agricultural North

. In NE, decline b/c could not compete w/ better soil in NW
. Resorted to truck farming (growing vegetables to supply cities)
. In NW, industrial activities served agri or relied on agri (meatpacking, farm machinery, etc)
. Concentrated on growing single crop and flourished from trade w/ Euro
. NE = lots of markets for NW, and vice versa (isolated S)
. Cyrus H. McCormick of VA: invented automatic reaper 1834  faster harvesting of wheat
. Thresher: separated grain from stalks (most manufactured in Jerome I. Case factory in WI)
Rural areas
. Religion v important b/c not v organized infrastructure & families isolated
. Hinterland: rural area surrounding large cities area, also called the market area.
Chapter 11
⋅ S expanded, new markets, more productive, tied in trade to US/Euro
⋅ But still remained agrarian by 1860
The Cotton Economy
. Econ pwr shifted, upper S (original S states along coast)  lower S (new states of SW)
. Decline of other economies
* Upper S in 19C still relied on tobacco
 Declined b/c prices not stable & exhausted land quickly
 Many old tobacco regions shifted to things like wheat (VA, MA, NC)
 Center of tobacco moved W
* S coastal (SC, GA, FL) still relied on rice
 Slow-growing, lots of irrigation  restricted to small area
* Sugar also a lot of labor/slow-growing (mostly in LA/TX)
* Long-staple cotton = grew limited in SE coastal
. Short-staple cotton = hardier, coarser, versatile in lots of climates/soils
* Harder to process but cotton gin solved this problem
. Much demand for cotton from Euro/New Eng
* Spread W into AL/MS, LA/TX/AK
* By Civil War, =2/3 of total export of US ($200 mil/yr)
* Dominated lower/Deep S = Cotton Kingdom
. Slavery expanded to W/Deep S also
Southern Trade & Industry
 . Industry grew (flour/textile/iron) but was still insignificant compared to agriculture
. Commercial sector served needs of plantation economy
* Brokers/”factors”, marketed planters’ crops
 Also served as bankers b/c S had rudimentary banking sys
. Primitive bank = lack of development in basic things
* Inadequate transportation sys, mainly transported by water
. James b. D. De Bow: advocated S econ independence
* De Bow’s Review: magazine 1846-1880, warned of dangerous colonial relations btw sections
 Ironically, was dependent on N (printing, ads from N)
. Reasons for Colonial Dependency
* Profitability of agriculture/cotton
* Much capital invested in land/slaves = not much $ for other things
* Climate = not as good as climate of N for industrial development
* S work habits were not very good, no strong work ethic
* The Cavalier Image (thought of themselves as reps of life based on chivalry, leisure, elegance)
 Free from base, acquisitive instincts of N “Yankees”
 Refined/gracious way of life > rapid growth/development
White Society in the South
. Small minority of whites owned slaves, but planter aristocracy had lots of pwr/influence
. Planters just as competitive as N capitalist industrialists b/c crops = risky/competitive business
. Planters in lower S wanted to portray themselves as genteel aristocrats
. Avoided “coarse” jobs like trade/commerce; military/planter = suitable
. “Honor” = saving face, bravery, ethical behaviour  violated = public rebuke or duel
* SC Preston Brooks beat MA Charles Sumner in Senate to retaliate to insult
 N thought as savage, S thought as hero
* Must avenge insults, especially to women
. The “Southern Lady”
* Affluent S white women similar to mid-class white women in N  domestic life in house mostly,
not many public activites/employment
* Honor = men must defend women, women = more subordinate than N
 George Fitzhugh = advocator
* Lived on farms, isolated, no access to public and to look beyond wife/mother role
* Family = principal econ unit on farms, male > women/children more than in N
* Less access to education: nearly ¼ were illiterate
* Higher birth rate/mortality rate
* Slave labor sys = extramarital affairs by husbands
* Some became abolitionists, wanted reforms in S
* But many convinced themselves that S > N, also defended class lines from poor whites
. The Plain Folk
* Modest yeoman farmer, owned few slaves/no slaves
* Subsistence farming  even when they sold some, could not expand/get out of debt
* Poor S edu sys = few opportunities to learn/advance
 Universities only within reach of upper class
* “Hill People”: non-slaveowning whites in isolated areas like Appalachian ranges E of Miss, v.
subsistence, v secluded, unconnected to commercial econ of S
 Slavery threatened sense of own independence
 Mtn region only part to defy sectional conformity, resisted movement to secession
 Many refused to support Confederacy, some fought for Union
* Non-slaveowning whites who lived in midst of plantation sys
 Accepted b/c depended on plantation aristo for access, markets, financial assistance
 S = democracy, sense of connection, even though officeholders = elites
 * Lots of ppl believed attack on slavery would lead to attack on patriarchy
* “Poor white trash”: lived in squalor on infertile lands, owned no land, supported by foraging
 Underclass, held in contempt by planters/farmers, worse off than slaves
 No opposition to plantation sys or slavery b/c too much poverty to protest
 Still considered themselves part of ‘ruling race’
 Frederick Law Olmsted: N visited S, chronicled S society 1850s, commented on this
Slavery: The “Peculiar Institution”
. In W world, S only area (except for Brazil/Cuba/Puerto Rico) w/ slavery by mid 19C
. William Harper: SC politician 1840s, wrote to defend slavery
. Slave codes: no property, leaving property, being out after dark, meeting w/ other slaves except at church,
no firearms, cannot strike white person
* Whites could not teach them how to read/right, could not testify in court against whites
* Not very stable enforcement, weak in many places
. Variety in conditions, from prisonlike  flexibility/autonomy
. Small farms: directly supervised workers, worked w/ them, intimacy, auth of masters
. Big plantations: less intimate, had “head drivers” (trusted slaves acting as foremen)
* Task system (esp w/ rice): slaves assigned task in morning, free for rest of the day
* Gang system (esp w/ cotton/sugar/tobacco): slaves divided into groups, directed by driver, worked
until driver was satisfied
. Slaves received necessities enough for living/working
. Slave women worked hard, did domestic chores, often acted as single parent  burdens but also auth
. High mortality rates, but slave pop did increase slowly through reproduction
. House slaves common on big plantations, resented isolation from fellow slaves/lack of privacy
. Lost of sexual abuse
. In the cities, slaves usually on contract, had working hrs and were free afterwards
* Urban slaveowners sold off lots of slaves to countryside b/c feared conspiracies/rebellions
Free Blacks
. About 250,000 free blacks by start of Civil War, >1/2 in VA/MA
* Earned money, bought freedom, usually had independent skill
* E.g. Elizabeth Keckley w/ sewing
. After 1830s, state laws became more rigid for slavery
* Feared free blacks might have more violence than slaves, & b/c free black pop growing, & rise of
abolitionism in N
* Made it v difficult for owners to free slaves; all S states forbade free blacks from entering
The Slave Trade
. Many slave traders, transported slaves  central bidding market
. Foreign slave trade prohibited from 1808 on, but still smuggled in, but not enough imports
* Held convention  upper S opposed legal reopening b/c profited from domestic trade
Slave Resistance
. Many wanted freedom even though they realized it was mostly hopeless
. Had adaptation & resistance  extremes = stereotypes by whites
* “Sambo”: deferential slave, acted out expected role, often a charade
* Slave rebel: remained rebellious
. Prosser Rebellion: 1800 Gabriel Prosser gathered rebellious slaves but VA militia stopped uprising
. Turner Rebellion: 1831, Nat Turner led armed blacks  killed 60 ppl but then overpwred
. Mostly had subtle rebellious behaviour patterns rather than outright rebellion

Culture of Slavery
. Language: mixed English & African speech
. Pidgin: had some African but mostly Eng
. African music = heavy in rhythm, workers often sang
 * Attached deep lyrics to seemingly innocent songs
. Many = Chr, but some developed own version
* More emotional, influenced by African practices
. Nuclear family was dominant
. Marriages usually btw slaves on neighboring plantations, conducted usually in secret
. Often broken apart by circumstances like selling
*  extended kinship networks v important, compensated for breakup of nuclear families
. Often formed complex relationships w/ masters
* Dependent, had sense of security/protection  paternal relationship
 Instrument of white ctrl
Chapter 12
ANTEBELLUM CULTURE & REFORM
. 2 impulses: optimistic faith in human nature and desire for order/ctrl
. More in N/NW than in S, esp abolitionists
. US art diff from Euro art, wanted wild nature, not gentle
. Hudson River School: school of US painters in NY (Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty,
Asher Durand painted Hudson Valley)
. Sir Walter Scott: Eng writer, most popular novelist in US, had exciting historical novels
. James Fenimore Cooper: US novelist, adventure/suspense/evocation of US wilderness
* Grew up on edge of white settlement, interested in man vs. nature
* “Leatherstocking Tales”: The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Deerslayer (1841)
 Celebrated US spirit/landscape, evoked independent w/ natural goodness
 Fear of disorder, needed social discipline even in wilderness
. Walt Whitman: poet  Leaves of Grass (1855)
* Celebration of demo, yearning for emotional/physical release
. Herman Melville: born 1819 in NY, Moby Dick (1851)
* Courage/strong individual will, tragedy of pride/revenge, self-destructive human spirit
. Edgar Allen Poe: Tamerlane and other Poems (1827)  “The Raven” (1845)
* Individuals rose above confines of intellect, exploring deeper, but pain/horror
* Looked down upon but had influence on Euro poets
Southern Novelists
. E.g. Beverly Tucker, William Alexander Caruthers, John Pendleton Kennedy (1830s)
* Historical romances/romantic eulogies of plantation sys
. William Gilmore Simms: advocated nationalism, but later defended S institutions like slavery
. Writers from edges of plantations  backwoods rural areas, more broadly American
* E.g. Augustus Longstreet, Joseph Baldwin, Johnson Hooper, focused on ordinary ppl/poor whites,
v realistic, had robust/vulgar/new humor
Transcendentalists
. New Eng writers, influenced by some German/Eng philosophers/writers
. Theory suggested by Kant, individual in relation to reason/understanding
. Reason: capacity to grasp beauty/truth, expressing instincts/emotions fully (highest human faculty)
. Understanding: use of intellect in narrow/artificial ways imposed by society, repression of instinct
. Goal = liberation from understanding, cultivation of reason
. Ralph Waldo Emerson: leader of group if intellectuals in MA
* “Nature” (1836), individuals should work to have communion w/ natural world
* “Self-Reliance” (1841), advocated commitment to full exploration of inner capacities  self-
reliance quest = search for communion w/ unity of universe
* “The American Scholar” (1837): showed nationalist side
* US could still achieve Euro culture b/c relied on creative genius of individuals
. Henry David Thoreau: another leading Concord trans.
* Repressive forces of society produced “lives of quiet desperation”, instincts > society
 * Walden (1854): described own efforts to free himself, lived simply
* Jailed 1846 for not paying taxes b/c against slavery
* “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849); morality claimed actions, gov’t had no auth when it
violated, public should refuse to obey unjust laws
. Uneasy w/ rapid econ development, feared impact of capitalism on nature
. Nature = source of deep inspiration & essential to humanity
Visions of Utopia
. Brook Farm: est by trans-ist George Ripley in MA 1841
* Equal share of everything, ideal of individual freedom
* Reality = socialism, many ppl left, fire destroyed central building 1847
. Nathanial Hawthorne: writer, lived on Brook Farm
* The Blithedale Romance (1852): denounced Brook Farm, bad consequences
* The Scarlet Letter (1850)/The House of Seven Gables (1851): price paid for cutting from society
* Egotism = heart of human misery (opposed trans)
. Did not stop from other experimental communities, influenced by:
* Charles Rourier: French philosopher, ideas of socialist communities
* Robert Owen: Scottish, founded one in Indiana 1835  “New Harmony”
 Econ failure but enchanted US
Redefining Gender Roles
. Margaret Fuller: discovery of self was related to questioning of gender roles
* Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844)
* Est herself as intellectual leader, lived life diff from domestic ideal
. Oneida Community: eset 1848 in NY by John Humphrey Noyes
* Oneida “Perfectionists” rejected traditional notions of family/marriage
* Liberation of women from male “lust” & from traditional family
. The Shakers: founded by “Mother” ann Lee in 1770s
* Complete celibacy (all shakers must choose faith, no one was born)
* Endorsed sexual equality, God = not male or female
* Woman = most pwr
* Also wanted social discipline
. Amana Community: est 1843 by German immigrants
* Wanted to realize Chr ideals by creating ordered/socialist society
. Mormonism: est by Joseph Smith
* Published Book of Mormon 1830, translation of golden tablets found in NY hills
* Polygamy, rigid social organization (esp family), intense secrecy  much opposition
* Fest themselves in Nauvoo, IL; Smith jailed 1844  mob killed him
* Migrated to Salt Lake City

