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APPENDIX 1: Symbols, Units,


and Mathematical Techniques
1A SYMBOLS
Each physical quantity is represented by an italic or oblique
Greek symbol (thus, m for mass, not m; for osmotic pressure, not ). Table 1 lists most of the symbols used in this
textbook together with their units (see also Appendix 1B).
The symbols may be modified by attaching subscripts,

as set out in Table 2. Fundamental constants are not


included in the lists but can be found inside the back cover
of the book. The symbols for mathematical constants are
upright (thus, , not , e, not e). All labels are upright
(thus, s-orbital, not s-orbital; -orbital, not -orbital).

TABLE 1 Common Symbols and Units


Symbol

Physical quantity

SI unit

(alpha)
(gamma)
(delta)
(theta)
(lambda)
(mu)
(nu)
(pi)
(sigma)
(phi)
(chi)
(psi)
a

polarizability
surface tension
chemical shift
colatitude
wavelength
dipole moment
frequency
osmotic pressure
cross section
azimuth
electronegativity
wavefunction
activity
van der Waals parameter
unit-cell parameter
area
mass number
Madelung constant
van der Waals parameter
molality
second virial coefficient
heat capacity
third virial coefficient
molar concentration, molarity
second radiation constant
density
length of unit-cell diagonal
energy
electrode potential
activation energy
nuclear binding energy
cell potential
electron affinity
kinetic energy
potential energy
elementary charge
force
Gibbs free energy

C2m2J1
Nm1

degree, rad
m
Cm
Hz
Pa
m2
degree (), rad

mn/2 (in n dimensions)

L2atmmol2
m
m2

Lmol1
molkg1
Lmol1
JK1
L2mol2
molL1, m
Km
kgm3 (gcm3)
m
J
V
Jmol1 (kJmol1)
J
V
Jmol1 (kJmol1)
J
J
C
N
J

A
b
B
C
c
c2
d
E
Ea
Ebind
Ecell
Eea
Ek
Ep
e
F
G

(continued)

A1

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APPENDIX 1

A2

TABLE 1 Common Symbols and Units (continued)


Symbol

Physical quantity

SI unit

H
h
I

enthalpy
height
ionization energy
electric current
i factor
molarity, molar concentration
rate constant
decay constant
boiling-point constant
freezing-point constant
Henrys law constant
equilibrium constant
acidity constant
basicity constant
equilibrium constant
formation constant
Michaelis constant
equilibrium constant
solubility product
water autoprotolysis constant
length
mass
molality
molar mass
number of entities
amount of substance
linear momentum
pressure
partial pressure
heat
electric charge
reaction quotient
relative biological effectiveness
radius
radial wavefunction
entropy
molar solubility
dimensionless molar solubility
time
half-life
absolute temperature
internal energy
velocity
volume
work
mole fraction
angular wavefunction
compression factor
atomic number

J
m
Jmol1 (kJmol1)
A (Cs1)

molL1, m
(depends on order)
s1
Kkgmol1
Kkgmol1
molL1atm1

molL1

m
kg
molkg1, m
kgmol1 (gmol1)

mol
kgms1
Pa
Pa
J
C

m
m3/2
JK1
molL1

s
s
K
J
ms1
m3, L
J

i
[J]
k
kb
kf
kH
K
Ka
Kb
Kc
Kf
KM
KP
Ksp
Kw
l, L
m
M
N
n
p
P
PA
q
Q
Q
r
R
S
s
t
t1/2
T
U
v
V
w
xA
Y
Z

TABLE 2 Subscripts for Symbols


Subscript

Meaning

Example (units)

a
b

acid
base
boiling
bond
binding

acidity constant, Ka
basicity constant, Kb
boiling temperature, Tb (K)
bond enthalpy, HB (kJmol1)
binding energy, Ebind (eV)

B
bind

(continued)

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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques

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TABLE 2 Subscripts for Symbols (continued)


