People and Organizations

Professor
Yiannis Gabriel
University of Bath

Weeks 2 & 3
Organizations and groups

The aim of this session is to:

Understand the importance of groups for
organizational and social life
Appreciate some of the effects of groups
on their members
Learn about different types of groups
Assess some group synergies and
dysfunctions
Compare individual and group decision
making processes

Human Relations
School

Western Electric, Hawthorne Works, Chicago

Human Relations
School
Hawthorne Experiments
The illumination experiments
Control and experimental groups
Hawthorne Effect -- i.e. a person's behaviour changes
when he/she is being observed, especially as the
object of an experiment

Elton Mayo (1880-1949)

The relay assembly experiments

Group cohesion and group-norms.

Why do men and women work hard?
Taylor financial incentives
Mayo membership of cohesive groups

The Importance of Norms

Examples
Clothing and dressing
Speaking
Eating and drinking
Sexual and socializing

Norms are not rules

Some differences between Human Relations

and Scientific Management

Motivation (economic vs social being)

Rationality and emotion
The role of management
The nature of organizations
Their legacies

And some similarities!

The increasing emphasis on teams

Groups and organizations

Rationality and emotionality -- individual and

group

Are organizations groups? Any differences?

Groups, teams and committees, (the Camel)

Formal and informal groups
Groups -- friends or enemies of organizations?

Pro:
-

synergy, (theatrical troupe)

motivation,

man as social animal,

pooling of talents,

cross-fertilization

Cons:

conformity
lowering of intelligence
bickering,
emotion

rivalries

--

intensification

of

contagion and suggestibility

incapacity of moderation and restraint
Risky shift

Group boundaries: inclusion - exclusion

Group experience and individual experience;

the group mind

Solomon Aschs experiment (1951)

So, which line is the same as line

X?

Groupthink -- Janis

Groupthink is a phenomenon sometimes occurring

in very highly cohesive groups in which group
members are more concerned with maintaining
group spirit then in making the most realistic
decisions. The major symptoms of groupthink are
listed and described here. (Source: Adapted from
Janis, 1972)

Symptom

Description

1. Illusion of invulnerability

Ignoring obvious danger signals, being

overly optimistic, and taking extreme
risks

2. Collective rationalization

Discrediting or ignoring warnings that

run contrary to group thinking

3. Unquestioned morality

Believing the groups position is ethical

and moral while all others are
inherently evil

4. Excessive negative stereotyping

Viewing the opposing side as too negative

to warrant serious consideration

5. Strong conformity pressure

Discouraging the expression of

dissenting opinions under the threat
of expulsion for disloyalty

6. Self-censorship of dissenting ideas

Withholding dissenting ideas and

counterarguments; keeping these to
oneself

7. Illusion of unanimity

Sharing the false belief that everyone

agrees with the groups judgments

8. Self-appointed mindguards

Protecting the group from the influx of

adverse information that might threaten
group complacency

Risk The risky shift

How Risky Are You? Decide for Yourself
On questionnaire items such as this, it has been found that groups tend to make riskier decisions than
individuals, a phenomenon known as the risky shift. (Source: Adapted from Kogan & Wallach, Risk Taking, New
York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1964.)
Mr. A, an electrical engineer, who is married and had one child, has been working for a large electronics
corporation since graduating from college five years ago. He is assured of a lifetime job with a modest, though
adequate, salary, and liberal pension benefits upon retirement. On the other hand, it is very unlikely that his
salary will increase much before he retires. While attending a convention, Mr. A is offered a job with a small,
newly founded company which has a highly uncertain future. The new job would pay more to start and would
offer the possibility of a share in the ownership if the company survived the competition of the larger firms.
Imagine that you are advising Mr. A. Listed below are several probabilities or odds of the new companys proving
financially sound.
Please check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable to make it worthwhile for Mr. A to take
the new job.
_

The chances are 1 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.

The chances are 3 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.

The chances are 5 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.

The chances are 7 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.

The chances are 9 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.

Place a check her if you think Mr. A should not take the new job no matter what the probabilities.

Quality of Decision-making in groups

Advantages of working in groups:

pooling of resources

Stimulation

Specialization

Disadvantages:

waste of time and energy

Intimidation

free-rider

disagreement / conflict / compromise

Other dysfunctional groups

Wilfred Bion

The work
group

The task

Basic assumptions:

group operates 'as if'.

It is taken over by powerful emotions, loses
sight of task.

Basic assumptions group

Group is overwhelmed by powerful
emotions, especially anxiety
Group loses sight of task
Group loses ability to think rationally
Group is gripped by fantasy
Group operates as if something is going
on

The three types of basic

assumption group

baD -- dependency; the leader will protect

us, solve our problems etc. The leader is 'a
genius', but eventually disappoints.
baF -- Fight or flight. The leader important
in determining response
baP -- pairing; a messiah (person or idea)
will be born out of getting together of two
people/companies/nations.

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The importance of anxiety and its

management
Individual anxiety
Group anxiety

and its management

Containment of anxiety

Talk and communicate do not allow anxieties to mount

Do not allow taboo subjects

Structures, procedures, timetables, boundaries (including

procedures for appointing leader)

A flexible approach to plan

Diversions socializing, doing things outside of the task,

entertainment, exercise, having some fun

Jokes and humour

Leader exercises anxiety-containment, soaking up anxiety

(toxic leaders) and relieving followers

Respect individual anxiety-coping strategies, e.g. soft toys,

private rituals, superstitions etc. provided that

Are there leaderless groups?

Are such groups possible?
If so, for what types of tasks?
Are they desirable?
Some preliminary thoughts on leaders and groups

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