Organized Reform Societies

Sources
. optimistic preaching of divinity of individual, rejected Calvinism
* Emerson, Thoreau, Unitarianists, Universalists, inf by Euro Romanticism
. Prot revivalism, began w/ 2nd GA
* Every individual capable of salvation
* Chalres Grandison Finney: Presbyterian minister, preached Calvinist predes & individual
helplessness = destructive
* “Burned-over district” along Erie Canal, revivals inf by Finney
* Followers = rich citizens benefiting from econ changes but uneasy about social changes
* Crusade against personal immorality
* Preached personal regeneration
The Temperance Crusade
. Against drunkenness (women esp advocated this)
 . American Society for the Promotion of Temperance: est 1826 to use revivalism techniques for abstinence
. Washington Temperance Society: est in Baltimore by 6 reformed alcoholics 1840
* Drew large growds to hear confessions of sins
. Advocates began pushing for more abstinence/laws (promote moral self-improvement, societal discipline)
. Protestants (against) vs. Catholic immigrants (for) = battle over prohibition laws
Health Fads
. Cholera epidemics 1830s/1840s, big outbreaks in New Orleans 1833 and St. Louis 1849, lots of deaths
. “water cure” claimed to improve health through immersing in baths wrapped in wet sheets
. Sylvester Graham: attracted followers w/ prescriptions for eating fruits/vegetables/coarse bread, no meat
. Phrenology: appread in Germany, spread to US beginning in 1830s
* Orson and Lorenzo Fowler: published Phrenology Almanac
 Argued shape of skull = indicator of character/intelligence
 Now believed to have no sci basis at all
Medicine
. Lacked basic knowledge about disease
. Edward Jenner: developed smallpox vaccination in 18C
. William Morton: developed anesthetics, new Eng dentist (experimented w/ sulphuric ether)
* John Warren: Boston surgeon, soon began using ether to sedate
. Oliver Wendell Holmes: published findings 1843 in Boston, concluded disease could be transmitted 
discovery of contagion, met w/ criticism but proved by Ignaz Semmelweis (Hungarian physician)
Education
. As of 1830 no state had universal public edu sys, though some states like MA had limited one
. Horace Mann: first secretary of MA Board of Education, est 1837
* Edu could protect demo and counter subordinance to servility/capital of labor
* Made many reforms within system
. Henry Barnard: helped est new edu sys in CT and RI
. Governor William Seward (NY) extended public support of schools in 1840s
. By 1850s, principle of tax-supported elementary schools = in all states
. Quality of edu varied from v good to bad
. Emphasized self-realization, own inner wisdom, children teach themselves
. Belevolent Empire: network of charitable activities stemming from emphasis on potential of individual
* Perkins School for the Blind (in Boston)
Rehabilitation
. Asylum movement: wanted to create asylums for criminals/mentally ill
* NY built first penitentiary 1821
* Dorothy Dix: began national movement for new methods of treating mentally ill
* Wanted to not only reform system but also criminals themselves
 Discipline  fix wrongdoings
* Also spawned orphanages and homes for “friendless” women, and for the poor
. Spurred Native American reservation idea
Feminism
. 1820s and 1830s movement
. Sarah & Angelina Grimke: born in SC, active abolitionists, argued women created equal w/ equal rights
. Seneca Falls Convention: 1848 NY, organized by angered US female delegates who were turned away by
males at antislavery convention in London, esp. Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony
* “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” (inf by Decl of Ind), women = men
* Core of convention = Quakers who advocated full sexual equality + caused schism
. Elizabeth Blackwell: broke social barriers, became physician; Antoinette Brown Blackwell = 1st ordained
women minister; Lucy Stone = retained maiden name after marriage
. Emma Willard: founded Troy Female Seminary 1821
. Catharine Beecher: est Hartford Female Seminary 1823
The Crusade Against Slavery
. Wanted to encourage resettlement of blacks in Africa/Caribbean
. American Colonization Society: est 1817 by white VA men
* proposed gradual freeing of slaves w/ compensation for masters, transport free slaves to est new
society somewhere else
* had some impact but not a lot, some Africans had no wish to move back to an unknown land
. William Lloyd Garrison: born 1805 in MA, assistant to Benjamin Lundy, who was anti-slavery
* 1831 founded own newspaper, the Liberator
 Opponents of slavery should see it from black point of view, damage to blacks
 Should demand immediate abolition of slavery
 Denounced colonization: “real aim” = strengthen slavery by exporting free blacks
 Should give blacks rights equal rights
* Est New England Antislavery Society 1832
* Est American Antislavery Society 1833
Black Abolitionists
. Many free blacks were aware of plight of slaves in S, joined Garrison, subscribed to Liberator
. David Walker: militant black leader, published Walker’s Appeal to the Colored Citizens 1829
* US more black country than white, slaves should kill masters (v harsh)
. Frederick Douglass: escaped Maryland slave, purchased freedom 1847 after returning to US from Eng
* Est North Star, antislavery newspaper in NY
* Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845), damned slavery
* Wanted freedom and social/econ equality for blacks  leader of black abolitionist cause
Anti-Abolitionism
. Abolitionists = small dissenting minority of country
. Many felt it was a threat to existing social system, may cause war btw sections, or influx of free blacks to N
. Elijah Lovejoy: editor of abolitionists newspaper in IL, repeated victim of mob violence
* Killed by attackers in 1837
Abolitionism Divided
. Moderates vs. extremists
. Garrison attacked gov’t, churches; supported feminism and pacifism, called for disunion from S 1843
* Garrisonians = very extreme in stance
. Moderates: felt that abolition could only be accomplished through long, peaceful struggle
. Underground railroad: helped runaway slaves find refuge in N/Canada
. The Amistad Case: slaves to Cuba seized ship, tried to return to Africa; US seized back, held them captive
* Court declared blacks free in 1841, aided by abolitionists groups
. Prigg v Pennsylvania1842: states no need to enforce 1793 law (returning fugitive slaves to owners)
* Secured passage of “personal liberty laws” in N states, forbade state officials to assist in
capture/return of runaways
. Liberty Party w/ James G. Birney: est 1840, underlaid w/ antislavery sentiment
* Never campaigned for outright abolition, stood for “free soil” (keeping slavery out of territory)
. American Slavery as It IS: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses (1839) by Theodore Weld and Angelina
Grimke, presented “careful/factual pictures of slavery” but was actually wildly distorted
. Uncle Tom’s Cabin: by Harriet Beecher Stowe, pub 1852 after being in serials
* Combined emotional conventions of sentimental novel w/ political abolitionist movement
* Great impact
Chapter 13
Manifest Destiny
. US was destined to expand boundaries that included (but not restricted to) N America
 . Altruistic attempt to extend US liberty to new realms
. Racial justification, spread a racially defined society
. Opposition feared that it would bring up controversy over slavery & cause conflict

Americans in Texas
. Claimed TX as part of LA purchase but renounced in 1819
. Mexican gov’t encouraged US immigration into Texas starting 1820s
* Wanted to strengthen econ/increase tax, and US = buffer to Indians and expansion
* Stephen F. Austin: Missouri immigrant, est first legal US settlement in TX 1822
 Created center of pwr that conflicted w/ Mexican Gov’t
* Americans soon outnumbered Mexicans
Tension btw US and Mexico
. Desire to create stronger link w/ US (cultural/econ ties) & wanted legalization of slavery
. Austin wanted peaceful settlement, TX = more autonomy, others wanted to fight
. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna: seized pwr as dictator 1830s, imposed conservative/autocratic
regime
. Increased pwr of national gov’t at expense of state gov’t
. 1836 settlers proclaimed independence from Mexico
* Difficulty organizing defense, fighting over ctrl
. Mex forces defeated US at Alamo and Goliad
. General Sam Houston: defeated Mex army at Battle of San Jacinto 4/23/1836
* Took Santa Anna prisoner  signed treaty giving TX independence
 Treaty taken back but no more military efforts to take TX back
* Became president of TX
. Tejanos: Mexican residents of TX, fought w/ US but not trusted  driven out/subordinate
Annexation (Austin wanted it)
. Opposition of TX annexation: N didn’t want slave territory, others didn’t want more S votes
* Jackson feared annexation = sectional controversy or war w/ Mex
. Forged alliances w/ Eng and France
. Pres Tyler persuaded TX to apply for statehood again 1844
* Rejected b/c treaty implied that only purpose = extend slavery