Subscript

Meaning

Example (units)

concentration
combustion
critical
nonexpansion (extra) work
formation

equilibrium constant, Kc
enthalpy of combustion, Hc (kJmol1)
critical temperature, Tc (K)
electrical work, we (J)
enthalpy of formation, Hf (kJmol1)
formation constant, Kf
freezing temperature, Tf (K)
enthalpy of fusion, Hfus (kJmol1)
Henrys law constant, kH
indicator constant, KIn
kinetic energy, Ek (J)
lattice enthalpy, HL (kJmol1)
molar volume, Vm  V/n (Lmol1)
Michaelis constant, KM
enthalpy of mixing, Hmix (kJmol1)
potential energy, Ep (J)
heat capacity at constant pressure, CP (JK1)
reaction enthalpy, Hr (kJmol1)
specific heat capacity, Cs  C/m (JK1g1)
enthalpy of solution, Hsol (kJmol1)
solubility product, Ksp
enthalpy of sublimation, Hsub (kJmol1)
entropy of surroundings, Ssurr (JK1)
total entropy, Stot (JK1)
heat capacity at constant volume, CV (JK1)
enthalpy of vaporization, Hvap (kJmol1)
water autoprotolysis constant, Kw
initial concentration, [A]0
wavefunction, 0

e
f
fus
H
In
k
L
m
M
mix
p
P
r
s
sol
sp
sub
surr
tot
V
vap
w
0

freezing
fusion
Henry
indicator
kinetic
lattice
molar
Michaelis
mixing
potential
constant pressure
reaction
specific
solution
solubility product
sublimation
surroundings
total
constant volume
vaporization
water
initial
ground state

1B UNITS AND UNIT CONVERSIONS


Each physical quantity is reported as a multiple of a
defined unit:
Physical quantity  numerical value  unit

For instance, a length may be expressed as a multiple of


the unit of length: 1 meter or 1 m; so we write l  2.0 
1 m  2.0 m. All units are denoted by Roman letters, such
as m for meter and s for second.
The Systme International (SI) is the internationally
accepted form of the metric system. It defines seven base units
in terms of which all physical quantities can be expressed:
meter, m The meter, the unit of length, is the length of
the path traveled by light during a time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second.
kilogram, kg The kilogram, the unit of mass, is the
mass of a standard cylinder maintained at a
laboratory in France.
second, s The second, the unit of time, is 9 192 631 770
periods of a certain spectroscopic transition in a
cesium-133 atom.
ampere, A The ampere, the unit of electric
current, is defined in terms of the force exerted

between two parallel wires carrying the


current.
kelvin, K The kelvin, the unit of temperature, is
1/273.16 of the absolute temperature of the triple
point of water.
mole, mol The mole, the unit of chemical amount, is
the amount of substance that contains as many
specified entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g
of carbon-12.
candela, cd The candela, the unit of luminous
intensity, is defined in terms of a carefully specified
source. We do not use the candela in this book.
In 2012 it was agreed internationally to replace the definition of the kilogram in terms of the prototype cylinder by a
more subtle definition in terms of the fundamental constants; the new definition has been agreed but not yet (in
2013) implemented. New definitions of the mole and the
kelvin have also been agreed, but not yet implemented.
Any unit may be modified by one of the prefixes
given in Table 3, which denote multiplication or division
by a power of 10 of the unit. Thus, 1 mm  103 m and
1 MK  106 K. Note that all the prefixes are upright
(Roman), not italic.

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APPENDIX 1

TABLE 3 Typical SI Prefixes


Prefix:
Abbreviation:
Factor:

decada
10

kilok
103

megaM
106

gigaG
109

teraT
1012

petaP
1015

Prefix:
Abbreviation:
Factor:

decid
101

centic
102

millim
103

micro (mu)
106

nanon
109

picop
1012

Derived units are combinations of the base units


(Fundamentals, Section A). Table 4 lists some derived units.
The names of units derived from the names of people all

femtof
1015

attoa
1018

zeptoz
1021

begin with a lowercase letter, but the initial letter of their


abbreviation is uppercase (thus, joule and its symbol J).