Oregon
. Eng & US claimed sovereignty: UK b/c explorations by Vancouver 1790s and US b/c Gray
. Joint occupation: 1818 treaty allowed citizens of each country equal access to territory
. US interest in OR grew in 1820s/1830s
* Missionaries wished to convert natives to Chr, and to counter Cath Canadian missionaries
. Marcus and Narcissa Whitman: est imp but unsuccessful mission among Cayuse Indians
. More immigration 1840s, soon outnumbered Eng; devastated natives
. Tribe blamed Whitman mission for plague, attacked 1847 and killed ppl including M/N

Westward Migration
. S  TX but most migrants came from Midwest
. Traveled in family groups until 1850s, when gold rush attracted single men
* Young, rich; industrial = men, farming = families
. Mormons = religious missions, escape epidemics; most other migrants wanted econ opportunities
. Oregon Trail: Independence  Rocky Mtns, major route W, could go to OR, CA, or NM
* Lots died from diseases, and helped by natives
* Society = gender-divided (men drove, women washed/cooked, etc)
Expansion & War
. Clay & Van Buren (Demo) both tried to avoid taking stand on annexation of TX for 1844 election
* Whigs didn’t really care (Clay got it easy); S Demo wanted annexation
* Democrats nominated James K. Polk (strong supporter of annexation) as candidate instead
. Polk: rep TN in House and as governor
* Wanted to re-occupy OR and to re-annex TX (hoped to appeal to both N/S expansionists)
* John Tyler (prev pres) helped Polk win TX annexation
* TX = state Dec 1845
. Eng in WA rejected Polk’s Canadian 49th parallel border compromise
. “Fifty-four forty or fight!”: OR N boundary that they hoped to draw
* Eng gov’t accepts 49th parallel 1846
SW & California
. Accepted Eng compromise at 49th b/c more pressing issues in SW
. Mex gov’t broke diplomatic relations when TX became state 1845
* TX wanted Rio Grande as W/S border, but Mex wanted Nueces River
* Polk defended TX claim, sent General Zachary Taylor 1845 to TX to protect against Mex
. Mex gov’t invited US into NM 1820s  Us also wanted NM
. Wanted Cali; began to trade, est stores, and finally settle
* Polk also sent troops to California in case of Mex war
. John Slidell: dispatched by Polk as diplomat, tried to buy off Mex  rejected
* 1846 Polk orders Taylor to move to Rio Grande
* Mex attacked US after refusing to fight for months
* War declared 1846
. Opposition to War
* Polk had deliberately brought country into conflict, staged border incident
* Hostilities w/ Mex not as important as PNW issue
* Agreement on Oregon border = settled for less b/c preoccupied
. The Fighting
* Taylor crossed Rio Grande, seized Monterrey Sept 1846 but let garrison evacuate
 Polk feared lack of tactical skill, & potential rivalry of Taylor if successful
* Colonel Stephen W. Kearny: 1846 captured Santa Fe
 Went to California, joined Bear Flag Revolution
 John C. Fremont: leader of existing fighting settlers there
* General Winfield Scott: commander of army, seized Mexico City  new gov’t willing for treaty
* Polk = unclear about objectives; wanted to annex but also wanted to finish war
. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
* Negotiated by Nicholas Trist
* Mex cedes Cali and NM to US, Rio Grande = TX border
* US assumes financial claims new citizens had against Mex, pay Mex $15 mil

Slavery & the Territories

. David Wilmot: antislavery Demo, introduced amendment prohibiting slavery in any territory acquired from
Mex  Wilmot Proviso
* Passed house, failed in Senate, debated for years
. Polk proposed extending Missouri Compromise through new territories to W coast
. “squatter/popular sovereignty”: people of each territory through own legislature could decide slavery or not
. Unresolved in 1849 when Polk left office
. Pres campaign 1848
* Both parties tried to avoid slavery question
* Demo nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan b/c Polk declined
* Whigs nominated Zachary Taylor (no political exp)
 * Free-Soil Party: those who didn’t like the candidates formed new party, were anti-slavery,
nominated Van Buren  inability of existing parties to contain political controversy, would lead
to collapse of second party sys 1850s
* Taylor won narrow victory

The California Gold Rush

⋅ James Marshall: 1848 finds gold in Sierra Nevadas, started Gold Rush
. “Forty-niners”: California migrants from other places who came for gold rush
* Mostly men, created fluid society in Cali b/c no women/children/families
. Attracted first Chinese migrants, were voluntary
. Labor shortage in California b/c no male workers  opportunities for immigrants and Indians
. “Indian hunters”: were hunting down and killing Indians
. State law permitted arrest of loitering of Indians and assignment to indentured labor
. Few of the miners found gold, but boosted agricultural & urban pop, v heterogenerous

Rising Sectional Tensions

. Taylor believed statehood = solution to issue of slavery
. Proposed that CA be admitted as free state 1849
* Congress didn’t want to b/c of antislavery forces in DC would lead to another free state &
controversy over fugitive slave law (in S, strict law regarding fugitive slaves first 1793 and then
1850) and personal liberty laws (N law counteracting FSL)
* Also NM/OR/UT would probs go to no slavery, imbalance of pwr

The Compromise of 1850

. First ‘version’ proposed by Henry Clay (“omnibus bill”)
* Admit CA as free state
* Form territorial gov’t in rest of lands acquired from Mex w/o restrictions on slavery
* Abolition of slave trade (not slavery) in DC
* New/more effective fugitive slave law
* Very settled all issues in dispute, but combined into single piece of legislature
. Clay appealed to shared sentiments of nationalism
. Calhoun insisted that N grant S equal rights in territories, no attacking slavery, dual presidents
. Radical demands, but believed to be comprehensive/permanent solution
. Webster supported Clay
. Congress defeated Clay proposal in July  no more influence from three great old men
. William H. Seward: opposed compromise, eliminating slavery > ideals of Union
. Jefferson Davis: of MI, rep of new cotton S, slavery = econ self-interest > principles/ideals
. Stephen A. Douglas: Demo senator from IL, supported econ needs of section, esp RR
. Devoted to sectional gain & personal self-promotion, not broad national goal
. New leaders produce compromise, partly b/c Taylor died 1850 from stomach disorder
* Succeeded by Millard Fillmore: understood flexibility
* Broke up omnibus bill into separate measures, could vote on separately
* Compromise of 1850 passed with all components
The Uneasy Truce
. 1852 election, both parties endorsed compromise and had candidates who wanted to preserve harmony
. Demo = NH Franklin Pierce, Whigs = General Winfield Scott
* Whigs angered antislavery people who didn’t like their evasiveness
* Most of them went to Free-Soil Party, where their candidate repudiated compromise
. Franklin Pierce becomes president 1852
* Amiable, wanted to maintain harmony but impossible
* N opposition to FSL grew, began to defy, angered S
 . “Young America”: movement supported by Demo and Pierce
* Expansion of Us democracy through world to divert attention from slavery controversy
* Dreamt of Euro govt’s based on US and expanding markets & land in W Hemi
. Ostend Manifesto: 1854
* Pierce wanted to buy Cuba from Spain  private document sent, proposing seizing by force
* Leaked to public, antislavery outraged b/c thought to be conspiracy to bring in slave state
. S opposed acquiring any territory that did not support slaves (Hawaii failed 1854, Canada)
Slavery, Railroads, and the West
. Unexplored land in W was seen as suitable farmland (previously thought uninhabitable)
. Old NW urged gov’t to open area and dislodge tribes (violate Indian rights)
. Trans-continental railroad: wished to build one to connect old regions and new West
* Problem = where and where to connect w/ existing RR
* N wanted in free states, S in slave states
. Gadsden Purchase: 1853 bought strip of land from Mex gov’t for $10 mil
* b/c RR in S would have to pass through Mex territory

Kansas-Nebraska Controversy
. Stephen A. Douglas wanted RR for own city of Chicago
. Realized that if RR ran N than it would go through native pop (not good)
* Introduced bill 1854 to organize/open for settlement the Nebraska territory
* Knew S would oppose bill b/c new free state  slavery determined by “popular sovereignty”
. S Demo wanted more  repealed Missouri Compromise, divide area into Nebraska and Kansas (2 not 1)
* Kansas more likely to be slave state
. This final form of act known as Kansas-Nebraska Act, law in 1854 w/ all support of S and some N Demo
* Divided/destroyed Whig party, disappeared by 1856
* Divided N Demo (repealing of M Compromise appalled many), drove many from party
* Spurred creation of Republican Party est 1854 (anti-Douglas’s bill = anti-Nebraska Demo/Whig)
 Won enough seats in congress to organize House of Reps w/ Know-Nothings
“Bleeding Kansas”
. Majority of legislature in Kansas in 1855 = pro-slavery  legalized slavery
. Outraged free-staters elected own delegates to const conv at Topeka, adopted const w/o slavery
* Chose own governor, legislature, petitioned for statehood
* Pronounced traitors by Pierce  support of fed gov’t w/ pro-slavery
. Pro-slavery marshal assembled large mob to arrest free-state leaders in Lawrence  sacked town
. John Brown: fervent abolitionist in Kansas, considered himself instrument of God’s will to destroy slavery
* Pottawatomie Massacre: Led 6 follwers, murdered 5 pro-slavery settlers
* More civil strife, guerrilla warfare
* “Bleeding Kansas” = symbol of sectional controversy
. Charles Sumner: of MA, opposed slavery
* Gave speech 1856 (“The Crime Against Kansas”), denounced Senator Andrew P. Butler of SC,
who defended slavery, w/ sexual references to a mistress & viciousness
. Preston Brooks: Butler’s nephew, enraged by Sumner’s speech
* Beat Sumner after speech, heavily wounded
* Sumner became hero, martyr to barbarism of S
* Brooks also became hero, but censured by house  reelected in SC

“Free-Soil / Free Labor “Ideology (Anti-Slavery)

. N abolitionists believed slavery = moral evil, dangerous b/c of threat to whites, not the damage to blacks
* Right of all citizens to own property, ctrl own labor, access to opportunities for advancement
* S = antithesis of democracy, closed, aristocratic, stagnant society
 N believed S was engaging in “slave power conspiracy” to extend slavery throughout
 nation and destroy openness of N capitalism and replace w/ society of S
 Retaliate = fight spread of slavery and extend demo ideas (free-labor) in all sections
. At heart of new Republican Party, strenghtneed commitment of Repubs to Union
. Continued growth/progress = center of ideology
. Drew strength from Prot theology

Pro-Slavery Argument
. The Pro-Slavery Argument produced by white S in 1852
* Spurred by Nat Turner uprising (determined to secure slavery), expansion of cotton econ into
Deep S (lucrative slavery) and growth of abolitionists (more attacks on slavery)
* S should stop apologizing for slavery as necessary evil and defend it as a positive good
* Good for slaves b/c better conditions than industrial workers in N
* Good for society b/c only way two races could live peacefully together
* Good for entire country b/c S econ based on slavery was key to prosperity of nation
* Good b/c basis for S way of life (superior to any other kind), stable, orderly, slow/human pace
* Biological inferiority of blacks, inherently unfit to take care of themselves
* Also used Prot to give religious/biblical justification

Buchanan and Depression

. Election of 1856
* Demo wanted candidate not associated w/ Bleeding Kansas  James Buchanan
* Repubs denounced K-N Act & slavery but endorsed internal improvements  John C. Fremont
* Native American/Know-Nothing Party beginning to break apart but  Millard Fillmore
* Buchanan won (Fremont had no votes in S but v popular in N, almost won)
 65 and weak, timid/indecisive president (2nd oldest, oldest = Harrison)
* Financial panic/depression in country
 Strengthened Repub Party b/c believed hard times were result of unsound policies of S
Demo administrations, moved to anti-slavery and Repub

The Dred Scott Decision

. Dred Scott v. Sandford: 1857
* Dred Scott = Missouri slave, once taken into IL and WI, where slavery was forbidden
* 1846 master died, Scott sued widow for freedom b/c residence in free territory = liberation
* 1850 circuit court declared him free
* John Sanford (brother of widow, name misspelled in case) claimed ownership of Scott and applied
to state SC  reversed earlier decision
* Scott appealed to fed courts, opposing side claimed Scott could not sue b/c not citizen but property
* SC unable to issue single ruling b/c so divided
* Taney declared Scott could not bring suit b/c not citizen
 No rights in Const, property (5th amend prohibits taking property w/o due process)
 Said Congress had no auth to pass law depriving persons of slave (M Comp = unconst)
* Did not challenge right of individual state to prohibit slavery within borders, but stated that fed
gov’t = powerless to act on issue
* S v happy but N dismayed

Deadlock over Kansas

. Buchanan endorsed DS decision and supported Kansas’ admission to Union as slave state
* Pro-slavery territorial leg called election for delegates to const convention
* Free-state residents refused to participate, leg =discrimination
* Pro-slavery won ctrl of conv 1857 at Lecompton
. Lecompton Constitution: drawn up at that convention, const legalized slavery and refused to give voters
chance to reject it
 . Anti-slavery groups won in next territorial legislature, submitted const to voters, defeated
. Buchanan pressured Congress to admit KN w/ Lecompton const even though majority of KN = anti-slavery
* Democrats refused to support proposal, defeated in House of Rep
. 1858 compromise: Lecompton would be submitted to voters again
* Approved = KN admitted to union; Rejected = postponed statehood
* Rejected  KN became free state in 1861

Emergence of Lincoln
. Senate Election of 1858 = mainly Demo Douglas vs. Republican Abraham Lincoln (lawyer)
. Lincoln-Douglas Debates
* Lincoln not national figure so tried to increase publicity by engaging Douglas in debates
* Received wide attention, Lincoln’s attacks on slavery made him prominent
* Douglass had no moral position on issue of slavery
* Lincoln opposed: if blacks had no rights, neither could some other groups; if slavery extended into
W, fewer opportunities for white laborers, spread of free labor was imp (Repub party central idea)
 Slavery = morally wrong but NOT an abolitionist
 No easy alternative to slavery in existing areas
 Blacks not prepared to live on equal terms w/ whites
 Prevent expansion but not directly challenge existing, believed it would die on its own
. Douglass satisfied enough to be reelected; even though Lincoln lost he had a growing following
. In other states the Demos lost in almost every N state (ctrl of Senate but lost majority in House)

John Brown’s Raid 1859

. John Brown made plans to seize mtn fortress in VA from which he could form slave insurrection in S
. Oct 16th, him & 18 followers attacked/seized ctrl of US arsenal in VA
. Slave uprising did not occur, besieged by militia and US troops --< surrendered
. Tried for treason, and sentenced to death
. Convinced white southerners that they could not live safely in union
* Falsely believed that raid had support of Republican Party

Election of 1860
. Demo party divided btw S (endorsement of slavery) and W (supportd popular sovereignty)
* Convention endorsed pop sov, delegates from 8 states in S walked out
* Remaining delegates nominated Stephen Douglas
* S Demo met in Richmond, nominated John C. Breckinridge
. Conservative ex-Whigs est Constitutional Union Party, nom John Bell, endorsed Union, silent on slavery
. Repub tried to broaden appeal to attract every major interest group in N
* Endorsed Whig measures like high tariff, internal improvements, homestead bill, RR w/ fed $
* Supported right of each state to decide status of slavery within borders
* Congress/territorial leg could not legalize slavery in territories
* Abraham Lincoln = nominee (eloquence, position on slavery, obscurity = no drawbacks, rep W)
. Lincoln won w/ majority of electoral but 2/5 of popular vote
. Final signal to S that position in Union was hopeless
Chapter 14
Beginnings of Secession: As soon as Lincoln became pres., militants in S. showed "Southern nationalism;" South
Carolina seceded 1st; 1861 7 seceded states formed the Confederate States of America; N. confused and
indecisive; S.tried to take Fort Sumter in South Carolina but effort turned back by N.military.
Crittenden Compromise: Submitted by Senator John Crittenden of Kentucky; Called for several
constitutional amendments to guarantee permanent existence of slavery in slave states and satisfy S. demands on
fugitive slaves and slavery inD.C.; mainly to reestablish Missouri Compromise line in all present and future
territory: slavery below and free above; not accepted by Republicans b/c believed slavery couldn't expand;
Fort Sumter as Starting Point: Union forces running out of supplies; Lincoln informed South Carolina,
slave state, that he was only sending food supplies; S. faced dilemma: Permitting expedition would seem to show
submission to fed. Authority &firing on ships would seem to show aggression; S. decided to try to take island, by
force if necessary; N. refused to surrender but S.bombarded it for 2 days; N. surrendered and Civil War had begun
Methods of Paying for War in the North and South:N. levying taxes, issuing paper money "greenbacks",
and borrowing;taxes raised only small proportion of necessary funds for war;greenbacks backed not by silver or
gold but by good faith and credit ofgov't = values fluctuated according to fortunes of N. armies; largestsource of
finances, loans from Amer peopleS. impossible task to finance war; created nat. revenue system,small/unstable
banks lent $; had to use paper currency= disastrousinflation
Draft riots of 1863:Used voluntary system before but didn't produce enough recruits;Conscription seemed
strange and ominous; opposition from laborers, immigrants, and "Peace Democrats;" occasion violence; rioted in
N.Y.C.for 4 days, after 1st names were drafted; Over 100 died; Irish workers at center of violence; Irish blamed
African Amer for war; lynched A.A.,burned homes and businesses, and destroyed orphanage; fed. troopssubdued
rioters
Why no Declaration of War?:Lincoln insisted on calling conflict a domestic insurrection, whichrequired no
formal dec. of war; to ask for a de. Would be recognizeConfed. as an independent nation; sent troops into battle
w/o a dec. ofwar
Suppression of Dissent Against a War:Lincoln ordered military arrests of civilian dissenters and suspender
right of habeas corpus(right to speedy trial); at 1st methods only usedin border states; 1862 declared all persons who
discouraged enlistmentor engaged in disloyal practices were subject to martial law; 13,000persons arrested and
imprisoned, esp. Copperheads( Dem. Who opposedwar); Lincoln defied Supreme Court, when Taney issued a writ
requiringthe release of imprisoned Maryland secessionist, Lincoln ignored it
Emancipation Proclamation:After Union victory at Antietam, prez announced intention to issue exec.order
freeing slaves in Confed. states; Jan 1, 1863 signed Eman. Proc.,which declared forever free slaves in all Confed.
except those alreadyunder Union control; did not apply to border states, which had neverseceded; immediate effect
limited; great importance b/c clearly andirrevocably estd. War was not only being fought to preserve Union butalso
to eliminate slavery; As fed. Armies occupied much of S., proc.Became reality and led directly to freeing of 1000s
of slaves
African Americans in the war:186,000 emancipated blacks served as soldiers, sailors, and laborers for
Union forces, joining free blacks from N.; after Eman. Proc. Blackenlistment increased rapidly; Union began to
actively recruit A.A.soldiers; 54th mass. Infantry, a fighting unit, had white commanders: Robert Gould Shaw; Shaw
and 1/2 regiment died in battle in S.C.; most black soldiers assigned menial tasks behind lines, digging trenches,
and transporting H2O
Women's contribution to War Effort: Took over positions vacated by men; teachers, clerks, etc.; needed $;
many became nurses; Dorothea Dix led U.S. Sanitary Commission; foundwar a liberating experience
States' Rights as an Obstacle to Centralization of power in South:Confed. Const. acknowledged sovereignty
of individual states; people in poorer backcountry, where slavery limited; obstructed the draft,restricted Davis',
Confed. prez, powers
The War in the West: Quantrill's RaidersWilliam Quantrill organized Confed. guerrillas, terrorized Kansas-
Missouri border; killed everyone in path; siege on Lawrence, Kansas killed 150 civilians;
Major Battles:Antietam: after battle Lincoln issued Emancipation ProclamationVicksburg: Grant attacked
Vicksburg; 6 week siege; surrendered; gaveUnion control of Miss. RGettysburg: Confeds outnumber union troops;
Picket's Charge, Confedsoldiers advanced across mile of open territory while being sweptbyUnion fire; Lee
withdrew; turning point in warAherman's March to Sea: left Atlanta; Lived off land, destroyedsupplies they
couldn't use; 60 mile wide trail of desolation across Georgia
Appomatox:Lee arranged to meet Grant at private home in town of AppomatoxCourthouse, Virginia; April
9, surrendered