TABLE 4 Derived Units with Special Names


Physical quantity

Name of unit

absorbed dose
dose equivalent
electric charge
electric potential
energy
force
frequency
power
pressure
volume

gray
sievert
coulomb
volt
joule
newton
hertz
watt
pascal
liter

It is often necessary to convert units from another system (for instance, calories for energy and inches for length)

Abbreviation
Gy
Sv
C
V
J
N
Hz
W
Pa
L

Definition
Jkg1
Jkg1
As
JC1
Nm, kgm2s2
kgms2
s1
Js1
Nm2, kgm1s2
dm3

into SI units. Table 5 lists some common conversions; the


values in boldface type are exact.

TABLE 5 Relations Between Units


Physical quantity

Common unit

mass

pound
tonne
ton (short, U.S.)
ton (long, U.K.)
inch
foot
U.S. quart
U.S. gallon
Imperial quart
Imperial gallon
minute
hour
calorie (thermochemical)
electronvolt
kilowatthour
literatmosphere
torr
atmosphere
bar
pounds/square inch
horsepower
debye

length
volume

time
energy

pressure

power
dipole moment

*Values in boldface type are exact.

Abbreviation
lb
t
ton
ton
in.
ft
qt
gal
qt
gal
min
h
cal
eV
kWh
Latm
Torr
atm
bar
psi
hp
D

SI equivalent*
0.453 592 37 kg
103 kg (1 Mg)
907.184 74 kg
1016.046 kg
2.54 cm
30.48 cm
0.946 352 5 L
3.785 41 L
1.136 522 5 L
4.546 09 L
60 s
3600 s
4.184 J
1.602 177  1019 J
3.6  106 J
101.325 J
133.322 Pa
101 325 Pa (760 Torr)
105 Pa
6894.76 Pa
745.7 W
3.335 64  1030 Cm

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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques


As explained in Fundamentals, Section A, to convert
between units, use a conversion factor of the form
Conversion factor 

units required
units given

When using a conversion factor, the units are treated just


like algebraic quantities: they are multiplied or canceled in
the normal way. Thus, the units in the denominator of the
conversion factor cancel the units in the original data, leaving the units in the numerator of the conversion factor.
The conversion of temperatures is carried out slightly
differently. Because the Fahrenheit degree (F) is smaller
than a Celsius degree by a factor of 59 (because there are 180
Fahrenheit degrees between the freezing point and boiling
point of water but only 100 Celsius degrees between the
same two points) and because 0 C coincides with 32 F, use
Temperature 1F2  E 95  temperature 1C2 F
32

(The 32 is exact.) For example, to convert 37 C (blood


temperature) into degrees Fahrenheit, write
Temperature 1F2  E 95  37F
32  99

and the temperature is reported as 99 F. A more sophisticated way of expressing the same relation is to write
TemperatureF  E 95  temperatureCF
32

In this expression, the temperature units are treated like


numbers and canceled when it is appropriate. The same
conversion then becomes
TemperatureF  E 95  137 C2CF
32
 E 95  37F
32  99

and multiplication through by F gives


Temperature  99 F

The corresponding expression for conversion between the


Celsius and Kelvin scales is
TemperatureC  temperatureK
273.15

(The 273.15 is exact.) Note that the size of the degree Celsius
is the same as that of the kelvin, so a property with a value
reported as 100 J(C)1 can be interpreted as 100 JK1.

1C SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In scientific notation, a number is written as A  10a.
Here A is a decimal number with one nonzero digit in
front of the decimal point and a is a whole number. For
example, 333 is written 3.33  102 in scientific notation,
because 102  10  10  100:
333  3.33  100  3.33  102

We use
101  10
102  10  10  100
103  10  10  10  1000
104  10  10  10  10  10 000

A5

and so on. Note that the number of zeros following 1 is


equal to the power of 10.
Numbers between 0 and 1 are expressed in the same
way but with a negative power of 10; they have the form
A  10a, with 101  0.1, and so on. Thus, 0.0333 in
decimal notation is 3.33  102 because
10 2 