Chapter 15

Goals of Recon/ differences:To white Southerners it was destructive and vicious; N. saw it as
onlyway to prevent S. from restoring S. society as it had been before; forA.A. small step to to
secure civil rightsLincoln's 10% Plan, Johnson's Restoration Plan, Radical ReconWhenever 10%
of # of voters in each state took of loyalty to gov't, theycould set up a state govt; Johnson: high-
ranking S. officials had topersonally ask him for pardon; in order to be readmitted to Union had to
revoke secession, abolish slavery, ratify 13th Amendment Radical:Congress' Recon plan, Black
Codes (reestablish planter control overblacks)13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments;13th: no slavery
or involuntary servitude14th: all people born or naturalized in US are citizens15th: right to vote
 shall not be denied on account of race, color, orprevious condition of servitudeImpeachment of
JohnsonRadicals believed Johnson was serious impediment to their plans; "highcrimes and
misdemeanors" b/c he deliberately violated Tenure of OfficeAct(forbade prez to removecivil
officials w/o senate consent);impeachedon 11 charges; acquittedChanges in South:Dramatic
improvement in S. edu; Freedman's bureau helped blacks getland; efforts to rebuild family
structures;Crop lien, tenant farming:Whatever gains made were overshadowed by crop lien; credit
from countrystores which had no competition, so set interest rate4s at 50 or 60%;Farmers had to
give merchants a lien(claim) on crops as collateral;could become trapped in cycle of debt; lost
land as they fell into debt;Grant as Pres (lots of scandals):Failure as prez; liberal Republicans
opposed him; Credit Mobilierscandal; Panic of 1873, failure of leading bank, debtors pressured
govtto inflate currency w/ greenbacks; greatest success in foreign affairsRise of KKK
Enforcement Acts prohibited states from discriminating against voters onbasis of race; authorized
prez to use military to protect civil rightsCompromise of 1877:20 disputed votes in the election
between Hayes and Tilden; specialelectoral commission to judge diesputed votes; 5 senators, five
reps,and 5 Suprem court justices/ 7 Dem, 7 Rep, and 1 Independent; all 20votes went to Hayes, he
needed all 20 to winReconstruction's LegacyLargely a failure; ran up against conservative
obstacles; Therefore,A.A. had reason for pride for the gains that they were able to makeBooker T.
Washington:Chief spokesman for commitment to edu, and spokesman for race as awhole; founder
and prez of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama; Born intoslavery, worked way out of poverty after
getting education; urged blacksto follow path to self-improvement; message cautious and hopeful;
should attend school. Learns skills, and est. knowledge in agricultureand trades; industrial, not
classical education should be goalDevelopment of Jim Crow Society:14th and 15th amendements
stripped of significance; Plessy v. Ferguson;whites working to strengthen white supremacy and
separate races;poll taxand lietracy test to votePlessy v. Ferguson:Louisiana law that required
separate seating arrangements for the reaceson railroads, Court held that separates
accommodations did not depriveblacks of rights if accommodations were equal, part of basis for
segregated schools; separate but equal

Chapter 16

Plains Indians as heart of society in the West- A Diverse group of tribes and language groups. Some formed
alliances with one another, others in constant conflict. Some lived sedentary lives as farmers, and others as highly
nomadic hunters. Tribes were divided into bands with governing council, making important decisions. Within bands
tasks were divided by gender. They survived by hunting buffaloes.Hispanics in the West- Established farming and
trading communities. They had a small aristocracy and trading was primarily cattle and sheep ranching.Impact of
Anglos on both Native Americans and Hispanics- Hispanics- They established their own territorial government
excluding Mexican ruling class. Even without former power Hispanic society survived with Anglo-settlement. The
United States helped break power of Apache, Navajo, and other tribes that had often harassed them. This now
allowed Hispanics to migrate. Native Americans- New missions had enormous herds of cattle and a secular Mexican
aristocracy arose, which controlled a large number of estates. Disastrous to them, and English-speaking prospectors
worked to exclude them from mines during the gold rush. In the end, many lost their land.Chinese in the United
States- Came from poverty stricken land, some as "coolies"(indentured servants). Most came as free laborers. First
welcomed them as conscientious hardworking people.Nativism directed against Chinese- Turned hostile toward
Chinese, because they were industrious, therefore saw them as threats. Included the Chinese in the "foreign miners
tax". Majority of them helped build Railroads, after they formed various "china towns" around the west. Also some
organized "tongs" or violent communities.Chinese Exclusion Act- Banning Chinese Immigration, also banned those
already in the country from becoming citizens. Believed this would help growing fear of unemployment.Land acts
created to encourage settlement- Homestead Act of 18620 allowed settlers to buy plots of 160 acres. For a small fee
if they occupied land for 5 years and improved it. Timber Culture Act(1877)3) Allowed homesteaders to receive 160
additional acres if they planted 40 acres of trees. Desert Land Act(1877) 640 acres provided they irrigated part of
their holdings.Hierarchy of Working World- Class was highly multiracial white workers occupied upper tiers of
employment: management and skilled labor. The lower tiers: unskilled and often arduos work in the mines, or the
Railroads. Chinese, Mexicans, and Filipinos were suited to manual labor, and more accustomed to heat. Hierarchy
much like East and was not very mobile.Waves of Settlement: Mining- settlers hoped to make quick fortunes, boom
very brief. First found gold in Pike Peak, prospectors swarmed areas it was resumed. These marked important
developments in west. Most never ended up striking it rich. Ranching-Huge area on the Great Plains where cattle
raisers could graze their herds free of charge. Cattle could be brought long way linking West with East. Many said
you could profit, but the open-range industry quickly dwindled.Cowboys as symbol of the West-Rugged free-
spirited lifestyle that many associated with the West in contrast to the stable world of East. They didn't see the
loneliness they felt, and the physical discomforts. They only saw his affinity with nature, and viewed him as a hero
living the life of the natural man.Place of the frontier in the American mentality-Considered it the last frontier, West
was always comforting to those who wanted to start life anew. He said it ended an era in the nation's history era of
free land. This stimulated individualism, nationalism, and democracy. Treatment of Native Americans-
"concentration" was where each tribe is assigned its own reservation. Then Indian Peace Commission moved in
moving Plains Indians into 2 areas, one in Oklahoma, and another in the Dakotas. The buffalo supply was destroyed
and killing the Indians source of food and supplies. Also hindered their ability to resist.Series of Indian Wars- Sand
Creek- One arapaho and Cheyenne band, ended in massacre. "Indian hunting" involved White vigilantes tracking
down Indians and killing them. As proof they would bring back scalps and skulls. Little Bighorn- Famous conflict
between Whites and Indians, the tribal warriors surprised Custer and his regiment. They killed everyone they could
until they eventually couldnt keep up. Crazy horse surrendered. Chief Joseph's Trek- Persuaded followers to flee and
reach Canada, unfortunately, they fled. Geronimo and Apache Wars-Most violent of all Indian conflicts, White
miners mobbed the tribes. Ghost Dance- mass and emotional, many believed this brought visions that were mystical.
Wounded Knee- The 7th calvary tried to round up a group of Sioux at Wounded knee, they began fighting. There
was a one sided massacre against the Indians once machine guns were used against them.Dawes Act- 1887 provided
for the gradual elimination of tribal ownership of land. Also the allotment of tracts to individual owners. This only
applied to the Western tribes. Farming and its problems- Fencing- Needed to protect against the herds. Wood and
stone were too expensive and would be ineffective against the cattle. Water- The land was very dry and they
depended heavily on irrigation. Rainfall stopped completely. High Railroad rates were a problem because they were
not as high in the North East. Also High interest rates for loans they desperately needed, and since prices of crops
rose and fell there was great concern for their fortunes.

1. Kelly-Bessemer process:- 1850s- Turned iron into steel. - Steel could now be readily produced for locomotives, steel rails,
and the heavy girders used in building construction.2. Beginnings of oil Industry:- First well in PA in 1859 started U.S.
petroleum industry overnight. - Oil would dwarf the wealth generated by all the gold extracted in West.- Oil used in
lubrication of machines.- George Bissell discovers use of oil in lamps, and begins movement towards oil.- Oil demand
increases as oil is discovered as fuel; new sources for oil are sought in other areas.* “Black gold” is found in Texas and
Oklahoma; leading producers of oil in the United States.i. New discoveries of oil break Standard oil’s monopoly. Inventors3.
Marconi and the radio4. Wright brothers and flight- Airplane at Kitty Hawk North Carolina5. Duryea brothers and Ford and
the automobile:-Duryea brothers – First gasoline motor vehicle in America- Ford – Industrial Line, Manufacture Automobiles
6. Assembly Line- Changes in techniques of production support growth in production.- Principles of “Scientific
Management”/ “taylorism”: Way to manage human labor compaitably in the machine age; increases employer’s control of the
workplace, working people are less independent.- Subdivide tasks to speed production, and make employees interchangeable,
less dependence on skilled workers.- Manufacturerers emphasize industrial research.- Ford’s moving assembly line leads to
mass production, the most important change in production.7. Expansion of Railroad- Principle agent of industrial development
in late 1800s is expansion of RR.- RR promote economic growth: Main source of transportation, open new markets and new
resources, largest businesses that create new forms of corporate organization, and greatest investors.- RR increase significantly
every decade of 1800s.- Government and private investment allows great expansion of RR.- RR combinations emerge that
bring most RR under control of a few men.- Contributes to the development of the modern corporation.8. Limited Liability-
Laws of incorporation passed by states in 1830s and 1840s allow business organizations to raise money by selling stock to
members of the public; wealthy Americans purchase stock in industries they do not participate in. - Investments are made
appealing by “limited liability,”: Investors risk only the amount they invest; not liable for any debts. - Ability to sell stock to
public allowed entrepreneurs to gather large sums of capital to pay for projects.9. Carnegie and steel- Andrew Carnegie
*Leader in the Steel Industry- Carnegie exercised direct control over his company, allowing only close friends to be stock
holders, using a system of partnerships to integrate a production line, which combined coal and ore mines, limestone quarries,
coke ovens, ore-carrying ships and railroads.- 1901 - Carnegie sold his holdings to a J.P. Morgan (1837-1913) combine who
created US Steel , the first billion dollar corporation.- Carnegie followed the "Stewardship of Wealth", turning to philanthropy
*"Gospel of Wealth" -- a concentration of wealth was needed if humanity were to progress, but the rich were obligated to use
their wealth for the public's benefit.*He disposed of $350 of $400 million before his death, endowing libraries, building public
buildings and establishing foundations.- Henry Clay Frick -- his general manager and partner- Pioneered Vertical integration"
-- controlling every aspect of the production process.10. Rockefeller and Standard Oil -In 1870, organized the Standard Oil
Co. of Ohio; By 1877, controlled 95% of oil
refineries in U.S. -Pursued a policy of rule or ruin; ruthless in his business tactics -Standard Oil produced a quality product at a
cheap price which fueled, important economies home and abroad *Large-scale methods of production and distribution
*Consolidation proved more profitable than ruinous price wars.- Standard Oil is formed by both horizontal and vertical
integration.- Rockefeller saw consolidation as a way to cope with the curse of “cutthroat competition”; successful enterprise
can eliminate or absorb its competition; fears too much competition.11. J.P. Morgan and banking- Owned a Wall Street
banking house which financed the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks. - In 1901, he launched the
enlarged United States Steel Corporation *Combination of Carnegie’s holdings and others, and stock watering. *Corporation
capitalized at $1.4 billion making it America’s first billion dollar corporation.- Elbert H. Gary, a co-leader of USX- Perfected
the “trust” form of consolidation by centralized control.*Stockholder transfer stocks to small group of trustees in exchange for
shares in the trust; owners of certificates have little control over trustee decisions; receive part of business’s profits.12.
Vanderbilt and railroads and shipping- Popularized the steel rail; replaced the old iron tracks of the NY Central RR; Steel safer
and more economical since it could carry a heavier load. - Amassed a fortune of $100 million dollars - Jay Gould and Russell
Sage by 1880 controlled much of railroad traffic in West. *Gutted their railroads by stock watering and pocketing profits
rather than reinvest. - Significant improvements in railroad building a. Steel, standard gauge of track widthb. Pullman Palace
Cars afforded luxurious travel. - He built no new lines, but acquired controlling interest in rundown railroads combining and
selling them as a package.13. Social Darwinism- Charles Darwin -- Origin of the Species ("survival of the fittest" theory);
used his theory as the foundation for promoting the virtues of free-market capitalism. - Herbert Spencer -- advocated idea of
Social Darwinism *Applied Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human competition *"Millionaires a product of natural
selection": William Graham Sumner- Some argued that Divine Providence was responsible for winners and losers in society -
Identify of interest idea held that existing hierarchy was just and decreed by God. - Those who stayed poor must be lazy and
lacking in enterprise. - Many of the new rich had succeeded from modest beginnings (Carnegie) - Rev. Russell Conwell:
"Acres of Diamonds" lectures made him rich. 14. The Gospel of Wealth- Justified uneven distribution of wealth by
industrialists - Andrew Carnegie: The Gospel of Wealth synthesized prevailing attitudes of wealth and survival of the fittest.
*Wealth was God’s will *Stated money should be give away for the public good but not to individuals in want*Believed in the
long run extreme disparities of wealth were good for the "race," because the wealthy added to civilization. *Believed
alternative to inequities of wealth was universal squalor. 15. Socialism as an alternative- Lester Frank Ward; Darwinist
*Rejected application of Darwinism to human society.*Believed civilization was governed by human intelligence.* Believed
active government involved in positive planning was society’s best hope; people could intervene in the economy through their
government to suit their needs.- Socialist Labor Party* Lead by Daniel De Leon.* Attracted following in industrial cities; did
not become a major political force.- Henry George; Progress and Poverty*Social problems are resulting of the ability of a few
monopolists to grow wealth through rising land values; an increase not caused by the owner but by the growth of society
around the land.* “Unearned Increment” of increasing land values is community’s; “single tax” replace all taxes, and return
the gain to the people to eliminate poverty.- Edward Bellamy – Looking Backward*Utopian socialist society.16. Immigration
Increase- The rise of American industry attracted immigrants from a number of economically depressed areas of the world
(especially Russia and Italy), which provided Big Business with a cheap labor force of unskilled laborers.- New Immigration:
a reference to immigrants coming from less desirable countries, Eastern and Southeastern Europe, Greek Orthodox, Russian
Orthodox, Jewish Immigrants*"Native" Americans feared that this influx of immigrants would alter the face and culture of
America.- Reaction by older native-born Americans*Nativism - Reaction of "native" Americans to the influx of immigrants
from Southeastern Europe and Asia *Increased immigration led to friction with "older" Americans*White Anglo Saxon
Protestants saw their institutions ethnically, culturally, legally linked with Britain.*Other kinds of immigrants were seen as
inferior, a threat to the "American" way of life.17. Life of Workers- Conditions for workers in the 2nd industrial revolution
were precarious *Low-skilled jobs make workers expendable as number of workers abundant *Mechanization created short-
term losses of jobs; better in long-run- Working conditions often dismal and impersonal - Recourse minimal to face of the vast
power of industrialists *Strikes often nullified by the use of "scab" workers *Conservative federal courts often ruled in favor
of corporations *Corporations could also ask states to call in troops. *Employers could lock-out rebellious workers & starve
them into submission. - Corporations sometimes owned a "company town" where high priced grocery stores, easy credit, and
sometimes rent deductions created a cycle debt. - Public grew tired of frequent strikes; often unsympathetic to the workers’
plight; Strike seemed to many foreign and socialistic and thus, unpatriotic. - Labor’s goals of curency reform, greenback
currency, and opposition to national banks alarmed conservatives for the rest of the century.18. Molly Maguires- Formed in
1875 by Irish anthracite-coal miners in Pennsylvania - Members were part of an Irish American secret fraternal organization.-
Mollies used intimidation, arson, and violence to protest owners’ denial of their right to unionize. - President of Reading
Railroad called in Pinkerton detective agency for help. *Mollies destroyed and twenty of its members hanged in 1877. - The
Mollies became martyrs for labor and a symbol for violence among conservatives.19. Strikes (Railroad Strike of 1877;
Homestead Strike of 1892; Pullman Strike of 1894)- Great Railroad Strike (1877) *Several railroads informed workers wages
to be cut by 10% for 2nd time since 1873. *First nationwide strike; paralyzed railroads throughout the East and Midwest and
idled some 100,000 workers; 14 states and 10 RR i. Later, farmers, coal miners, craft workers, and the unemployed joined in.
*President Hayes sanctioned use of federal troops in PA; set precedent for future federal intervention.*The strike inspired
support for the Greenback-Labor party in 1878 and Workingmen’s parties in the 1880s.- Homestead Strike* In Carnegie’s
steel plant near Pittsburgh; Frick & Carnegie announced 20% pay slash for steelworkers. *Demonstrated a strong employer
could break a union if it hired a mercenary police force and gained gov’t and court protection. *Amalgamated Association of
Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers went on strike and Frick then locked them out. i. Led to worker uprising – factory surrounded;
scabs not allowed through lines *Frick called in 300 Pinkerton detectives. i. Armed strikers forced their assailants to surrender
after 9 Pinkertons and 7 workers were killed and about 150 wounded. *PA governor brought in 8,000 state militia and scabs
replaced workers. *Union was effectively broken. - Pullman Strike, 1894 *Pullman Co. responded to the Great Railroad Strike
of 1877 by building a model company town for his workers near the factory in Chicago. *Pullman Palace Car Company hit
hard by the depression & cut wages by 1/3 but maintained rent prices in the company town. *Eugene V. Debs helped to
organize the American Railway Union of about 150K i. Workers went on strike; Railway traffic from Chicago to Pacific Coast
paralyzed. *Attorney General Richard Olney sent federal troops stating strikers interfering with transit of U.S. mail.
*President Cleveland supports conservatives.*Troops sent in over Governor Altgeld’s objections and violence spread to
several states. i. Strike crushed and 150,000 ARU destroyed. *First time gov’t used an injunction to break a strike i. The gov’t
made striking, an activity not previously defined as illegal, a crime ii. Populists & other debtors concerned as Pullman episode
proof of an alliance between big business and the courts.20. Haymarket Square bombing 1866- Chicago - May 4, 1886,
Chicago police advanced on a meeting called to protest alleged; brutalities by the authorities in May Day strikes. *Alleged
German anarchists present who advocated a violent overthrow of gov't *A dynamite bomb was thrown in the crowd that killed
8 police; 60 officers injured by police fire; 7 or 8 civilians killed; 30-40 wounded *Resulted in the first full-blown red scare in
Chicago for 2 months. i. Five anarchists sentenced to death and three others given stiff prison sentences although nobody
could prove they had anything to do with the bombing. ii. In 1892, Gov. John P. Altgeld, a German-born Democrat pardoned
the 3 survivors after exhaustive study of the Haymarket case.21. Knights of Labor; American Federation of Labor/attitudes
about labor- Knights of Labor seized the torch of the National Labor Union. *Background i. Led by Terence Powderly – a
moderate; not a radical ii. Founded in 1869 as a secret society (like the Masons and others) iii. Used republican imagry
associated with Lincoln that each man should have a say in the political and economic issues that affected him. iv. Much of
leadership and membership was Irish. *Sought to include all workers in "one big union" including blacks & women. i.
Industrial unionism idea was ahead of its time *Campaigned for economic and social reform i. Producers’ cooperatives and
codes for safety and health; end to child labor. ii. Fought for an 8-hr workday through winning a number of strikes; higher pay
and equal pay for women. iii. Government regulation of railroads; postal savings banks, gov’t paper currency iv. Sought
arbitration rather than industrial warfare; Discouraged strikes and violence as a means for change v. Won major strike in 1885
against Gould’s struggling railroads. - Victory increased Knight’s membership to more than 700,000 in 1886.*Demise due to
the Great Upheaval (1886) – 1,400 strikes involving 500k workers.

i. Knights of Labor became mistakenly associated with anarchists. -- 8-hr movement suffered and subsequent strikes met with
many failures. ii. Inclusion of both skilled and unskilled workers proved a fatal handicap. - Unskilled labor could easily be
replaced with "scabs,” while High-class craft unionists enjoyed a superior bargaining position; irritated with giving up their
bargaining advantage due to the failure of unskilled labor strikes.- American Federation of Labor (AFL) *Formed in 1886
under the leadership of Samuel Gompers *Consisted of an association of self-governing national unions with the AFL
unifying overall strategy. *Gompers’ path fairly conservative; bitter foe of socialism; non-political i. Accepted existence of
two conflicting classes: workers and employers. ii. Only wanted labor to win its fair share; better wages and hours, and
improved working conditions ("bread and butter" issues) c. Did, however, attempt to persuade members to vote for favorable
candidates *Closed shop -- all workers in a unionized industry had to belong to the union. i. Provided necessary funds to ride
out prolonged strikes. *Chief strategies of AFL: walk-out and boycott ii. Shortcomings: did not represent unskilled labor esp.
women and blacks.