1
1
1


10
10
100

and therefore
0.033  3.33 

1
 3.33  10 2
100

We use
10 2  10 1  10 1  0.01
10 3  10 1  10 1  10 1  0.001
10 4  10 1  10 1  10 1  10 1  0.0001

When a negative power of 10 is written out as a decimal


number, the number of zeros following the decimal point
is one less than the number (disregarding the sign) to
which 10 is raised. Thus, 105 is written as a decimal
point followed by 5  1  4 zeros and then a 1:
105  10 1  10 1  10 1  10 1  10 1
 0.000 01

Note the space separating groups of three digits, which is


used to make numbers easier to interpret. However, if that
grouping results in a single remaining digit, then it joins
the preceding group (thus 0.1234, not 0.123 4; 0.123
4567, not 0.123 456 7).
The digits in a reported measurement are called the
significant figures. There are two significant figures (written
2 sf) in 1.2 cm3 and 3 sf in 1.78 g. Fundamentals, Section
A, describes how to find the number of significant figures
in a measurement.
Some zeros are legitimately measured digits, but other
zeros serve only to mark the place of the decimal point.
Trailing zeros (the last ones after a decimal point), as in
22.0 mL, are significant, because they were measured.
Thus, 22.0 mL has 3 sf. The captive zero in 80.1 kg is a
measured digit, and so 80.1 kg has 3 sf. However, the leading digits in 0.0025 g are not significant; they are only
placeholders used to indicate powers of 10, not measured
numbers. That they are only placeholders can be seen by
reporting the mass as 2.5  103 g, which has 2 sf.
The results of measurements, which are always uncertain, are distinguished from the results of counting, which
are exact. For example, the report 12 eggs means that
there are exactly 12 eggs present, not a number somewhere
between 11.5 and 12.5.
Some ambiguity arises with whole numbers ending in
zero. Does a length reported as 400 m have 3 sf (4.00 
102), 2 sf (4.0  102), or only 1 sf (4  102)? In such cases,
the use of scientific notation removes any ambiguity. If it is
not convenient to use scientific notation, a final decimal
point can be used to indicate that every digit to the left of
the decimal is significant. Thus, 400 m is ambiguous and

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APPENDIX 1

cannot be taken to have more than 1 sf unless other information is given. However, 400. m unambiguously has 3 sf.
The final decimal point is rarely used in the everyday world
(thus, the speed limit is 50 mph is ambiguous in science
but not in law), but we adopt it throughout this text.
Different rounding-off rules are needed for addition
(and its reverse, subtraction) and multiplication (and its
reverse, division). In both procedures, the answers need to
be rounded off to the correct number of significant figures.
Rounding off In calculations, round up if the last digit
is above 5 and round down if it is below 5. For
numbers ending in 5, always round to the nearest even
number. For example, 2.35 rounds to 2.4 and 2.65
rounds to 2.6. In a calculation with multiple steps,
round off only in the final step; if possible, carry all
digits in the memory of the calculator until that stage.
Addition and subtraction When adding or
subtracting, make sure that the number of decimal
places in the result is the same as the smallest
number of decimal places in the data. For example,
0.10 g
0.024 g  0.12 g.
Multiplication and division When multiplying or
dividing, make sure that the number of significant
figures in the result is the same as the smallest
number of significant figures in the data. For
example, (8.62 g)/(2.0 cm3)  4.3 gcm3.
Integers and exact numbers In multiplication or division
by an integer or an exact number, the uncertainty of the
result is determined by the measured value. Some unit
conversion factors are defined exactly, even though they
are not whole numbers. For example, 1 in. is defined as
exactly 2.54 cm and the 273.15 in the conversion
between Celsius and Kelvin temperatures is exact; so
100.000 C converts into 373.150 K.
Logarithms and exponentials The mantissa of a
common logarithm (the digits following the decimal
point, see Appendix 1D) has the same number of
significant figures as the original number. Thus, log
2.45  0.389. A common antilogarithm of a number
has the same number of significant figures as the
mantissa of the original number. Thus, 100.389  2.45
and 1012.389  2.45  1012. There is no simple rule
for assessing the correct number of significant figures
when natural logarithms are used: one way is to
convert natural logarithms into common logarithms
and then to use the rules just specified.

1D EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS


To multiply numbers in scientific notation, multiply the
decimal parts of the numbers and add the powers of 10:
1A  10a 2  1B  10b 2  1A  B2  10a
b

An example is
11.23  102 2  14.56  103 2  1.23  4.56  102
3
 5.61  105

This rule also applies if the powers of 10 are negative:


11.23  10 2 2  14.56  10 3 2  1.23  4.56  10 23
 5.61  10 5

The results of such calculations are then adjusted so that


one digit precedes the decimal point:
14.56  10 3 2  17.65  106 2  34.88  103
 3.488  104

When dividing two numbers in scientific notation,


divide the decimal parts of the numbers and subtract the
powers of 10:
A  10a
B  10b

A
 10ab
B

An example is
4.31  105
4.31

 105 1 82  0.437  1013
9.87
9.87  10 8
 4.37  1012

Before adding and subtracting numbers in scientific


notation, we rewrite the numbers as decimal numbers
multiplied by the same power of 10:
1.00  103
2.00  102  1.00  103
0.200  103
 1.20  103

When raising a number in scientific notation to a particular power, raise the decimal part of the number to the
power and multiply the power of 10 by the power:
1A  10a 2 b  Ab  10ab

For example, 2.88  104 raised to the third power is


12.88  104 2 3  2.883  1104 2 3  2.883  1034
 23.9  1012  2.39  1013

The rule follows from the fact that


1104 2 3  104  104  104  104
4
4  1034

The common logarithm of a number x, denoted log x,


is the power to which 10 must be raised to equal x. Thus,
the logarithm of 100 is 2, written log 100  2, because
102  100. The logarithm of 1.5  102 is 2.18 because
102.18  100.18
2  100.18  102  1.5  102

The number to the left of the decimal point in the logarithm (the 2 in log (1.5  102)  2.18) is called the characteristic of the logarithm: it is the power of 10 in the
original number (the power 2 in 1.5  102). The decimal
fraction (the numbers to the right of the decimal point,
such as 0.18 in our example) is called the mantissa (from
the Latin word for makeweight). It is the logarithm of
the decimal number written with one nonzero digit to the
left of the decimal point (the 1.5 in the example).
The distinction between the characteristic and the mantissa is important when we have to decide how many
significant figures to retain in a calculation that includes
logarithms (as in the calculation of pH). Just as the power of

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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques


10 in a decimal number indicates only the location of the
decimal point and plays no role in the determination of significant figures, so the characteristic of a logarithm is not
included in the count of significant figures in a logarithm
(see Appendix 1C). The number of significant figures in the
mantissa is equal to the number of significant figures in the
decimal number.
The common antilogarithm of a number x is the number
that has x as its common logarithm. In practice, the common
antilogarithm of x is simply another name for 10x, and so the
common antilogarithm of 2 is 102  100 and that of 2.18 is
102.18  100.18
2  100.18  102  1.5  102

The logarithm of a number greater than 1 is positive,


and the logarithm of a number less than 1 (but greater
than 0) is negative. For any number x,
If x 1, log x 0
If x  1, log x  0
If x 1, log x 0

Logarithms are not defined either for 0 or for negative


numbers.
The natural logarithm of a number x, denoted ln x, is
the power to which the number e  2.718 . . . must be
raised to equal x. Thus, ln 10.0  2.303, signifying that
e2.303  10.0. The value of e may seem a peculiar choice,
but it occurs naturally in a number of mathematical
expressions, and its use simplifies many formulas. Common and natural logarithms are related by the expression
ln x  ln 10  log x