Chapter 18
1)The Urbanization of America
a)The Life of the City

i)Urban pop increased 7x in 50 yrs after Civil War, by 1920 majority of ppl lived in urban areas. Occurred partly b/c
of natural growth, mostly b/c immigrants and rural ppl flocked b/c offered better paying jobs than rural areas,
cultural experiences available, transportation to cities easier than ever

b)Migrations

i)Late 19th century saw geographic mobility- Americans left declining Eastern agricultural regions for new
farmlands in West and for cities of East

ii)Women moved from farms where mechanization decreased their value; Southern blacks moved to cities to escape
rural poverty, oppression, violence

iii)Largest source of urban growth immigrants: until 1880s mainly educated N Europeans who were sometimes
skilled laborers, businessmen or moved West to start farms. After 1880s largely S and E Europeans, lacked capital
(like poor Irish immigrants before Civil War) so took mainly unskilled jobs

c)The Ethnic City

i)Not only was amt of immigrants tremendous, but so was diversity of immigrant population (no single national
group dominated)

ii)Most immigrants were rural ppl so formed close-knit ethnic communities to ease transition-offered native
newspapers, food, links to national past

iii)Assimilation of ethnic groups into capitalist economy depended on values of community, but also prejudices
among employers, individual skills and capital

d)Assimilation

i)Most immigrants had desire to become true “Americans” and break with old national ways. Particular strain w/
women who in America shared more freedoms- adjust to more fluid life of American city

ii)Assimilation encouraged by Natives thru public schools and employer requirement to learn English, religious
leaders

e)Exclusion

i)Immigrant arrival provoked many fears + resentments of some native-born ppl. Reacted out of prejudice, foreign
willingness to accept lower wages

ii)Political response to these resentments- American Protective Association founded by Henry Bowers 1887,
Immigration Restriction League sought to screen/reduce immigrants. 1882 Congress passed Chinese Exclusion Act,
also denied entry to all “undesirables” and placed small tax on immigrants

iii)New laws kept only small amt out. Literacy requirement vetoed by president Grover Cleveland—anti-immigrant
measures failed mainly b/c many natives welcomed it, provided growing economy w/ cheap and plentiful labor

2)The Urban Landscape

a)The Creation of Public Space

i)By mid-19th century reformers and planners began to call for ordered vision of city, resulted in creation of public
spaces and public services

ii)Urban parks solution to congestion, allowed escape from strain of urban life. 1850s Central Park famously
planned by Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

iii)Great public buildings (libraries, museums, theaters), spurred by wealthy residents who wanted amenities to
match material and social aspirations

iv)Urban leaders undertook massive city rebuilding projects- “City Beautiful Movement” inspired by architect
Daniel Burnham- provide order and symmetry to disorderly life of city (faced opposition from private landowners)

b)Housing the Well-to-Do

i)Availability of cheap labor + materials lowered cost of building in late 19th century. Most wealthy lived in
mansions, but later moderately well-to-do and wealthy both began to build and commute from suburban
communities nearby

c)Housing Workers and the Poor

i)Most residentsforced to stay in city and rent- demand high and space scarce led to little bargaining power.
Landlords tried to get most ppl in smallest space

ii)“Tenements” came to refer to overcrowded slum dwellings. Poverty and rough tenement life showcased by
reporter Jacob Riis in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives. Some immigrants also boarded in small family homes

d)Urban Transportation

i)Old, narrow dirty streets insufficient to deal w/ urban growth and need for ppl to move everyday to difft parts of
city- new forms of mass transit needed

ii)Cities experimented w/ elevated railways, cable cars, by 1895 electric trolley lines, and in 1897 Boston opened
first subway in nation

iii)New road, bridge tech also developed (e.g. John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge)
e)The “Skyscraper”

i)Inadequate structural materials and stairs prevented tall buildings until 1870s iron and steal beam development.
After Civil War buildings grew successively taller, 1890s term “skyscraper” introduced

ii)Steel girder construction allowed city’s w/ limited space to expand upward if not outward. Architect Louis
Sullivan famous skyscraper designer

3)Strains of Urban Life

a)Fire and Disease

i)Fires destroyed large parts of downtown areas w/ buildings made mainly of wood. “Great fires” led to fireproof
buildings, professional fire departments

ii)Diseases from poor neighborhoods w/ inadequate sanitation and sewage disposal threatened epidemics that could
spread thru whole city

b)Environmental Degradation

i)Industrialization and rapid urbanization led to improper disposal of human and industrial waste that threatened
waterways and drinking water, air quality suffered from burning of stoves and furnaces

ii)By early 20th century reformers: seeking new sewage and drainage systems; Physician Alive Hamilton looked to
identify and correct pollution in workplace; 1912 fed govt created Public Health Service created factory health
standards to prevent occupational diseases (weak b/c no enforcement power)

c)Urban Poverty

i)Expansion of city created poverty, sheer number of ppl meant many unable to earn decent subsistence. Public
agencies and private philanthropic groups offered limited relief, and if they did mostly only to the poorest

ii)Some groups focused on religious revivalism as relief; others alarmed at great number of poor children in streets
(some lives on their own)– “street arabs”

d)Crime and Violence

i)Poverty and crowding created violence, crime. Murder rate rose nationwide, and rising crime rates prompted cities
to create larger, more professional police forces. Armories also developed b/c of fear of urban insurrections

e)Fear of the City

i)City offered allure and excitement, but also alienation and feelings of anonymity (e.g. Theodore Dreiser’s
1900 Sister Carrie about displaced single women)
f)The Machine and the Boss

i)Newly arrived immigrants sought assistance from political machines- created by power vacuum of cities, voting
power of large immigrant communities

ii)Urban “bosses” sought votes for his organization by winning loyalty of constituents thru relief, jobs for
unemployed, patronage

iii)Machines enriched politicians b/c of graft and corruption from contractors or investment from inside knowledge-
most notorious was William Tweed of NY’s Tammany Hall during 1860s/1870s

iv)In spite of middle class reformers citing machines as obstacles to progress, boss rule possible b/c immigrant
voters wanted services first and foremost & weakness of city govts

4)The Rise of Mass Consumption

a)Patterns of Income and Consumption

i)Growing markets and demand turn of century b/c of production and mass distribution made goods less expensive,
also b/c of rising incomes of “white collar” professionals and working-class ppl despite union failures

ii)Mass market also grew b/c affordable prices and new merchandising techniques allowed goods to reach more
consumers (e.g. ready-made clothing after Civil War and rise of fashion)

iii)Food transformed by tin cans, refrigerated RR cars for perishables, home iceboxes. Allowed for better diet and
higher life expectancy

b)Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses

i)Way in which Americans bought goods altered- local stores faced competition from “chain stores” whose national
network could sell manufactured goods at lower prices. Customers couldn’t resist great variety + lower prices of
chains

ii)Chain stores slow to rural areas but gained access thru mail-order houses-notably 1880s Montgomery Wary and
Sears Roebuck mail order catalogues

c)Department Stores

i)Dept stores transformed shopping by bringing together many products under one roof (clothing, furniture)
previously in separate shops; gave allure and excitement to shopping; economies of scale enabled lower prices than
comp

d)Women as Consumers
i)Mass consumption affected women greatest b/c primary consumers in family. Spawned consumer protection
movement w/ National Consumers League 1890s under Florence Kelley to force retainers for better wages,
conditions

5)Leisure in the Consumer Society

a)Redefining Leisure

i)Leisure had been previously scorned, but redefinition in late 19th century b/c economic expansion and greater
worker time away from work leisure began to be a normal part of everyday life (economist Simon Pattern wrote of
this in his 1902 The Theory of Prosperity and 1910 The New Basis of Civilization)

ii)New forms of leisure had public character- time spent mostly in public spaces, part of appeal of leisure was time
spent w/ large crowds

b)Spectator Sports

i)Search for public forms of leisure led to rise of organized spectator sports

ii)Saw rise of baseball as “national pastime”, leagues formed in 1870s. Football became standardized 1870s and
began to grew. Boxing grew in the 1880s after adoption of Marquis of Queensberry rules

iii)Spectator sports had close association with gambling w/ elaborate betting syndicates. Prompted sports to “clean
up” and regulate games

c)Music and Theater

i)Large market of cities allowed theaters to be maintained in ethnic communities, musical comedies developed, and
vaudeville widely popular

d)The Movies

i)Thomas Edison and others laid tech for motion picture 1880s, soon projectors allowed showings on big screens in
theaters w/ large audiences. By 1900 very popular, especially after DW Griffith introduced his silent epics

e)Working-Class Leisure

i)Workers spent great amt of leisure time on streets b/c had much time but little money. Also popular were
neighborhood saloons (often ethnic), served as political centers b/c saloonkeepers often involved in political
machines (largely b/c they had regular contact w/ many men in a neighborhood)

ii)Boxing also emerged as a poplar sport- bare knuckle fights by ethnic clubs

f)The Fourth of July

i)B/c most ppl worked six-day workweek w/o vacations, 4th of July became a full day of leisure and an impt
highlight in the year of ethnic, working-class communities. Massive neighborhood celebrations often w/ drinking

g)Private Pursuits

i)Reading remained popular as leisure activity, w/ Louisa Alcott’s Little Women (1869) capturing a large women
audience

ii)Public music performances popular, but also learning instrument w/in home

h)Mass Communications

i)Large urban market for transmitting news and information in urban industrial society- rise in publishing in
journalism after Civil War w/ increase in newspaper circulation, rise of national press services using telegraph to
supply news to papers across country

ii)Rise of newspaper chains, especially competition btwn William Randolph Hearst + Joseph Pulitzer (rise of
sensational “yellow journalism to sell papers)