In practice, a convenient approximation is

A7

and, from a relation given in the preceding table, we write


the expression as
x log a  log b

Therefore,
x

log b
log a

1E EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS


A quadratic equation is an equation of the form
ax2
bx
c  0

The two roots of the equation


(the solutions) are given by the
expression
x

b 2b2  4ac
2a

y=0

The roots can also be deterx


0
mined graphically (by using a
graphing calculator, for instance)
by noting where the graph of
y(x)  ax2
bx
c against x FIGURE 1 A graph of a
passes through y  0 (Fig. 1). function of the form y(x) 
When a quadratic equation ax2
bx
c passes through
arises in connection with a y  0 at two points, which are
chemical calculation, we accept the two roots of the quadratic
only the root that leads to a equation ax2
bx
c  0.
physically plausible result. For
example, if x is a concentration, then it must be a positive
number, and a negative root can be ignored.
A calculation may result in a cubic equation:

ln x 2.303  log x

ax3
bx2
cx
d  0

The natural antilogarithm of x is normally called the


exponential of e; it is the value of e raised to the power x.
Thus, the natural antilogarithm of 2.303 is e2.303  10.0.
The following relations between logarithms are useful. Written here mainly for common logarithms, they also
apply to natural logarithms.

Cubic equations are often very tedious to solve exactly,


and so it is better to use mathematical software, a graphing calculator, or a plotter, such as the one on the Web site
for this book, and to identify the locations where the graph
of y(x) against x passes
y
through y  0 (Fig. 2).
Experimental data can
often be analyzed most effectively from a graph. In many
cases, the best procedure is to
y=0
find a way of plotting the data
as a straight line. It is easier to
identify deviations of data
x
0
points from a straight line
than deviations from a curve.
Moreover, it is also easy to calculate the slope of a straight FIGURE 2 A graph of a
line, to extrapolate (extend) a function of the form y(x) 
straight line beyond the range ax3
bx2
cx
d passes
of the data, and to interpolate through y  0 at three points,
between the data points (that which are the three roots of
is, find a value between two the cubic equation ax3

measured values).
bx2
cx
d  0.

Relation

Example

log10x  x
ln ex  x
log x
log y  log xy

log107  7
ln ekt  kt
log [Ag
]
log [Cl] 
log [Ag
][Cl]
log A0  log A  log(A0/A)
2 log [H
]  log([H
]2)
log(1/[H
])  log [H
]

log x  log y  log(x/y)


x log y  log yx
log(1/x)  log x

Logarithms are useful for solving expressions of the form


ax  b

for the unknown x. (This type of calculation can arise in


the study of chemical kinetics to determine the order of a
reaction.) We take logarithms of both sides,
log ax  log b

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APPENDIX 1

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y = mx + b

y
y2

y2 y1
y2 y1
m= x x
2
1

y1

y  mx
b

x2 x1

b
0

The formula of a straightline graph of y (the vertical


axis) plotted against x (the
horizontal axis) is

x1

x2

FIGURE 3 The straight line


y(x)  mx
b; its intercept
with the vertical axis at x  0
is b and its slope is m.

Here b is the intercept of the


line with the y-axis (Fig. 3),
the value of y when x  0. The
slope of the graph, its gradient,
is m. The slope can be calculated by choosing two points,
x1 and x2, and their corresponding values on the y-axis,
y1 and y2, and substituting the
values into the formula
m

y2  y1
x2  x1

Because b is the intercept and m is the slope, the equation


of the straight line is equivalent to
y  1slope  x2
intercept

Many of the equations that we meet in the text can be


rearranged to give a straight-line graph when plotted as
shown in the following table.
Application
temperature-scale
conversions
ideal gas law
first-order
integrated
rate law
second-order
integrated
rate law
Arrhenius
equation
y

 slope  x

intercept

obtained by moving the points an equal distance closer to


the point of interest and drawing a new line. The exact
tangent is obtained when the two points virtually coincide
with the point of interest. Its slope is then equal to the slope
of the curve at the point of interest. This technique can be
used to measure the rate of a chemical reaction at a specified time.

1F CALCULUS
Differential calculus is the part of mathematics that deals
with the slopes of curves and with infinitesimal quantities. Suppose we are studying a function y(x). As explained
in Appendix 1E, the slope of its graph at a point can be
calculated by considering the straight line joining two
points x and x
x, where x is small. The slope of this
line is
Slope 

y1x
x2  y1x2
dy
 lim
dx xS0
x

where lim means the limit of whatever followsin this


case, the value of the expression as x is allowed to
become zero. For example, if y(x)  x2,

 1  T/K
 95  temp./C
 nRT  (1/V)
 k  t

273.15

32

1/[A]

kt

1/[A]0

 lim

ln k

 (Ea/R)  (1/T)

ln A

 lim

Approximation 1
Approximation 2
True
tangent

FIGURE 4 Successive
approximations to the true
tangent are obtained as
the two points defining the
straight line come closer
together and finally coincide.

The slope of a straight


line is the same at all points.
On a curve, however, the
slope changes from point to
point. The slope at a specified
point is given by the slope of
the line tangent to the curve at
that point. The tangent can be
found by a series of approximations, as shown in Fig. 4.
We might start (approximation 1) by drawing a point on
the curve on each side of the
point of interest (corresponding to equal distances along the
x-axis) and joining them by a
straight line. A better approximation (approximation 2) is

x

In differential calculus, the slope of the curve is found by


letting the separation of the points become infinitesimally
small. The first derivative of the function y with respect to
x is then defined as

temp./C
temp./F
P
ln [A]

ln [A]0

y1x
x2  y1x2

1x
x2 2  x2
dy
 lim
dx xS0
x
x2
2xx
1x2 2  x2
x

xS0

2xx
1x2 2

xS0

x

 lim 12x
x2  2x
xS0

Therefore, the slope of the graph of the function y  x2 at


any point x is 2x. The same procedure can be applied to
other functions. However, in practice, it is usually more
convenient to consult tables of first derivatives that have
already been worked out. A selection of common functions and their first derivatives is given here.
Function, y(x)
n

x
ln x
eax
sin ax
cos ax

Derivative, dy/dx
nxn  1
1/x
aeax
a cos ax
a sin ax

The second derivative of a function, denoted d2y/dx2,


is defined like the first derivative but is applied to the
function that has been obtained by taking the first derivative. For example, the second derivative of the function x2
is the derivative of the function 2x, which is the constant 2.

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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques


Likewise, the second derivative of sin ax is a2 sin ax. The
second derivative is an indication of the curvature of the
function. Where d2y/dx2 is positive, the graph has a
shape; where it is negative, the graph has a shape. The
greater the magnitude of d2y/dx2, the sharper is the curvature of the graph.
Integral calculus provides a way to determine the original function, given its first derivative. Thus, if we know
that the first derivative is 2x, then the integral calculus
allows us to deduce that the function itself is y  x2

constant. The constant is included because when we differentiate x2


constant, we get 2x regardless of the value
of the constant. Formally, we write
12x2 dx  x
constant
2

It follows that the functions in the left-hand column of the


preceding table are the integrals (to within a constant) of the
functions in the right-hand column. More formally, they are
the indefinite integrals of the function (indefinite on

account of the presence of the


unknown constant), in contrast with the definite integrals described next. Tables
of indefinite integrals may be
consulted for more complex
examples, and mathematical
software or a graphing calculator can be used to evaluate
them.
An integral has a further
important interpretation: the
integral of a function evaluated between two points is
the area beneath the graph of
the function between the two
points (Fig. 5). For example,
the area beneath the curve
y(x)  sin x between x  0
and x  p is
Area 

y(x)

Area = y(x)dx
a

FIGURE 5 The definite integral


of the function y(x) between
x  a and x  b is equal to the
area bounded by the curve, the
x-axis, and the two vertical lines
through a and b.

30

A9

sin x dx  1cos x
constant2 `


0

1

678

678

 acos 
constantb  acos 0
constantb
1
12

An integral with limits attached, as in this example, is


called a definite integral (because the unknown constant
has canceled).

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