6)High Culture in the Age of the City

a)The Literature of Urban America

i)Some writers responded to new industrial civilization by evoking more natural world, others sought to use
literature to recreate urban social reality

ii)Realism led by Stephen Crane (famous for The Red Badge of Courage in 1895) who showed urban poverty and
slum life. Theodore Dreiser highlighted social dislocations and injustices. There authors followed by Frank
Norris’ The Octopus (1901) and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906) which showed depravity of capitalism by
exposing abuses in meatpacking industry

b)Art in the Age of the City

i)By 1900 many American artists breaking from Old World traditions of Eur and experiment w/ new styles. Some
turning away from traditional, academic style toward exploring grim aspects of modern life

ii)Ashcan School produced stark portrayal of social realities, showcased expressionism and abstraction at famous
1913 art “Armory Show”

iii)Beginning of modernism- rejected past and embraced new subjects, glorified the ordinary, coarse over genteel
tradition +“dignified” aspects of civilization, embraced the future over “standards” of past- individual creativity

c)The Impact of Darwinism

i)Darwin argued evolution from earlier species thru “natural selection”, challenged traditional American religious
faith. By end of century most urban professionals and members of educated classes converted; taught in schools

ii)Darwinism led to schism btwn culture of city receptive to new ideas and the traditional, provincial culture of rural
areas tied to religion and older values

iii)Other intellectual movements included Social Darwinism of William Sumner, “pragmatism” of William James
that valued scientific inquiry + experience

iv)Relativism spawned by Darwinism led to growth of anthropology and study of other cultures (notably Native
American culture)

d)Toward Universal Schooling

i)Dependence on specialized skills and scientific knowledge led to demand for education. Spread of free public
primary and secondary education, compulsory attendance laws in many states. Rural education still lagged

ii)Some reformers including Richard Pratt targeted native tribes to “civilize” them- urged practical “industrial”
education. Failed b/c resistance, funding

iii)Colleges grew late 19th century, benefited from Morrill Land Grant Act of Civil War era that donated large amt
of land for colleges; also from contributions made by business and financial tycoons

e)Education for Women

i)Expansion of educational opportunities for women (although lagged behind that of men). Public high schools
accepted women, and network of women’s colleges emerged that served to create distinctive women’s community

Chapter 19

1)The Politics of Equilibrium

a)The Party System

i)Party system of late 19th century very stable w/ little fluctuation in state loyalties. Repubs held most presidencies
and Senate, Dems lead House

ii)Public intensely loyal to parties, voter turnout was tremendous- loyalty result of region (Dems in S, Repubs in N),
religion and ethnicity (Dems attracted Catholics, new immigrants, poor; Repubs middle class, N Protestants)

iii)Party identification more cultural than of economic interest

b)The National Government

i)Federal govt held little power/responsibility- aside from supporting economic development (land grant subsidies,
strike intervention), delivering pensions to Civil War veterans. Party leaders cared more about holding office than
policy

c)Presidents and Patronage

i)President had little power save to make govt appointments (patronage used)

ii)Pres Rutherford B. Hayes had to deal w/ factional Repub party split btwn Stalwarts (favored machine politics) and
the Half-Breeds (favored reform). Patronage system overshadowed presidency, civil service system effort failed

iii)Repubs won presidency in 1880 election, Pres James Garfield (Half-Breed) and VP Chester Arthur (Stalwart).
Garfield attempted to defy Stalwarts, create civil service reform- assassinated 1881

iv)New Pres Chester attempted supported civil service reform over Stalwarts- 1883 Congress passed Pendleton Act
requiring exams for some govt jobs

d)Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

i)In 1884 election Repub nominee Sen James Blaine symbol of party politics, “liberal” Repubs flocked to Dem
reform candidate Grover Cleveland

ii)Cleveland opposed to graft and special interest, wished to see limited govt- asked Congress to reduce protective
tariff rate 1887 to reduce govt surpluses and size. Dems passed bill, Republicans opposed it—>issue in 1888
elections

iii)Dems renominated Cleveland; Repubs named Benjamin Harrison, won Pres

e)New Public Issues

i)Pres Harrison made little effort to influence Congress, but public opinion forced govt to begin to confront social
and economic issues- especially trusts

ii)By mid 1880s some states limiting combinations preventing competition, but reformers wanted nat’l movement-
1890 Sherman Antitrust Act passed, but little enforced, weakened by courts, and had little impact

iii)Repubs main issue was dealing w/ tariff- passed McKinley Tariff 1890 (highest protective tariff ever). Public
opposed bill, by 1892 Pres election Repubs lost both House + Senate, Dem nominee Cleveland won Pres election

iv)Cleveland’s 2nd term like 1st (devoted to minimal govt). Supported tariff reduction (Wilson-Gorman Tariff
passed). Movement 1880s in may states to regulate RRs- after 1886 Supreme Court case Wabash, St. Louis and
Pacific Railroad vs Illinois ruled only fed govt able to regulate interstate commerce

v)To appease public Congress passed 1887 Interstate Commerce Act- banned rate discrimination + injustice,
Interstate Commerce Commission formed
2)The Agrarian Revolt

a)The Grangers

i)First major effort to organize farmers was Grange movement of 1860s (at firs goal to teach new scientific
techniques), not until 1873 recession + fall of farm prices did it become highly political and large

ii)Grange urged cooperative political action to fight monopolistic RR and warehouse practices, setup up co-op
stores, insurance companies, and Montgomery Ward mail-order business (sought to challenge middle-men)

iii)Elected Grange politicians 1870s to state legislatures to focus on RR reform; regulations destroyed by courts,
temporary boom late-1870s destroyed Grange

b)The Farmers’ Alliance

i)Farmers’ Alliances formed in South, Northwest- like Grange focused on local problems (co-op banks, processing
plants) but also larger goal to create society of cooperation. Like Grange cooperatives not very successful, harnessed
frustrations into creating national political organization 1880s

ii)1889 Southern and Northwestern Alliances merged, issued Ocala Demands (party platform), won seats in 1890
elections. Sentiments forming toward national third party, 1892 created People’s Party (Populists)

iii)In 1892 elections Populists did surprising well, won seats in states + Congress

c)The Populist Constituency

i)Populism appealed mainly to small farmers, those whose farming becoming less viable in face of mechanized,
consolidated commercial agriculture

ii)Populists failed to attract much labor support, but attracted miners in Rocky Mountain states w/ “free silver”
policy that allowed for silver to be currency, expand money supply. African Americans allowed limited involvement
in S

d)Populist Ideas

i)Ocala platform 1892 outlined Populist reform programs- “subtreasuries” to strengthen cooperatives; govt
warehouse system; abolish national banks; direct election of US Senators, other ways for ppl to influence political
system; regulation and ownership of RRs, telephones; graduated income tax; currency inflation; silver
remonetization. Populism associated w/ anti-Semitism

ii)Rejection of laissez-faire, uphold absolutism of ownership

3)The Crisis of the 1890s

a)The Panic of 1893

i)Panic of 1893 led to severe depression- caused by bankruptcy of few corporations that led to bank failure, led to
credit contraction. Also caused by depressed farm prices of late 1880s, Eur depression, RR expansion beyond
market demand- showed how dependent economy was on powerful RRs

ii)Businesses, banks, RRs failed. Unemployment soared, led to social unrest- 1894 Populist Jacob Coxey called for
massive public works program for unemployed + currency inflation, protested in D.C. w/ “Coxey’s Army”

b)The Silver Question

i)Financial panic weakened monetary system, Pres Cleveland believed currency instability cause of depression.
Many ppl believed specie (precious metal) must back money to give it value

ii)“Bimetal” standard discontinued 1873 by Congress b/c market value of silver high than 16:1 standard. Late 1870s
silver became less valuable than standard but ppl unable to convert silver b/c of “Crime of ‘73”; opposition by
silver-miners + farmers who wanted greater $ circulation (inflation) to ease debts

iii)At same time decreasing govt gold reserves led Pres Cleveland 1893 to seek repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase
Act of 1890- divided Dem party

iv)Presidential of 1986 incredibly fierce b/c supporters of gold standard saw it as essential to national stability,
supporters of “free silver” (guided by William Harvey’s 1894 Coin’s Financial School) saw gold standard as
tyrannous and advantageous to wealthy, silver would decrease debt

4)“A Cross of Gold”

a)The Emergence of Bryan

i)Repubs in 1896 election confident of victory b/c of Cleveland+ Dems failure to deal w/ depression nominated
William McKinley w/ platform opposed to free coinage of silver

ii)Dems of West sought to weaken People’s Party by adopting Populist demands, debated platform of free silver,
tariff reduction, income tax, RR and trust regulation- opposed by eastern Dems

iii)William Jennings Bryan delivered “Cross of Gold” speech opposed to gold standard at convention, next day
voted nominee

iv)Populists split as to whether or not to fuse w/ Dem party b/c felt some of their unique needs addressed; concluded
no other alternative, supported Bryan

b)The Conservative Party

i)Business + finance communities donated heavily to Repubs, Bryan’s national stump and camp-meeting style
alienated Cath + ethnic voters who feared he embodied Protestants who so firmly opposed them

ii)McKinley carried election b/c Dem platform had proved to be too narrow (sectional) to win nationally. B/c of
“fusion” gamble w/ Democrats the People’s Party began to dissolve in wake of defeat

c)McKinley and Recovery

i)McKinley administration saw return to calm b/c labor unrest and agrarian protest had subsided by 1897, economic
crisis gradually easing

ii)McKinley focused on implementing high tariff rate, Congress soon passed Dingley Tariff. Repubs passed
Currency (Gold Standard) Act of 1900 that confirmed nation’s gold standard, pegged dollar to specific gold value

iii)Foreign crop failures resulted in economic uptick, nation entered period of expansion once again—clear trend
btwn prosperity + gold standard support

iv)Free-silver movement had failed- during late 19th century money supply had expanded much more slowly than
increase in production and population, but by late 1890s increase in gold supply inflated money, satisfied free-silver
ppl